Int. J. Pres. Ves.

& Piping 58 (1994) 251-265

© 1994 Elsevier Science Limited
Printed in Northern Ireland. All rights reserved
0308-0161/94/$07.00
ELSEVIER

Transition metal joints for steam generators

An overview
A. K. Bhaduri, S. Venkadesan, P. Rodriguez
Metallurgy and Materials Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam-603102, India

&

P. G. Mukunda
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302, India

(Received 27 March 1993; accepted 22 April 1993)

The transition metal joint (TMJ) between an austenitic stainless steel and a
chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) ferritic steel used widely in steam genera-
tors of power plants has for a long time presented problems relating to
premature failures in service. The direct (bimetallic) TMJ presently in use is
designed for a service life of about 200,000 h; but such TMjs with iron-base
weld metals have been failing in service within about one-third of their design
lifetime, while their counterparts with nickel-base weld metals fail within about
one-half of their design lifetime. The causes for such premature service failures
of these TMJs are discussed in detail, leading to the development of improved
TMJs. One of the improved TMJs with a trimetallic configuration of austenitic
stainless steel/Alloy 800/Cr-Mo ferritic steel is discussed in detail, covering its
development, characterisation and evaluation. Accelerated performance tests
in the laboratory have indicated a four-fold improvement in the service life of
the TMJ with this trimetallic configuration compared to the bimetallic
configuration. The metallurgical details of these studies are also discussed in
this paper.

1 INTRODUCTION are welded to austenitic SS pipes running from

Transition metal joints (TMJs) between low-alloy
chromium-molybdenum (Cr-Mo) ferritic steels,
such as 2.25Cr-lMo and 9Cr-lMo, and aus-
tenitic stainless steels (SS), such as AISI types
304, 316, etc., are used widely in steam
generators (SGs) of power plants. In fossil-fuel
fired power plants, austenitic SS tubes are used in
the high temperature sections, where increased
creep strength and resistance to oxidation are
required, such as in the final stages of the
superheaters and reheaters. In the primary boiler
and heat exchanger, where the temperatures are
lower, the use of tubes of the more economical
low-alloy ferritic steels becomes permissible and
is generally adopted. In liquid sodium cooled fast
breeder reactors, SG pipes made of ferritic steels
251
the sodium-to-sodium intermediate heat exchan-
ger. Such TMJs are often welded by gas tungsten
arc (GTA), shielded metal arc (SMA) or
induction pressure welding processes. Initially,
welding consumables of austenitic SS were used,
but currently the trend is towards the use of
nickel-based welding consumables.
The TMJs between ferritic steels and austenitic
SS have long been recognised as an area of
potential problems, 1'2 because they can generate
large thermal stresses resulting from difference in
thermal expansion characteristics--austenitic SS
having a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
30% greater than that of ferritic steels (their
typical CTE values being 18 and 14 /xm/m K,
respectively). Thermal cycling during power plant
operation plays a major role in the premature
252 A . K . Bhaduri et al.

service failure of these joints. The difference in
the coefficients of thermal expansion between the
base metals and the weld metal generates
thermal stresses during the numerous startups
and shutdowns occurring in an operating power
plant. These cyclic stresses superimposed on the
residual welding stresses, external loads and
internal steam pressure may cause the ultimate
service failure of these joints. Although several
investigations 3'4 have produced failures in c r e e p -
rupture tests similar to those observed in service,
there is general agreement that in an operating
plant the stresses responsible for the failure of
TMJs are due to the thermal cycling that occurs
when the plant is started or shut down3 Several
premature failures have occurred in these joints,
well below the design lifetime of the tubings. 6-"
Typically, these failures have occurred in the
ferritic steel heat-affected zone ( H A Z ) , immedi-
ately adjacent to the weld fusion line, through the
propagation of low-ductility circumferential
cracks.
Laboratory test results 3,9,1° and service
experience 7,s'l~ have shown that significant im-
provement in the service life of TMJs can be
achieved by using Ni-base weld metals instead of
austenitic SS weld metals. 6's This is understan-
dable since the Ni-base weld metals have CTE
between that of ferritic steels and austenitic SS,
and consequently this leads to a reduction in the
magnitude of the cyclic thermal stresses. Further,
the use of Ni-base weld metal significantly
decreases the extent of carbon migration from
the ferritic steel into the weld metal, because of
the low carbon activity gradient between the
ferritic steel and the weld metal, and the low
diffusivity of carbon in Ni-base alloys. Hence, at
the present time Ni-base weld metals are
r e c o m m e n d e d for fabrication and repair of TMJs.
The only drawback of Ni-base weld metals is
their inferior weldability compared to austenitic
SS; as a consequence, there are fewer welders
qualified to weld with it. Further, even TMJs with
Ni-base weld metals are not i m m u n e to failure,
and service failures of these TMJs have also been
reported. 7'~ Nucleation and propagation of
creep-fatigue cracks along a planar array of
globular carbides formed during service have
been considered responsible for the failures.
Indeed there is a growing realisation that Ni-base
weld metals only buy more time in that they
eventually fail, much before the design lifetime of
the plant.
Different types of TMJs have been developed,
and some of the important ones are listed in
Table 1.12 This list includes some experimental

