INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR

ENGINEERING (MENB403)
Topic 5.2 – Introduction to Reactor Kinetic
NUCLEAR REACTOR – SOURCE: IAEA & IEE
Research Reactors

Power Reactors
(1) Pool Type
•TRIGA
•SLOWPOKE/MNSR
•Others Pool Types
(1) Magnox
(2) Tank Type
•Heavy Water
(2) AGR
•ARGONAUT
•Pressurized (3) PWR
•Other Tank types
•Homogeneous Liquid (4) BWR
•Homogeneous Solid
•Fast Graphite (5) CANDU
(3) Others
•Zero Power (6) RBMK
•Miscellaneous
•Unknown
PART I

 Neutron Cycle in a Reactor

 Life of a Neutron

 Life of a Neutron Including Delayed Neutrons

 Neutron Balance
LIFE OF A NEUTRON

Fission neutrons
(~2 MeV)

Doesn’t leak Leaks

Starts Slowing Absorbed Fast

Down

Escapes Epithermal Absorbed in Captured Fast Fission

Region Epithermal region
(1 eV to 1 MeV) (1eV to 1 MeV)

Absorbed in Fuel Leaks as Thermal Non-fuel Absorption

as Thermal Neutron Neutron as Thermal Neutron
(< 1 eV) (< 1 eV) (< 1 eV)

Thermal Fission
Captured
LIFE OF A NEUTRON INCLUDING DELAYED
NEUTRONS
Fission
n=vSff

Fission Products

Prompt Neutrons Decay By Neutron Emission Other Decay Type

np=vpSff nd=vdSff

l1C1 l2C2 l3C3 l4C4 l5C5 l6C6

Slow Down Fast Leakage

Slow to Thermal Epithermal Absorption

Fuel Absorption Non-Fuel Capture Thermal Leakage

Fuel Fission Fuel Capture

 NEUTRON BALANCE

 We will base our neutron balance equations

on the simple formula:

 Rate 
 
 of   Sources   Losses
 Change 
 
INFINITE SYSTEM

 Neutron Multiplication
 Energy Dependence

 Moderation

 Four-factor formula
THE MULTIPLICATION
 Let’s consider some fission reactor at a time where N neutrons are
produced by fission
 For now, we’ll pretend that there are only N neutrons in the reactor

 We will define this as a “generation” of neutrons

 Some of these neutrons will cause fissions

 A second generation of neutrons will be produced by the second round
of fissions
 Let’s define k as the multiplication factor (for now)

# of neutrons in a generation
k
# of neutrons in the previous generation
NEUTRON MULTIPLICATION (CONT.)
 The value of k has significance
 For k < 1
 Neutron population is decreasing
 Subcritical
 For k = 1
 Neutron population is constant
 Critical
 For k > 1
 Neutron population is increasing
 Supercritical
NEUTRON MULTIPLICATION (CONT.)
 We can also define the multiplication factor as

neutron production rate

k
neutron loss rate
 Neutron generations are somewhat vague
 But we already know something about calculating
reaction rates
NEUTRON MULTIPLICATION (CONT.)
 We now have a definition for k
 Note that our definitions is a first order approximation

 Other things can happen to affect the neutron population

 Another important note

 k is a property of a reactor

 k is not a property of the neutrons in a reactor

ENERGY DEPENDENCE

 Neutrons are born around 2 MeV.

 The 235U fission cross-section:
 Fission
spectrum avg. = 1.235 b
 Thermal (0.0253 eV) = 584.4 b

 Many other cross-sections are like that too. So,

not only does fission increase at lower
energies, other absorptions increase too.
ENERGY DEPENDENCE (CONT.)
ENERGY DEPENDENCE (CONT.)

Neutrons Thermal Neutrons Born Here

Here

Neutron spectra in thermal and fast breeder reactors.

ENERGY DEPENDENCE (CONT.)
1H Absorption Cross-Section
ENERGY DEPENDENCE (CONT.)
10B Absorption Cross-Section
MODERATION
 To increase the chance for fission, neutrons are often
moderated.
 Moderation is best if neutrons scatter with light atoms.
 You have to choose a light atom that has
 Good scattering cross-section
 Low absorption cross-section
 Good Option
 Graphite
 Water (heavy water with 2H is better than light water)
 MODERATION (CONT)

 Quantitatively, elastic collisions conserve

both kinetic energy and momentum.
 The maximum energy transfer from a moving
neutron to a stationary nucleus may be
described by:
  A 1 
2

Emax  E 1      E 1   
  A  1  
where
E is energy
A atomic mass number of the target nucleus
MODERATION (CONT)

