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Kinematics - Design of Mechanisms: Introduction
Kinematics - Design of Mechanisms: Introduction
MECHANISMS: INTRODUCTION
Kinematics
The study of Kinematics of mechanisms and the machines, which are composed of
one or more mechanisms, involves analysis of geometry of motion. Different
components of any mechanism move relative to the each other following certain
constraints to produce the desired motion. Kinematic analysis is of prime importance
in design of mechanisms and machines.
Mechanisms
The simplest example for a mechanism will be a liver hinged at a wedge. It transfers
input motion at one end to the output motion on the other end. A scissors is a
combination of two livers; the mechanical work from one end can be transformed to
cutting motion on the output end. The two livers in scissors are connected together
by a joint (revolute joint). A slightly more complex mechanism is a slider crank
mechanism.
simple Mechanisms
Kinematic Joints
Lower pair joint has area contact between the two mating surfaces of the members
forming joint, as in the case for slider, revolute and hinge.
Higher pair joint has the contact between the mating surfaces as point or line contact
as in the case for cam pair and cam-follower.
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Analysis of Mechanisms:
Synthesis of Mechanisms:
Synthesis of mechanisms as per the requirement can be achieved through two ways.
First, Rational Synthesis, which consists of standard synthesis techniques developed
by kinematicians. Being systematic these techniques can be automated using
computer programs. Limitation of rational synthesis technique is that it is applicable
only to some specific types of mechanisms.
Forces in Kinematics:
Although kinematics does not have forces or their analysis in its purview, but velocity
profile of mechanisms have symmetry with the force profile. Thus, the construction
for analysis of geometry of motion (kinematic analysis) can be appropriately
extended to static and dynamic force analysis (Kinetics) of mechanisms.
Synthesis of slider crank mechanism: One or more data about the frequency of
oscillation, speed at different positions and range of motion of the slider may be
provided and the requisite task will be finding the dimensions of the members of the
mechanism and position of the slider such as to have the desired motion of the
mechanism.
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Basically the Kinematic Joints are classified into two categories based on the type of
contact between the two members making a joint. It can be point, line or area
contact.
But a third category of kinematic joint can also be created which is comprised of the
joints formed by combination of two or more lower and/or higher pair joints. Such
joints are termed as Compound Joints.
3. Compound Joints.
The contact between the two members of higher pair has point or line geometry. The
contact stress for a higher pair joint is large because of very small contact area. If
there is pure rolling contact between the members then at any point of time the
contact point or line is at rest. There is no relative sliding between the contact
surfaces and thus friction and wear will be negligible. The degrees of freedom for a
higher pair of joint can be high as the point or line contact allows for less constrained
motion of members.
Compound Joints
Lower pair and/or higher pair joints are combined as per the design requirement to
obtain compound joints. Compound joints composed of higher pair joints can be
kinematically equivalent to lower pair joints or vice verse. By such combinations
desirable features from the combining joints are retained to obtain robust joints.
Ball or Roller Bearings: The actual members in contact are balls or rollers with the
inner and outer race. These are rolling contact which is a higher pair. But the overall
joint has the motion geometry of revolute joint, a lower pair. A ball bearing has low
friction properties of rolling contacts and higher load capacity of revolute joints. Ball
or Roller Bearings are kinematically equivalent to simple revolute joint.
Universal of Hooke Joint: It is a combination of revolute joints and has two degrees
of freedom.
3. A mechanism.
For example, a body is not allowed to move along one axis in the plane. As a result
one DoF if lost thus leaving only two DoF.
Two bodies connect with each other to form a joint. One body can move in a number
of ways relative to the other and may be constrained in other ways. DoF of a
kinematic joint is number of ways in which one member of the joint can move relative
to the other member.
For example, revolute joint has one DoF as one member can move only in one way
relative to the other member. It can only rotate about the axis of the joint. Prismatic
joint also has only one DoF as one of the two members can slide along the other in
one direction only.
Cylindrical joint has two DoF as one of the two members can rotate about the axis of
the joint and can also translate along it. Two motions possible so two DoF.
3. DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF A MECHANISM
For determining the DoF for a mechanism we will start with assuming all the
members of the mechanism free in plane and thus having three DoF each. Then we
will apply constraints and DoF will reduce as the members are joined together to
form mechanism.
Take the mechanism to be composed of ‘n’ members or links. Initially each link is
assumed to be free and thus the mechanism has 3n DoF. One of the members is to
be a base or frame link thus have zero DoF or it lost its all three DoF. The DoF left in
the mechanism at this stage is 3n-3 or 3(n-1).