Table 1. Different types of transition metals joints

Category Type Schematic~ Used in

1 Austenitic Cr-Mo \\Aust. / Aust. Conventional
weld metal steel ~/WM SS power plants
Austenitic
weld metal Cr-Mo \\..\\ Aust. // Aust. Mainly
(buttered steel \\_WMJ SS conventional
Cr-Mo) power plants

High nickel Cr-Mo ~ High N i / Aust. Conventional and

weld metal steel \ ~ _ W M /_ SS nuclear power
plants
-- / . /. . . .
4 Alloy 600 Cr-Mo • High Ni Alloy High Ni / Aust Nuclear
transition steel \ WM 600 WM SS power plants
piece
Alloy800 Cr-Mo ~HighNJ / Alloy~ Aust.? Aust. Experimental
transition steel ~ WM . 800 WM SS joint for
piece LMFBR
application
I
Graded Cr-Mo Graded composition [ Aust. Mainly
composition steel transition zone [ SS conventional
joint power plant
" Aust.: Austenitic; WM; Weld Metal.
 Transition metal joints for steam generators
joints which have not seen service in power
plants as well as the more commonly used joints.
The joint configurations can be broadly divided
into two categories: (i) those involving an
'abrupt' junction between the austenitic SS and
the ferritic steel (types 1 and 2 in Table 1); and
(ii) those in which a weld metal or transition
piece of intermediate CTE (normally a high-Ni
alloy) is introduced between the austenitic SS
and the ferritic steel (types 3, 4 and 5 in Table 1),
and also including the graded composition TMJs
(type 6 in Table 1). Service and testing
experience have demonstrated the first category
to be prone to failure, whereas experience, albeit
much less extensive in duration, with the second
category suggests satisfactory performance. The
joint configuration involving a transition piece
can be considered as an improvement over the
TMJ with Ni-base weld metal in that the
transition piece effectively separates the ferritic
steel and the austenitic SS so that they do not
interact due to different thermal expansion
characteristics. It is now accepted that the highest
risk zone in TMJ is the ferritic steel adjacent to
the weld fusion line, and the optimum arrange-
ment in terms of matching of thermal expansion
characteristics and creep rupture properties is as
given by type 5 in Table 1, viz. Cr-Mo ferritic
steel/Ni-base weld metal/Alloy 800/austenitic SS
weld metal/austenitic SS. 12
In this paper, the problems associated with the
direct (bimetallic) TMJs, the causes for their
premature failures in service, and the merits of
the improved trimetallic TMJs are discussed. One
of the improved TMJs with a trirnetallic
configuration of austenitic stainless steel/Alloy
800/Cr-Mo ferritic steel is discussed in detail,
covering its development, metallurgical charac-
terisation and evaluation, including its perfor-
mance through accelerated thermal cycling tests.
2 DIRECT (BIMETALLIC) TRANSITION
METAL JOINTS
2.1 Causes of premature service failures
Several extensive and detailed studies have been
carried out on the cracking and failure of ferritic
steel/austenitic SS TMJs over the past 30-40
years. 2'7'9'13-19 It is generally agreed that, under
cyclic as well as steady-state long-term elevated
253
temperature service, failures occur in the ferritic
steel, in a region that is parallel and adjacent to
the weld fusion line, with minimal plastic
deformation. The principal reasons for this
low-ductility type failure mode have been
attributed to the causes listed b e l o w "2,9,2°-24
(a) Thermally induced cyclic stresses at the
ferritic steel/austenitic SS weld metal
interface due to difference in CTE between
base metals and the weld metal.
(b) Preferential stress oxidation at the weld
metal/ferritic steel interface resulting in
the formation of oxide notches on the
ferritic steel surface adjacent to the weld
fusion line, and through-thickness propa-
gation of these oxide notches from the
outer surface of tubes.
(c) Migration of carbon from the ferritic steel
to the austenitic SS weld metal, resulting in
the formation of a narrow carbon-depleted
zone in the ferritic steel HAZ adjacent to
the weld fusion line, and the consequent
accelerated creep of this weakened
layer.2,7,9A 3-19
(d) Microstructural instabilities in ferritic steel
involving dissolution of M23C 6 carbide
precipitates at regions well away from the
weld fusion line, and their reprecipitation
along prior-austenite grain boundaries very
close to the interface between weld metal
and the ferritic steel as M3C, which on
prolonged exposure at the service tem-
perature transform to Cr-rich M23C6 and
Mo-rich M6C. The failure mechanism in
the case of such microstructural in-
stabilities has been attributed to the
formation of creep voids associated with
certain type of carbide precipitates. 24
(e) Other factors such as weld geometry,
welding defects, residual stresses, external
bending moment, operating conditions,
weld metal type, and creep and temper
embrittlement of the ferritic steel HAZ are
also potentially important causes, although
systematic investigations on these aspects
have not been reported in the literature.
Over the years, extensive experimental inves-
tigations have been carried out on various aspects
of the above mentioned factors on TMJs with
austenitic SS and Ni-base weld metals. 3'4A°'11'21"25-29
The majority of these investigations relate to
254 A . K . Bhaduri et al.
TMJs with austenitic SS weld metals, since such
TMJs have been in use since the late 1930s, while
their Ni-base counterparts were not introduced
until the early 1960s. Based on laboratory test