Fraction of Maximum Energy

Transfered

1.2
Fractional Energy
Loss (E/Emax)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Atomic Mass (A)
FOUR-FACTOR FORMULA
 The four-factor formula is:

k  pf
where
k∞ is the multiplication factor for an infinite medium
p is the probability of a neutron slowing down to thermal
energies without being absorbed in the resonance
absorption peaks
f is the fraction of neutrons absorbed in the fuel to the
total number of neutrons absorbed in the reactor
 is the ratio of the number of neutrons produced from
fission to the number of neutrons absorbed in the fuel
 is fraction of the number of fast neutrons produced by
fast fission to the number of fast neutrons produced by
thermal fissions.
FOUR-FACTOR FORMULA (CONT.)
FINITE SYSTEMS

 Effective Multiplication Factor

 Criticality Control
EFFECTIVE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR
 In reality, all reactor systems are finite.
 The infinite multiplication factor, k∞, does not
take into account neutron loss through
leakage out of the system.
 The effective multiplication factor is:

neutron production
keff k 
neutron loss
 EFFECTIVE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR (CONT.)

 By comparison, the effective multiplication

factor is:
production
keff  k   1 (for a steady state system)
absorption  leakage
or
k
keff  k   1 (for a steady state system)
leakage
1
absorption
CRITICALITY CONTROL
 The most common way to control a reactor’s criticality is to
control absorption. This may be done:
 Control rods made of highly absorbing material
 Adding 10B to the water in the reactor (soluble poisons)
 Employ solid, fixed absorbers that “burn out” as reactor ages
(burnable poisons)
 Other things that affect reactor criticality:
 Reflection of neutrons back into reactor
 Burnup of fuel
 Buildup/decay of fission products
PART II

 Feedbacks
 Control Applications
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS

rext Power
S Kinetic Response

rfeedback
+ or - Feedback

Note: this has very important safety ramifications.

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
 Feedback mechanisms can be positive or
negative.
 Negative feedbacks help stabilize a system.
 Positive feedbacks can lead to instabilities.
 Many different types of feedbacks within a
nuclear reactor.
 Fuel
 Moderator
 Void
 Etc…
 When you design a system, you want the net
reactivity feedback to be negative.
FUEL TEMPERATURE FEEDBACK
 The fuel temperature coefficient is the change in reactivity
per degree change in fuel temperature.
 This coefficient is also called the "prompt" temperature
coefficient because an increase in reactor power causes an
immediate change in fuel temperature.
 A negative fuel temperature coefficient is generally
considered to be even more important than a negative
moderator temperature coefficient because fuel
temperature immediately increases following an increase in
reactor power.
 The time for heat to be transferred to the moderator is
measured in seconds. In the event of a large positive
reactivity insertion, the moderator temperature cannot turn
the power rise for several seconds, whereas the fuel
temperature coefficient starts adding negative reactivity
immediately.
FUEL TEMPERATURE FEEDBACK(CONT)

 The fuel temperature coefficient in most

commercial reactors is a function of
 Doppler broadening in 238U
 Fuel density change
DOPPLER BROADENING
 The phenomenon of the Doppler effect is caused by an
apparent broadening of the resonances due to thermal motion
of nuclei.
 Stationary nuclei absorb only neutrons of energy Eo.
 If the nucleus is moving away from the neutron, the velocity
(and energy) of the neutron must be greater than Eo to undergo
resonance absorption.
 Likewise, if the nucleus is moving toward the neutron, the
neutron needs less energy than Eo to be absorbed.
 Raising the temperature causes the nuclei to vibrate more
rapidly within their lattice structures, effectively broadening the
energy range of neutrons that may be resonantly absorbed in
the fuel.
 Two nuclides present in large amounts in the fuel of some
reactors with large resonant peaks that dominate the Doppler
effect are 238U and 240Pu.
238U AND 235U CAPTURE CROSS-SECTION

235U Resonances

238U
238PU FROM ENDF/B-VI
RESONANCE BROADENING
 EXERCISE 1
 If the area under the resonance peak does
not change, how does the absorption rate
increase?
 EXERCISE 2

 Will Pu or U Doppler broadening have a

greater effect in a PWR and BWR reactor?
240Pu

238U
 FUEL DENSITY CHANGE

 Recall that our fission rate is proportional to:

 Fission   r 
   S f f   f Nf   f  N A f
 Rate   MW 
where
r is density
MW is molecular weight
N A is Avagadro' s number
FUEL DENSITY CHANGE

 Therefore:

rext Power
S Kinetic Response

Temperature Increase
Density Decrease
Reduction in Fission Rate
rfeedback Negative Reactivity

A density decrease will lead to a negative reactivity feedback.