When the pairs of links form joints they will loose DoF. If the formed joint have
'Fi' DoF each then reduction in DoF is (3-Fi) as they were initially free (having 3
DoF). If there are 'j' number of joints then total reduction in DoF will be summation
of (3-Fi) over 'j' number of joints . The net DoF for a mechanism
can be given by
KINEMATIC INVERSION
Every mechanism has moving members which move relative to each other about the
joints connecting them. These relative motions result in the trajectories of the points
on members of the mechanism. In any mechanism one link or member is fixed and
acts as the frame. The trajectories and motion characteristics of mechanism depend
on the choice of the reference frame link.
The information obtained from one inversion of the linkage can be used to study
other inversions of that linkage. Inversion technique is used extensively for analysis
and synthesis of mechanisms.
DETERMINING THE INVERSIONS OF A MECHANISM
Before going into details of obtaining inversions of a mechanism I would like to make
it very clear that Inverse Kinematics is different from Kinematic Inversion. Read more
about Inverse Kinematics.
Every mechanism is formed of a kinematic chain. When one of the links in the
kinematic chain is fixed it becomes a mechanism. To determine the inversions of a
mechanism consider the kinematic chain forming the mechanism and obtain the
desired inversions by fixing any one of the members as the frame link.
A typical four bar mechanism, as the name denotes, is formed of a kinematic chain
of four members connected by revolute joints. This mechanism can have four
possible configurations with a different link fixed as frame each time.
Configuration 1
Link 1 is taken as the base link or frame. In this configuration the shortest link is
jointed to the base link and this joint can fully rotate and hence called as crank. The
other link jointed to the base link oscillates and called as a rocker. This configuration
of the four-bar kinematic chain is called as Crank-Rocker mechanism.
Configuration 2
Link 2 is fixed as the base link. In this configuration shortest link is the base and both
joints to the base can rotate completely. It is thus called as Double-Crank or a Drag-
Link.
Configuration 3
Link 3 is fixed as the base link. It can be observed that this configuration is same as
the Crank-Rocker mechanism.
Configuration 4
Link 4 is fixed as the base link. In this configuration shortest link is the coupler and
both the links connected to the base link cannot rotate fully, both oscillate. In this
configuration the four-bar kinematic chain is called as Double-Rocker mechanism.
ACTUATION OF MACHINES
Electrical Actuators
Hydraulic Actuators
Pneumatic Actuators
ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS
Today a wide variety of electrical actuators are available using new advanced power
switching technologies which have resulted in greatly enhanced performance.
Commonly used electrical actuators:
Electric motors: Electric motors have a rotating shaft which produces angular
rotation and torque. Electric motors can operate at very high speeds which can be
reduced to get proportional increase in torque by means of a mechanical gear
assembly or transmission. There are basically three types of electric motors.
They operate on Direct Current and have commutators to switch the current carrying
coils so that the rotation of the shaft is in same direction.
They operate on Alternating Current and do not need commutators for operation.
These motors have equally spaced discrete movements called as steps. Stepper
motors are turned by feeding voltage pulses to it which can be controlled by stepper
motor controller to determine the step size or amount of rotation for each pulse.
Solenoid: Solenoid has a cylindrical winding and a ferromagnetic core in and along
the axis of this cylindrical winding. When this winding is supplied with direct current
the ferromagnetic core is pulled inside the cylindrical winding. Thus, a solenoid is a
two-state actuator.
ACTUATION BY FLUID
Fluids can store energy in form of pressure, transfer energy in form of fluid flow and
can transform the stored energy (in form of pressure) into motion. These properties
of fluids are harnessed by designing the actuators based on fluid power. The
actuators using liquid as the actuating fluid are termed as hydraulic actuators and
actuators using gases (commonly compressed air) are called as pneumatic
actuators.
HYDRAULIC ACTUATION
Hydraulic Actuators uses flowing liquid to transmit the energy from generation point
to actuation point. The required fluid power is generated in the form of high pressure
liquid by a pump, which can be driven by electric motor as in the case of industrial
robots and by engines directly for heavy machinery used in oil well drilling or
construction operations.
Hydraulic Cylinder
It is a linear actuator, that is, it can generate linear motion when powered by
pressurized hydraulic fluid. Hydraulic cylinders are used when loads are large and
strokes are long. They are generally used to drive the linkages in heavy engineering
machines such as excavators, heavy duty cranes and JCB machines.
Hydraulic cylinder is basically a piston-cylinder arrangement with a piston closely
fitting inserted in the cylinder. The piston can move in and out of the cylinder driven
by the hydraulic fluid.