results 3"9"1° and service experience, 7,8,1J,3° there
appears to be a consensus that TMJs with
Ni-base weld metals are generally superior to
those with austenitic SS weld metals. Though
only limited data are available, the trend 8'3~ seen
is that TMJs with Ni-base weld metals last about
four to five times longer in service than those
with austenitic SS weld metals. The Ni-base weld
metals have a CTE between that of the ferritic
steels and austenitic SS. Further, the carbon
activity gradients between ferritic steels and
Ni-base weld metals, and the diffusivity of carbon
in Ni-base alloys, are lower than in Fe-base
austenitic weld metals. Thus, the extent of carbon
migration from the ferritic steel into the Ni-base
weld metal is significantly reduced compared to
that occurring in TMJs with austenitic SS weld
metal. Hence, Ni-base weld metals are currently
recommended for fabrication and repair of
TMJs. 32 While use of Ni-base welding con-
sumables clearly offers improved performance,
service failures in these TMJs have also been
reported. 7'8 Thus, it is realised that even TMJs
welded with Ni-base consumables are not
immune to failure.
2.2 Failure modes
The general metallurgical characteristics of the
failure modes of bimetallic TMJs are very typical.
In joints with austenitic SS weld metal, cracking
occurs along prior-austenite grain boundaries in
the ferritic steel H A Z , about one to two
prior-austenite grains away from the weld fusion
line. In joints with Ni-base weld metal, failure
predominantly occurs by cracking along the weld
metal/ferritic steel interface. These failure
propagation characteristics clearly indicate that
the microstructure of the ferritic steel H A Z at, or
near, the weld fusion line plays an important role
in the failure mechanism. 32
The exact nature of the microstructure at the
weld metal/ferritic steel interface was not
definitely established in the early studies
described in the literature, although suggestions
about its characters are many. It was initially
suggested 33 that precipitation of a lamellar
intermetallic phase results in an interfacial
structure that is much harder than the H A Z .
Subsequent investigators '~'34"35 concluded that this
lamellar structure is tempered martensite. Howe-
ver, a r e c e n t study 36 on a 17-year-old type 321
SS/2.25Cr-lMo steel joint welded with Inconel
132 showed no evidence of the lamellar-type
structure in the ferritic steel near the weld fusion
line. Instead, a semi-continuous structure consist-
ing of a globular phase was observed in some
areas along the weld metal/ferritic steel interface,
and the crack propagated along paths associated
with this phase, but the identity of the globular
precipitates could not be established using X-ray
diffraction (XRD) analysis of precipitates ex-
tracted from the oxidised fracture surface.
However, transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) studies using carbon extraction replicas
from the interface region in unfailed joints,
identified the globular interracial precipitates as
M23C6, rich in Cr with Fe, Mo and Ni also
present. 32'37 Further detailed investigations re-
vealed that some of the interfacial precipitates
were also of M6C type, which were rich in Mo
and in addition contained Fe, Cr and Ni. 24'32 The
interfacial precipitate arrays were also
categorised 32 in terms of morphologies: type I
were single lines of coarse precipitates and type
II were wider bands of finer precipitates. While
type II precipitates constitute 100% of the
interfacial precipitates in TMJs with Fe-base weld
metal, type I precipitates constitute 80% and
type II 20% of the interfacial precipitates in
TMJs with Ni-base weld metal. 32 The fact that
there were two distinct interfacial microstructures
associated with the joints with austenitic SS and
Ni-base weld metals had not been noticed prior
to the above mentioned investigations. The
failure modes, as observed from TMJs after
service, are predominantly determined by the
morphology of the microstructure at the weld
metal/ferritic steel interface.
2.3 Carbon migration from the ferritic steel
Microstructural analyses and microhardness me-
asurements on several TMJs that had seen
service 9"36 showed formation of carbide phases
and an increase of hardness along the weld
metal/ferritic steel interface. This indicated that
carbon migration took place during elevated
temperature exposure. An investigation was
carried out involving aging of samples of Alloy
800H/2.25Cr-lMo steel joints, welded with
Inconel 82, at 783, 866 and 950 K to various
 Transition metal joints for steam generators
times, and measurement of the carbon con-
centration profiles using an EPMA. 38 The test
data were then used for arriving at a Larson-
Miller type equivalency given by
P = T ( C + logt)
where P is the equivalency parameter, T is the
absolute temperature in Kelvin, C is a constant
dependent primarily on the kinetics of carbon
migration, and t is the exposure time at the
temperature T. Based on these results, 38 it was
found that the value of the constant C was 8.4.
This is lower compared to a C value of 20, which
is often found appropriate to describe creep-
rupture properties of carbon and low-alloy steels.
In similar experiments conducted 39 on C r - M o
steel/austenitic SS joints welded with Inconel 82,
a C value of 15 was found to be appropriate.
Evidently, the carbon migration in TMJs depends
very much on the chemical compositions of the