MODERATOR/COOLANT FEEDBACK
 As the moderator (water) increases in
temperature, it becomes less dense and the
macroscopic scattering and absorption cross-
sections of the water decrease.
 This means:
 Less neutrons slow down in the water
 Less neutrons are reflected by the water
 Less neutrons are absorbed in the water
 Depending on the design and operating
conditions, a moderator temperature coefficient
may be either positive or negative.
MODERATOR/COOLANT FEEDBACK(CONT)

 The magnitude and sign (+ or -) of the

moderator temperature coefficient is primarily
a function of the moderator-to-fuel ratio.
 If a reactor is under moderated, it will have a
negative moderator temperature coefficient.
 If a reactor is over moderated, it will have a
positive moderator temperature coefficient.
MODERATOR/COOLANT FEEDBACK CURVE
EXERCISE 3

 Which direction on the curve do you move when

the water temperature goes up?
 EXERCISE 4
 If you were designing a nuclear reactor,
which side of the curve would you want to be
on? Why?
EXAMPLE 1
 You are operating a 235U reactor at a point where you are
critical (k=1) and the temperature coefficient of reactivity is -2
cents per degree C. What is k if the moderator temperature
increases 2 degrees C?
 EXAMPLE 1 (SOLUTION)
 You are operating a 235U reactor at a point where you are
critical (k=1) and the temperature coefficient of reactivity is
-2 cents per degree C. What is k if the moderator
temperature increases 2 degrees C?
For 235U,   0.0065
 cents 
 
r   - 2 o  2 o C  4 cents
 C 

r 
 4 cents  0.0065  0.00026 k
cents k
100
k / k
k
r  r o  r  0  0.00026  0.00026
k
1 1
k   0.99974
1  r 1  0.00026
VOID COEFFICIENT
 The void coefficient is caused by the formation of steam
voids in the moderator (or a water loss from the core in
case of an accident).
 In systems with boiling conditions, such as boiling water
reactors (BWR), the pressure coefficient becomes an
important factor due to the larger density changes that
occur when the vapor phase of water undergoes a pressure
change.
 The void coefficient of reactivity is defined as the change in
reactivity per percent change in void volume.
 As the reactor power is raised to the point where the steam
voids start to form, voids displace moderator from the
coolant channels within the core.
 Similar in nature to the moderator temperature coefficient
of reactivity.
 This is not really present in the RTP reactor.
EXERCISE 5

 Does the RMBK reactor design (e.g.,

Chernobyl), have a positive or negative void
coefficient of reactivity?
PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

 The pressure coefficient of reactivity is defined

as the change in reactivity per unit change in
pressure.
 The pressure coefficient of reactivity for the
reactor is the result of the effect of pressure on
the density of the moderator.
 This is also very similar in nature to the
moderator temperature coefficient of reactivity.
EXERCISE 6

 Is a pressure coefficient of reactivity more

prevalent in a PWR or BWR reactor design?
Explain.
FUEL MOTION FEEDBACK
 A fuel motion feedback occurs when the
thermal or pressure gradients force the fuel to
bend or warp.
 This change in fuel position changes fuel
densities.
 An extreme example is when fuel would melt.
 This is a negative feedback in thermal reactor
designs.
 Tends to be a positive feedback in fast reactor
designs.
REACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS AND
DEFECTS

Power
Coefficient, ap

Fuel Moderator
Temperature Temperature
Coefficient, af Coefficient, am

Doppler Moderator
Fuel Density Void Coefficient
Broadening Density
 REACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS AND DEFECTS
(CONT.)

 Temperature coefficients of reactivity are

normally denoted as:
dr
T 
dT
 Recall the definition of reactivity:
k 1
r
k
REACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS AND DEFECTS
(CONT.)
 We can then say:

1 dk
T  2
k dT

 If k is close to unity:
1 dk
T 
k dT
 REACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS AND DEFECTS
(CONT.)

 The fuel-temperature coefficient is:

r
 f T f  
T f

 The moderator temperature coefficient is:

r
 m Tm  
Tm
 REACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS AND DEFECTS
(CONT.)
 The power coefficient is then defined:
r
p 
P
r dT f r dTm
p  
T f dP Tm dP
dT f dTm
p f  m
dP dP

Note: you can add on other reactivity feedbacks as necessary.

NATURE OF ENERGY RELEASE

Major Differences Between Nuclear Power Reactors and Nuclear Explosive Devices

Characteristic Power Reactor Nuclear Explosive

Equivalent fissile content 2-20% 235U or Pu >90% 235U or Pu
Fuel form Oxide or carbide Metal
Diluents Clad, coolant, moderator None
Neutron Energy Thermal or “degraded fast” Fast (fission spectrum)
Initial State Usually high power; large Subcritica; minimal neutron
neutron source source
Reactivity insertion Mechanical or hydraulic Chemical explosive
control rod movement
Resistance to expansion Inertia Compression by chemical
explosive; dampener
Energy release 1 GJ accident maximum 4000 GJ (1 kiloton) for
“small tactical” atomic
weapon.
THANK YOU