Notes

CHEMICAL ENERGETICS

Examples of Exothermic reactions ;

1. Neutralization reactions.
2. Action of dilute acids on metals high in the reactivity series.
3. Action of water on metals high in the reactivity series.
4. Combustion of Fuels.
5. Dissolution of NaOH, or KOH in water.
6. Dilution of Concentrated Sulphuric acid.
7. Respiration.

Examples of Endothermic reactions ;

1. Dissolution of NH4NO3, NaS2O3, KI, or KNO3 in water.

2. Thermal Decomposition Reactions.
3. Photosynthesis

* NB – Endothermic reactions are pretty rare so there are not too many in nature.

All chemical compounds possess energy in two ways

1. Kinetic energy – as a result of the motion of the particles in substance (element/or
compounds).
2. Chemical Potential energy (i.e. energy stored in the chemical bonds).

 When bonds are broken energy is absorbed (reason : This is so because energy
has to be taken in (absorb) by the substances interacting – the reactants in order
to the do the work of breaking the bonds between the particles of the reactants).

 When bonds are formed energy is released (reason : This is so because the
energy required to form the new bonds in the final substances produce – the
products is much lower than the energy required for breaking them in the initial
substances and so the extra energy that is left over is release to immediate
surroundings.

ENERGY CHANGES THAT OCCUR DURING A CHEMICAL REACTION

During a Chemical Reaction.

1. The Bonds are broken in the reactants (i.e. the bonds between the particles of the
substances initially interacting are broken using energy absorbed from the
immediate surroundings). see figure [Q] below.

2. New Bonds are formed in the products (i.e. new bonds are formed between the
particles of the substances initially interacting and the excess energy release to the
immediate surroundings). see figure [Q] below
 Notes

* NB – These heat energy changes usually occur simultaneously and can be measured as
changes in heat energy.

Figure [Q] below denotes what occurs in the Combustion (burning) of Methane in the
presence of Oxygen in Air.

Bonds Broken
(energy absorb)
New Bonds
+ (particles of reactants) Formed)
(energy released)

Methane CH4 + Oxygen O2

water
Reactants
+

carbon dioxide
water
Products

Progress of Reaction

ENTHALPY CHANGE OF A REACTION

The energy content or heat content of any substance is called its Enthalpy.
Enthalpy is given the symbol H.

‘‘A Change in Enthalpy’’ is given the symbol ΔH.

‘‘A Change in Enthalpy’’ = Energy Content – Energy Content

Of Products Of Reactants

ΔH. = Hproduct – Hreactant

 Notes

ENERGY AND ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAMS

An Energy Profile Diagram is a graphical way of depicting a ‘Change in enthalpy’

for a Chemical Reaction.

A Reaction is described as Endothermic if ;

The Heat content of the Products is ‘greater than’ the Heat content of the Reactants

Hproduct > Hreactant

An Endothermic Reaction is shown using an Energy Profile Diagram as below

Products

Energy Content + ΔH.

Reactants

Extent of Reaction

A Reaction is described as Exothermic if ;

The Heat content of the Products is ‘less than’ the Heat content of the Reactants

Hproduct. < Hreactant

An Exothermic Reaction is shown using an Energy Profile Diagram as below

Reactants

Energy Content – ΔH.

Products

Extent of Reaction
 Notes

In all Chemical Reaction Old bonds must be broken before new ones can be formed.
For this reason reactants must be supplied with energy.

The minimum energy which must be supplied before the reaction can proceeds is
called the Activation Energy of the reaction. Activation energy is denoted by the
symbol EA

Energy Profile Diagram For An Endothermic Reaction.

EA – Activation energy

Products
EA

Energy Content + ΔH.

Reactants

Extent of Reaction
For an Endothermic reaction the heat evolved during bond formation does not fully
compensate for the heat of absorbed for bond breaking. Hence the overall effect is
heat energy absorption and the enthalpy change (heat/energy change) ΔH for the
reaction is positive.
For a endothermic reaction, since more heat energy is supplied than is released the
heat content of the reactant(s) is less than the heat content of the products.

Energy Profile Diagram For An Exothermic Reaction

EA – Activation energy
EA
Reactants

Energy Content – ΔH.

Products

Extent of Reaction
 Notes

For an Exothermic reaction the heat evolved during bond formation exceeds the heat of
absorbed for bond breaking. Hence the overall effect is an heat energy release and the
enthalpy change (heat/energy change) ΔH for the reaction is negative.
For a exothermic reaction, since more heat energy is released than is supplied the heat
content of the reactant(s) is greater than the heat content of the products.

MEASURING HEAT (Enthalpy) CHANGES

Apparatus Required

1. Thermometer – to measure the initial and final temperature of reaction in (oC).

2. An Insulated Container [made either of Plastic or Styrofoam] – to prevent heat

loss to/or heat gain from the surroundings.

3. A digital Top Pan Balance – to measure the mass in (g).

4. A Measuring Cylinder – to measure the volume of Water or Solution.

5. A Stirring rod (preferable made from glass) – to ensure the solute is completely
dissolve and to also distribute heat evenly throughout the body of the water or
solution.
Assumptions Made for Enthalpy Change Experiments

1. 1cm3 of water or 1cm3 of an aqueous solution weighs 1g.

1cm3 of water OR an aqueous solution ≡ 1g

2. Specific heat capacity of a dilute solution is the same as that of water, (c = 4.2 J)

3. Specific heat capacity of the Container used is considered negligible (i.e. the
value too small to be used in any calculations).

4. No heat is lost to OR gained from the surroundings.

MOLAR HEAT OF COMBUSTION

Molar Heat of Combustion is the energy change which occurs when one mole of a
substance in its normal state is completely burned in oxygen.

Heat of = mass of × temperature × Specific heat

Combustion water heated rise capacity of water
(g) (oC) (J g oC - 1)
MOLAR HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION
 Notes

Molar Heat of Neutralization is the energy change which occurs when one mole of
water formed during a neutralization reaction between an acid and an alkali.

Heat of = mass of × temperature × Specific heat

Neutralization water rise capacity of water
o
(g) ( C) (J g oC - 1)

MOLAR HEAT OF SOLUTION

Molar Heat of Solution is the energy change which occurs when one mole of a solute
dissolves in such a volume of solvent that further dilution by solvent produces no further
heat change.

Heat of = mass of × temperature × Specific heat

Solution Solution change capacity of water
(g) (oC) (J g oC - 1)