weld metal and the base metal.
The process of carbon migration involves
decomposition of carbides in the ferritic steel,
followed by diffusion of carbon from the ferritic
steel into the weld metal. The driving force is
primarily the carbon concentration gradient, or
more correctly, the carbon activity gradient
between the ferritic steel containing low Cr and
the weld metal which is rich in Cr. When carbon
diffuses beyond the weld metal/ferritic steel
interface, carbide formation and precipitation
takes place because of the low solubility and
diffusivity of carbon in the weld metal. In a very
extensive study on this subject, 4° the carbon
migration in ferritic/ferritic and ferritic/austenitic
joints using both Fe-base and Ni-base weld
metals was systematically investigated. Based on
the width of carburised layers, determined by
metallographic etching, a time-temperature re-
lationship similar to that of Larson-MiUer
equivalency was established:
P ' = K / T + logt
where P' is the equivalency parameter, K is a
material constant determined for each weld joint,
T is the absolute temperature, and t is the time of
exposure. Equations (1) and (2) were developed
using experimental data obtained by E P M A
carbon concentration profiles38 and metallog-
raphic measurement of the carbon diffusion
layer. 4° Unfortunately, neither of these tech-
niques provides accurate data for true prediction
of carbon migration.
255
From earlier studies, it has become evident
that carbon migration in TMJs during service
exposure has been regarded as the dominant
metallurgical factor responsible for the failure
problems. This is reflected by the extensive
(1)
e f f o r t s 17'38-41 to understand the kinetics of carbon
migration. A closer look, however, shows that
there has been little effort to study the effects of
carbon concentration on the mechanical pro-
perties of the low-alloy ferritic steel HAZ. It has
been shown 42"43 that the creep strength of a
2.25Cr-lMo steel was not sensitive to carbon
content, provided carbon concentration was
above 0.03 wt%. The microstructure of the
2.25Cr-lMo steel was also not affected by carbon
concentration variation above 0.03 wt%.
Moreover, below a concentration of 0.03 wt%,
formation of ferrite was observed. On the
contrary, it has also been shown 44 that there is an
increase in the minimum creep rate with decrease
in carbon content from 0.09 to 0.06 wt% in
2.25Cr-lMo steel.
2.4 Carbon depletion in the ferritic steel H A Z
It is clear that the typical low-ductility failure, in
which cracking occurs either along prior-
austenite grain boundaries close to the weld
fusion line or along the weld metal/ferritic steel
interface, cannot happen in TMJs that form a
carbon-depleted soft ferrite zone in the ferritic
steel HAZ. Thus, while it is evident from the
formation of a carburised layer in the weld metal
that carbon migration occurs, this does not
necessarily mean that the ferritic steel H A Z next
to the weld fusion line is grossly depleted in
carbon resulting in the formation of ferrite layer.
In this sense, carbon migration and carbon
depletion have been misinterpreted in the
literature. This may explain why those weld joints
containing a carbon stabiliser, such as niobium, in
the ferritic steel to minimise carbon migration
(2)
have not been able to prevent TMJs from
cracking.13,22,28,45
2.5 Effect of post-weld heat treatment
Post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) is usually
employed to reduce or eliminate residual stresses
generated after welding. The ASME C o d e 46
requires PWHT in the case of weld joints in
large- and heavy-section components involving
low-alloy steels like 2.25Cr-lMo, while the same
256 A . K . Bhaduri et al.
is not required in the case of heat exchanger tube
weld joints which are less than 101.6 mm in outer
diameter. Despite all the studies, 47-49 the
quantitative effects of P W H T on residual stresses
remain unclear. Further when weld joints such as
TMJs involving alloys with different CTE are
subjected to PWHT, complete stress relief will
not be achieved because of their expansion
behaviour? ° Such PWHTs will, however, benefi-
cially temper any hard H A Z in the ferritic steel
and it is also likely to redistribute the residual
stresses, which may or may not be beneficial? °
The effect of P W H T on long-term microstruc-
tures at the weld metal/ferritic steel interface has
also been studied using accelerated laboratory
aging. 32"5~ It was found from this study that, after
aging under accelerated temperature conditions
simulating service exposure, the precipitate sizes
and distributions were essentially identical,
implying thereby that P W H T does not affect the
long-term failure mechanisms. However, it is
clear that P W H T accelerates the rate of carbon
diffusion and, under some conditions, results in
decarburisation which in turn leads to the
formation of large columnar ferrite grains in the
ferritic steel H A Z immediately adjacent to the
weld fusion line in weld joints with austenitic SS
weld m e t a l s . 13"1.'23"28"5~ The presence of such a
grossly decarburised band was observed to cause
localised ductile rupture. This type of failure was
also observed in boilers which experienced severe
overheating problems.
2.6 Preferential stress-oxidation
One failure theory of TMJs involves preferential
stress-oxidation at the weld metal/ferritic steel
interface. This is based, in part, on the common