Hydraulic Motor
In the same way the working of a hydraulic motor is opposite of a hydraulic pump. A
hydraulic pump produces fluid pressure and flow using rotation of shaft where as a
hydraulic motor uses the fluid pressure and flow to produce torque and rotation of
shaft.
Hydraulic Brake
PNEUMATIC ACTUATION
The advantage of pneumatic actuation system over hydraulic actuation system is the freely available
working fluid for pneumatic actuators, that is air. Whereas the working fluid for hydraulic system, the
hydraulic oil is very costly and requires major effort to check its leakage and need to replenished as
and when required.
A typical Pneumatic Actuator has set up for supply of compressed gas, pipes for flow of compressed
gas and valves to control the flow of gas. The requirement of any system and the convenience of use
dictates which actuation system to be used. Based on application and design constraints pneumatic
actuators are designed in different configurations.
Types of pneumatic actuators commonly used in industries are linear motion actuators, rotary motion
actuators, grippers and special purpose pneumatic vacuum grippers for lifting smooth objects. A
different type of pneumatic actuator whose functionality resembles the human muscle is also used for
controlled motion of mechanisms or structures. It is called as Pneumatic Artificial Muscle (PAM).
LINEAR ACTUATOR
In the hydraulically operated actuator the hydraulic fluid is pumped in the cylinder to move the piston
out and fluid is sucked or released in the hydraulic circuit itself to retract the piston, so as to keep the
fluid in the circuit without any wastage of the hydraulic fluid. Whereas in the pneumatic actuator the
moving out process is same but for moving the piston inside the pressure is released by letting the
compressed air out of the cylinder by operating a release valve.
Vacuum grippers are used lift objects with smooth surfaces which cannot be handled
otherwise due to absence of any ends to pick the objects. Vacuum grippers work by
creating a low pressure at the actuator end by venturi action generated by
pressurized gases moving at fast speed past the nozzle. The actuator end is brought
close to the object to be picked, the objects sticks to the end which can be released
where required by stopping the gas flow. Advance vacuum grippers can pick multiple
objects even with rough surfaces.
PAMs work similar to the animal muscles, that is, they contract and expand when
given the corresponding signal. Like other pneumatic actuators PAMs are operated
by pressurized air. Between the two ends of the PAM there is a balloon type
construction, when inflated makes the two ends move closer thus resulting in
compression of the PAM. As PAMs can only apply force while contracting, they are
used in antagonistic arrangement where the two muscles in the pair can apply force
in opposite directions. Spring loaded PAMs can work in single also, they will extend
when air pressure is released.
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS
Mechanism analysis methods are basically of two types, graphical and analytical.
Each method has many techniques for analysis of mechanisms, where each
technique is suitable for a particular category of mechanisms. With the development
of sophisticated computer programs design engineers prefer to concentrate their
effort on analytical approach. But still the graphical approach to mechanism analysis
has not lost its utility, specially in some cases where graphical technique gives the
most efficient solution and physical insight to visualize working of the mechanism.
Graphical method starts with position analysis by simply drawing the linkage
mechanism to scale. Then the velocity analysis is performed which requires the
angular position of the links to be determined beforehand. Similarly it is necessary to
know angular velocities of links for acceleration analysis. Thus, the sequence for
kinematic analysis of mechanisms is - position analysis, then velocity analysis and
then acceleration analysis.
SYNTHESIS OF MECHANISMS
The motion to be generated by machines are generally irregular, any motion except
uniform rotation about a fixed axis and uniform translation. The machine designer's
task is to design such mechanisms which can generate these required irregular
motions. The simplest way to design such mechanisms is by clever combination and
assembly of cams and/or linkages. Thus, basically there are two types of motion
generators:
1. Cams
2. Linkages
Each of the cam and linkage has their own advantages and disadvantages. Cams
are easy to design but cams are difficult and expensive to manufacture. Cams
generally have continuous point or line contact and thus wear out early. On the other
hand, linkages are difficult to design but linkages are less expensive and easy to
manufacture and also linkage mechanisms are more reliable.
The most widely used mechanisms are four link mechanisms. The four link
mechanisms are simplest mechanisms capable of performing most desired
functions. The design techniques used for four link mechanisms can be extended to
be used for design of five and six link mechanisms. In this article series emphasis
will be on four link mechanism synthesis.
The members in linkage mechanisms are connected through joints having surface
contacts. Surface contact in joints provide good lubrication and wear resistance.
Revolute joints and prismatic joints are the only two kinematic joints available to be
used in linkage mechanisms. A four link mechanism has four joints and only two
types of joints can be used, it makes only four possibilities for types of four link
mechanisms with joints having surface contact.