observation that an oxide-filled notch is often
present, after service, at the outside diameter of
the ferritic steel next to the weld crown. This is
referred to as the oxide notch, and sometimes
failures have occurred due to propagation of this
oxide notch through the tube-wall thickness. One
theory for the formation and propagation of the
oxide notch suggests that the stress concentration
due to the discontinuity in strength at the weld
metal/ferritic steel interface promotes formation
of a notch at the weld joint on the outside
diameter of the tube under 'cyclic external
loading conditions. An alternative theory is that
general oxidation of the ferritic steel occurs;
however, next to the weld fusion line, the local
stresses cause the oxide to crack, exposing fresh
metal and allowing further oxidation to occur.
This enhanced local oxidation leads to oxide
notches. Once the notch is formed, the relatively
poor oxidation resistance of the ferritic steel
H A Z , which has been depleted in carbon, allows
oxidation to take place, and the notch thus fills
with oxide. 2223'25,2s'36 Since the oxide has greater
volume than the metal consumed to produce it,
stress is generated at the tip of the notch which
promotes notch propagation. 23'36 However, these
theories fail to explain why some oxide notches
are very sharp and propagate deep into the
tube-wall while others are blunt and shallow. The
oxide notches, when inspected visually from
outside the tube, have an appearance similar to
TMJ cracking in service, and therefore it is often
concluded that cracking of TMJs initiates at the
outer diameter of the tubes. 22'23"25-28"36 However,
cracking in TMJs has been observed in outside
diameter, mid-wall, and inside diameter loca-
tions, indicating that cracking can start at any of
these locations.
2.7 Damage mechanism
The principal damage mechanism of TMJs is
generally agreed to be by creep, 4'19'29'53 although
creep-fatigue interaction mechanism has also
been considered, 1°'28'3° since these joints operate
under cyclic conditions. Laboratory testing
showed that it is possible to cause cracking under
cyclic temperature conditions in joints with
austenitic SS weld metals. 5 Creep damage
mechanisms suggested in earlier studies include
forms of void growth at precipitate/matrix
interfaces, grain boundary sliding, and ductile
tearing in the carbon-depleted soft zone.
However, due to the complex nature of the weld
fusion line and lack of information on the
material properties for the fusion line regions,
the stress and strain rate at the weld fusion line
have not been completely established despite
extensive attempts. 3"4'9"t3"28'29'35'54
2.8 Other potential causes of failures
Temper and creep embrittlement of the ferritic
steel H A Z has also been suggested as one of the
factors contributing to the TMJ failure process. 32
Segregation of tramp elements, such as phos-
phorus, sulphur, antimony, tin, copper, etc., to
the prior-austenite grain boundaries has been
 Transition metal joints for steam generators
observed in joints with austenitic SS weld metals
after long-term service. The role of impurity
segregation on the brittle fracture behaviour of
low-alloy ferritic steels has been established when
testing at low temperaturesY -s8 However, similar
effects on creep behaviour have not been
definitely established, and the role of tramp
element segregation is not yet clear. 59
3 TRIMETALLIC TRANSITION METAL
JOINTS
Various approaches and specific research efforts
required for the successful development of
improved TMJs have been outlined in a review in
1982. 6o One of the approaches for circumventing
the problems associated with TMJs is to use a
trimetallic configuration, with the transition piece
having CTE between those of ferritic steels and
austenitic SS, and the weld metals having CTEs
intermediate to those of the base metals they
join. This would result in a more gradual change
in the CTE, and a consequent decrease in the
magnitude of stresses from thermal cycling.61 In
addition to thermal expansion characteristics, the
weldability, metallurgical compatibility and stabi-
lity during long-term service must also be
considered in the choice of the transition piece
and welding consumables, especially because the
trimetallic configuration will involve two weld
joints.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between
CTE and chemical composition of a range of SS
and high-Ni alloys. 6°,62 The compositions are
expressed in terms of Creq and Nieq in the
DeLong constitution diagram 63 for predicting the
microstructures of SS weld metals. The mean
values of CTE in the temperature range 293-673
K plotted as iso-expansion contours are super-
posed on this diagram. The region of highest
CTE of 1 9 / z m / m K is obtained in the austenitic
phase field corresponding to conventional aus-
tenitic SS, and is centred around an Nieq value of
14 and a Creq value of 18. The CTE decreases as
the composition is changed in any manner with
respect to this point. If the Cr, q value is increased
at a constant value of NiCq of 14, then duplex
microstructures containing austenite and ferrite
(A&F) are obtained, and this leads to a
significant reduction in the CTE. In contrast, the
CTE decreases very gradually with an increase in
the Ni~q value for fully austenitic microstructures.
257
o1 ' , / / M f ,
0 8 IG 2~ 32
CHROMIUM EQUIVALENT
Fig. 1. Mean coefficients of thermal expansion (in /zm/m
K), in the temperature range 293-673 K, plotted as
iso-expansioncontours on the DeLong constitutiondiagram.
However, it is interesting to note that the Ni-rich
Inconel type weld metals have approximately the
same CTE as those of ferritic steels.
The mean CTEs in the temperature range
273-873 K for ferritic steels 2.25Cr-lMo and
9 C r - l M o are 14.0 and 12.6 /zm/m K respec-
tively, while those for austenitic SS AISI types
304 and 316 are 18.5 and 18.8 ~ m / m K
respectively. 12 Among the materials which have
CTE intermediate to those of ferritic steels and
austenitic SS, Alloy 800 with a CTE of 17.1
/zm/m K is the most attractive choice for the
transition piece. Additionally, Alloy 800 offers
advantages in terms of excellent resistance to
oxidation and creep at elevated temperatures. 61
Further, detailed stress analysis has s h o w n 47'61
that the hoop stress values in the 2.25Cr-lMo
steel close to the root region decrease by 37%
when Alloy 800 is used as the transition material.
This clearly establishes the superiority of
trimetallic TMJs over the (direct) bimetallic
TMJs. Inconel 182, which has a CTE of 15.5
/zm/m K and is also the welding consumable
commonly used for TMJs, can be retained for
welding the 2.25Cr-lMo steel/Alloy 800 joint.
For welding the Alloy 800/austenitic SS joint,
austenitic SS welding consumable containing
16%Cr, 8%Ni and 2%Mo (16-8-2) with a CTE
of 17.3 /~m/m K is the natural choice. However,
Inconel 182 can be the alternative welding
consumable, because of previous extensive
258
INCONEL
~rEL D
Or-Mo
STEEL
Fig. 2. Schematic configuration of the trimetallic transition joint to be adopted for the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor.
experience in welding Alloy 800 with this
consumable.
Detailed metallurgical studies were carried out
by us64-69 for the development, characterisation
and evaluation of a trimetallic configuration of
TMJ (cf. type 5 in Table 1) for use in the SG
circuits of the 500 MWe prototype fast breeder
reactor (PFBR), where austenitic SS pipes
running from the intermediate heat exchangers
would be welded to Cr-Mo ferritic steel pipes
from the SGs. The aim of this comprehensive
developmental programme was to develop an
improved TMJ, using the trimetallic configura-
tion of type 304 SS/AIIoy 800/2.25Cr-lMo steel.
The programme comprised of detailed wel-
dability studies, metallurgical characterisation
and mechanical property evaluation of butt-
welded plate joints of type 304 SS/AIIoy 800 and
Alloy 800/2.25Cr-lMo steel. A schematic con-
figuration of the trimetallic TMJ, as would be
adopted for the SG circuit of the PFBR, is shown
in Fig. 2. In actual service, however, the weld
joints would be between tubes or pipes, e.g. in
case of the PFBR the joint would be between 8
mm thick pipes of 355.5 mm diameter with the
Alloy 800 transition piece being 200 mm long.
Almost all failures of direct (bimetallic) TMJs in
s e r v i c e 23"36'7° and t e s t programmes3,13,21'22'25'26 oc-
curred near the weld metal/ferritic steel inter-
face, indicating thereby that the ferritic steel side
is the critical part of such a configuration. Hence,
the performance of the trimetallic joint con-
figuration has also been studied by subjecting the
Alloy 800/2.25Cr-lMo steel joint to a thermal
cycling tests that produces accelerated failures in
TMJs similar to those observed in service.
3.1 Type 304 stainless steel/Alloy 800 joint
To determine the appropriate welding con-
sumable for the type 304 SS/AIIoy 800 joint, a
A. K. Bhaduri et al.
16--8-2
W'ELD
ALLOY 8 0 0 /" -STMNLESS
TEEL
~00 m m
comparative evaluation of Inconel 182 and
16-8-2 welding consumables, has been carried
o u t . 64'65 The hot cracking susceptibilities of the
two welding consumables, assessed by the
modified Tekken Y-groove and Keyhole tests,
have shown that the Inconel 182 weld metal
exhibits slightly higher tendency for microfissur-
ing than the 16-8-2 weld metal, although the
overall hot cracking tendency of both the weld
metals is quite lOW. 65
The microstructure of the weld joints shows
that Inconel 182 weld metal solidifies in the
dendritic mode, while 16-8-2 weld metal
solidifies in the cellular mode, because of
difference in their solute content. 71,72Delta-ferrite
is absent near the 16-8-2 weld metal/Alloy 800
interface due to dilution effects. The lower
melting point of Alloy 800 results in formation of
a narrow in-situ melted and solidified region at
the weld metal/Alloy 800 interface, especially
that with Inconel 182, but not at the SS/weld
metal interface. The SS/weld metal interface with
Inconel 182 is sharp because of the significant
mismatch in composition between SS and Inconel
182, while that with 16-8-2 is ill-defined. The
microhardness profiles across the fusion bound-
aries and hardness measurements of different
regions of the joints have shown65 that joints
welded with Inconel 182 have a lower weld metal
hardness along with a more gradual hardness
gradient across the Alloy 800/weld metal
interface.
The tensile properties of the base metals
(Table 2) and the weld metals (Table 3),
evaluated at 298-923 K, show that both the weld
metals are much stronger than the base metals.
Table 3 also shows that the 16-8-2 weld metal
exhibits higher yield strength (YS) and ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) values than the Inconel
182 weld metal up to about 623 K. However, at
temperatures greater than 623 K, Inconel 182 is
 Transition metal joints for steam generators 259