1. The Four Bar Linkage Mechanism: This mechanism has all the four joints as revolute joints.
The inversions of four bar linkage mechanisms are also four bar linkage mechanisms.
2. The Slider Crank Mechanism: This mechanism is used when either linear input is provided
or a linear output is required. The slider crank mechanism is generally used to obtain linear
oscillatory motion from rotary motion and vice versa. The inversions of slider crank
mechanism also come under this same classification.
3. The Elliptical Trammel Linkage: This mechanism has two revolute joints and two prismatic
joints on same links. The name Elliptical Trammel is given to this mechanism as the path of
all the points on the coupler are ellipses.
4. The Rapson Slide Linkage: This mechanism also has two revolute joints and two prismatic
joints but they are not on same links, each link has one revolute joint and one prismatic joint.
Its inversions are also Rapson slide linkages.
FOUR BAR LINKAGES ARE MOST BASIC AND MOST WIDELY USED
MECHANISMS FOR MACHINE DESIGN. FOUR BAR LINKAGES CAN PROVIDE
SIMPLE SOLUTIONS TO THE COMPLEX MOTION GENERATION PROBLEMS
WITH RELATIVELY LESS EFFORT. THESE MECHANISMS ARE RELIABLE AND
AT THE SAME TIME EASY TO MANUFACTURE.
The exact desired motion is very rare to be produced by using four bar linkages. By
using four bar linkages synthesis techniques we can obtain approximate desired
motions. With increase in the level of accuracy required for the desired motion, the
complexity of computation increases greatly.
Mechanisms are required to follow the specified path and pass through the desired
points as closely as possible. For some mechanisms it is more desirable that they
should pass through the specified points and for some other mechanisms following
the path is more important. There are two approaches to four bar linkage synthesis.
1. Precision Position Approach: In this approach the position through which the mechanism is
desired to pass are selected and in the solution mechanism is compelled to exactly pass
through these positions. In this approach it is difficult to control the path of mechanism
between the specified points. The precision position approach generally employ graphical
methods of synthesis. If the design positions are more than three than the solutions become
complex and computer program is used for synthesis.
2. Path Optimization Approach: In this approach a large number of design positions are
selected and the overall deviation of mechanism from these design points is minimized. For
this approach numerical optimization techniques are employed using computers.
There are infinite synthesis problems. The common classes of problems with
practical importance are:
1. The Double Rocker Problem: It is desired to design a four bar linkage such that if the input
link moves through certain angle the output link should move through a specified angle.
2. The Motion Generation Problem: For this problem the motion of coupler is specified and a
linkage mechanism is to be synthesized such that it's coupler has the desired motion.
3. The Function Generation Problem: The mechanism is to be designed such that the two
cranks follow a required functional relationship, that is, for a set of angles of one crank the
other crank should move to the angles specified in the other set.
4. The Rocker Amplitude Problem: In this case a crank-rocker linkage is to be designed such
that for the continuous rotation of the driving crank the output link oscillates through a
specified angular amplitude.
5. The Point Path Problem: A four bar linkage is to be synthesized such that a point on the
coupler follows a specified path.
SPECIAL MECHANISMS
Generation of straight line motion using linkage mechanisms has always been a
common requirement in machine design practice. Although exact straight line cannot
be generated using simple mechanisms though some simple mechanisms are
designed such that they can produce approximate straight lines for short range of
motion. These approximate straight line mechanisms has important applications in
machine design. These mechanisms were used extensively in classical machines
such as steam engines. Perfect straight lines can also be generated using linkage
mechanisms but those are relatively complex mechanisms.
The straight line mechanisms were mostly developed in industrial revolution days
when many machines required straight line paths in their operations, whether it was
guiding the piston of engines or for operating valves. Straight line mechanisms were
developed by continuous effort in trail and error process with making intelligent
variations in linkage mechanisms.
Approximate straight line mechanisms can generate straight line motion to a good
deal of accuracy for short range. Such mechanisms are generally four bar linkage
mechanisms. The straight line mechanism developed by James Watt, to guide the
piston of steam engines through a straight line path, is considered to be as the best
and simplest mechanism able to generate close to straight line motion for
considerable distance. This mechanism is called as Watt's straight line mechanism
or simply Watt's Linkage.
Watt's linkage is a simple four bar mechanism of double-rocker type with the two
rockers connected through a coupler. When the two rockers move the mid-point of
the coupler moves in an almost straight line path for the motion close to coupler's
mean position. If something is hinged to the middle point of the coupler of Watt's
linkage it will be constrained to move in straight line path close to the coupler's mean
position.