Table 2. Tensile properties of base metals used in type Table 5. Charpy V-notch impact energy of ma-
304 SS/AIIoy 800 terials used in type 304 SS/AIIoy 800 joint at
room temperature
Type 304 stainless steel Alloy 800
Test Material Impact energy (J)
temperature YS UTS UE TE YS UTS UE TE
(K) (MPa)(MPa) (%) (%) (MPa)(MPa) (%) (%) Type 304 stainless steel 70
Alloy 800 87
298 283 609 65 77 268 543 46 75 Inconel 182 weld metal 67
773 149 434 35 42 177 478 33 44 1 6 - 8 - 2 weld metal 62
923 137 287 25 51 189 338 20 50

Table 3. Tensile properties of weld metals used in type and (iii) its choice would involve only a marginal
304 SS/AIIoy 800 penalty on the elevated temperature mechanical
properties of the joint.
Inconel 182 16-8-2
Test
temperature YS UTS UE TE YS UTS UE TE 3.2 AHoy 8 0 0 / 2 . 2 5 C r - l M o steel joint
(K) (MPa)(MPa) (%) (%) (MPa)(MPa) (%) (%)

298 381 638 35 40 497 667 31 37

To determine the optimum PWHT temperature
623 342 587 34 38 358 502 17 22 for the Alloy 800/2.25Cr-1Mo steel joint (welded
773 364 554 32 37 329 470 19 25 with Inconel 182), separate investigations have
923 313 413 14 28 294 389 18 23
been carried out to study the effect of PWHT (at
973-1023 K for 1 h ) , 65 the effect of short-term
Table 4. Tensile properties of transverse-weld specimens aging (at 903-1023 K for 4-10 h),66 and the
of type 304 SS/Alloy 800 joint combined effects of PWHT (at 948-1023 K for 1
h) and long-term aging (at 873 K for 100-5000
Inconel 182 16-8-2
Test
h).67
temperature YS UTS UE TE YS UTS UE TE The weld metal/ferritic steel interface is
(K) (MPa)(MPa) (%) (%) (MPa)(MPa) (%) (%) generally sharp, with very little or no dilution
298 294 553 21 27 326 557 23 29 because the turbulence of the molten metal
623 259 488 21 27 243 482 21 28 ensures good mixing,31 while diffused interfaces
773 245 456 19 23 227 443 20 23 are observed at the corners where weld passes
923 218 324 10 21 211 318 12 22
are overlaid.24 The microstructure of the weld
metal/ferritic steel interface in the as-welded
stronger than 16-8-2. The results of tensile tests joint consists of a clean and distinctive white
on transverse-weld specimens from the SS/Alloy etching phase of about 2/.~m width,65 which after
800 joints (Table 4) show that, in the temperature PWHT or aging transforms to a dark etching
range 623-923 K, the YS and UTS values for phase. 65'66 The thickness of the dark etching
joints welded with 16-8-2 are marginally lower interfacial band increases with an increase in the
than those welded with Inconel 182. At PWHT temperature, and becomes progressively
temperatures between 298 and 923 K, the prominent on aging. EDAX of this interracial
ductility (viz., the uniform elongation (UE) and band shows that with increase in aging the
total elongation (TE) values) of the joints welded interracial band enriches in both Cr and Ni, and
with Inconel 182 and 16-8-2 are comparable, its composition corresponds to that of martensite
although the Inconel 182 weld metal exhibits as per the Schaeffler diagram. 66 This corroborates
higher ductility. Further, the Charpy V-notch with the observations of other w o r k e r s , 9"34'35'73
impact energy values at room temperature for and it is reported that the interracial martensite
the Inconel 182 weld metal are marginally higher band contains typically 5% each of Cr and Ni. 24
than those for the 16-8-2 weld metal; both are This interracial martensite band acts as the
lower than either of the base metals (Table 5). precipitation site for carbides during PWHT
Hence, the 16-8-2 consumable is preferred and/or aging, especially at locations where the
over Inconel 182 for welding the joint between interface is diffused, and SEM observations show
austenitic SS and Alloy 800 because (i) it has a that the precipitation occurs both within this
lower microfissuring tendency; (ii) it results in a band and at the martensite band/ferritic steel
reduced mismatch in the CTE across the joint; HAZ interface. The extent of interracial
 260 A . K . Bhaduri et al.
precipitation increases with increasing PWHT
temperature or degree of aging, 66,67 and E D A X
studies show that with increased aging these
precipitates enrich in Cr. 66 Further, an increase in
the degree of aging causes formation of
predominantly ferritic regions near the interface
accompanied by pronounced grain growth, and
SIMS analysis shows evidence of carbon migra-
tion from the ferritic steel H A Z adjacent to the
weld interface, especially near the diffused
interfaces, on aging at higher temperatures. 64 It is
to be noted that the failure mechanisms of TMJs
in service have been attributed to creep-void
formation associated with these interfacial
precipitates. Also, as the creep properties of the
ferritic steel are poorer than those of the other
constituent materials of the joint, the changes in
the microstructure of the ferritic steel H A Z on
prolonged aging, from predominantly bainitic to
predominantly ferritic structure, further ad-
versely affect the creep rupture properties of this
HAZ. In fact, the lives of service exposed
specimens, operating at 873 K at a stress level of
62 MPa, were reduced by a factor of about 4.5
compared with as-welded specimens, due to
aging in service. TM Hence, PWHT of this joint at
lower temperatures in the range 948-1023 K
would ensure a more stable microstructural
condition of the weld metal/ferritic steel
interface, and thereby provide a superior starting
microstructure prior to aging in service. 64,67
The microhardness profile across the weld
metal/ferritic steel interface in the as-welded
condition shows a steep hardness gradient across
this interface because of the high hardness of the
untempered bainitic structure of the ferritic steel
HAZ. 65 PWHT drastically reduces the steep
hardness gradient across this interface, and also
the hardness of the as-welded ferritic steel
H A Z Y However, use of a higher PWHT
temperature is found to result in a distinct
hardness peak at this interface, due to formation
of a dense band of interfacial carbides a4 caused
by carbon migration during PWHT, 75 and in a
substantial degradation in hardness of the ferritic
steel base metal. Aging results in a reduction in
hardness of the ferritic steel H A Z and base
metal, and in the formation of a hardness trough
in the ferritic steel H A Z near the weld interface,
both of which become accentuated in joints
subjected to PWHT at higher temperatures.
These studies indicate that PWHT at 973 K for 1
h results in a more favourable hardness profile
across the joint, and in a better combination of
hardness across different regions of the joint.
Further, aging for 5000 h at 873 K causes only a
marginal variation in hardness of the weld metal
as a function of PWHT temperature, while the
hardness of the ferritic steel base metal is slightly
lower for the 1023 K PWHT than for the joints
subjected to PWHT at lower temperatures. In
contrast, the hardness trough in the ferritic steel
H A Z is the deepest for the 1023 K PWHT joints
and is very shallow for the 973 and 998 K PWHT
joints. Further, aging at 873 K up to 5000 h
results in only marginal changes in the hardness
profiles for the 973 K PWHT. 67 These indicate
that the most favourable hardness distribution
across the critical weld metal/ferritic steel
interface is obtained in joints subjected to PWHT
at 973-998 K for 1 h.
The tensile properties of the weld metal (Table
6) and of transverse-weld specimens from the
joints (Table 7), evaluated at 298 and 773 K,
show that an increase in the PWHT temperature
or degree of aging is associated with a
progressive decrease in the YS and UTS of both
the weld metal and the joint, while their ductility
is only marginally affectedY ,66 The variation in
the tensile properties of the Inconel 182 weld
metal are consistent with those of a similar
Ni-base weld metal, Inconel 82. 76 Further, for a
given PWHT and at a particular test tempera-
ture, the strength of the joint is lower than that of
the weld metal, and during tests all the
transverse-weld tensile specimens failed in the
ferritic steel H A Z very close to the weld
interface. A similar observation was made by
other workers. 77 Table 8 shows that at 773 K,
both the strength and ductility of the joint change
gradually for the 973 and 998 K PWHT joints
with increasing duration of aging from 100 to
5000 h at 873 K. Further, on aging at 873 K for
5000 h, the strength of the joints at 773 K
decreases while the ductility shows an increasing
trend with increase in PWHT temperature. 67 The
optimum combination of strength and ductility is
obtained in joints subjected to PWHT at 973 K
for 1 h. Additionally, the Charpy V-notch impact
energy of the weld metal in the 973 K PWHT
condition remains practically unchanged while its
plane-stress fracture toughness improves con-
siderably in comparison to those in the as-welded
condition (Table 9). 6s Further, the impact energy
of the weld metal remains practically unchanged
on aging, while its plane-stress fracture toughness
 Transition metal joints for steam generators 261