The Chebyshev approximate straight line mechanism is also a four bar linkage
mechanism that is both historically important and also of practical importance. After
the invention of steam engine and straight line mechanism by Watt a range of
straight line mechanisms were designed. Chebyshev's mechanism is the first
mechanism to be designed after Watt's linkage by a Russian Mathematician Pafnuty
Chebyshev. This mechanism was invariable used for linear guidance of the piston
and valves.
As detailed in the previous articles there are many four bar linkage based
mechanisms which can generate straight lines. These mechanisms are simple
linkage mechanisms with revolute joints, but they can only generate approximate
straight lines and that too only for short lengths. In certain design requirements such
as design of production machinery it is desirable to have more accurate straight line
paths or sometimes it becomes inevitable to have exact straight line trajectories of
mechanisms.
Perfect straight lines can also be generated using a linkage mechanism. When
linkage mechanisms are designed to generate exact straight lines the level of
complexity increases as compared to the mechanisms designed to generate
approximate straight line paths. The first exact straight line generating mechanism
was invented by a French army officer Charles Nicolas Peaucellier in 1864. This
mechanism is called as Peaucellier Exact Straight Line Mechanism and commonly
more as Peaucellier's linkage. There are many mechanisms based on slider crank
linkage which can generate exact straight lines for limited intervals.
Peaucellier linkage can convert an input circular motion to the exact straight line
motion. The construction of this mechanism is such that the point which is connected
to the crank moves in a circular path and the point traversing the straight line is
selected as the output point. The linkage has a rhombic loop formed of the equal
lenght members, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Two equal length length links are connected to the
opposite corners of the rhombus at one end and to a common fixed point at the other
ends. The point A of the rhombus is connect to fixed point O2 through the link 2. The
length of the link 2 is equal to the distance between points O2 and O4. By the
constraints of the geometry point A moves in a circular path and as the point A
moves in a circle point P traverses an exact straight line path normal to the line
joining O2 and O4.
From the construction of the Peaucellier linkage it is clear that this is a much more
complex mechanism than the mechanisms generating approximate straight lines,
which were simple four bar linkages. This mechanism has eight members and six
joints.
The complexity of the mechanisms to generate exact straight lines can be reduced
by introduction of one or more slider crank linkages. It is possible to generate an
exact straight line using the slider crank mechanism but the range of motion is
limited. One such example is Scott-Russell Mechanism as shown in the figure.
Based on the geometry of the linkage the output motion is a simple sine function of
the drive link or a simple harmonic motion. It is evident from the figure that this
mechanism is made up of isosceles triangles, AB, AC and AO2 are of equal lengths.
KINEMATIC INVERSION
Every mechanism has moving members which move relative to each other about the
joints connecting them. These relative motions result in the trajectories of the points
on members of the mechanism. In any mechanism one link or member is fixed and
acts as the frame. The trajectories and motion characteristics of mechanism depend
on the choice of the reference frame link.
The information obtained from one inversion of the linkage can be used to study
other inversions of that linkage. Inversion technique is used extensively for analysis
and synthesis of mechanisms.
Before going into details of obtaining inversions of a mechanism I would like to make
it very clear that Inverse Kinematics is different from Kinematic Inversion. Read more
about Inverse Kinematics.
Every mechanism is formed of a kinematic chain. When one of the links in the
kinematic chain is fixed it becomes a mechanism. To determine the inversions of a
mechanism consider the kinematic chain forming the mechanism and obtain the
desired inversions by fixing any one of the members as the frame link.
A typical four bar mechanism, as the name denotes, is formed of a kinematic chain
of four members connected by revolute joints. This mechanism can have four
possible configurations with a different link fixed as frame each time.
Configuration 1
Link 1 is taken as the base link or frame. In this configuration the shortest link is
jointed to the base link and this joint can fully rotate and hence called as crank. The
other link jointed to the base link oscillates and called as a rocker. This configuration
of the four-bar kinematic chain is called as Crank-Rocker mechanism.
Configuration 2
Link 2 is fixed as the base link. In this configuration shortest link is the base and both
joints to the base can rotate completely. It is thus called as Double-Crank or a Drag-
Link.
Configuration 3
Link 3 is fixed as the base link. It can be observed that this configuration is same as
the Crank-Rocker mechanism.
Configuration 4
Link 4 is fixed as the base link. In this configuration shortest link is the coupler and
both the links connected to the base link cannot rotate fully, both oscillate. In this
configuration the four-bar kinematic chain is called as Double-Rocker mechanism.