Table 6. Tensile properties of Inconei 182 weld metal used in Alloy 80012.25 Cr-lMo steel
joint. (Variation with post-weld heat treatment or short-term aging)

Test temp. 298 K Test temp. 773 K

Heat treatment YS UTS UE TE YS UTS UE TE

(MPa) (MPa) (%) (%) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)

As-welded 398 629 32 37 396 590 28 31

PWHT: 973 K/1 h 343 638 39 44 290 524 42 44
PWHT: 1 023K/1 h 322 619 41 49 266 519 46 50
Aging: 903 K/4 h 408 667 34 38 323 539 37 41
Aging: 903 K/10 h 367 637 32 38 320 534 33 38
Aging: 973 K/10 h 336 598 34 41 276 521 37 42
Aging: 1 073 K/10 h 316 637 37 41 265 525 39 43

Table 7. Tensile properties of transverse-weld specimens of AHoy 80012-25 Cr-lMo steel

joint. (Variation with post-weld heat treatment or short-term aging)

Test temp. 298 K Test temp. 773 K

Heat treatment YS UTS UE TE YS UTS UE TE

(MPa) (MPa) (%) (%) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)

As-welded 390 585 17 24 324 493 15 22

PWHT: 973 K/1 h 382 534 14 22 318 460 15 23
PWHT: 1 023K/1 h 318 486 14 22 280 486 19 27
Aging: 903 K/4 h 390 550 13 20 305 454 14 20
Aging: 903 K/10 h 404 561 13 20 323 421 9 16
Aging: 973 K[10 h 342 486 14 22 275 427 13 21
Aging: 1 073 K/10 h 289 445 14 23 252 453 17 18

Table 8. Tensile properties of transverse-weld specimen of Alloy

800/2.25 Cr-lMo steel joint at 773 K. (Variation with post-weld
heat treatment or long-term aging)

PWHT Aging YS UTS UE TE

temperature duration (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
(for 1 h) (at 873 K)

As-welded Unaged 313 489 12 19

As-welded 100 h 328 460 9 17
As-welded 500 h 338 465 9 16
As-welded 1 000 h 372 386 3 13
As-welded 5 000 h 359 378 3 13
948 K Unaged 279 430 10 18
948 K 100 h 320 383 6 16
948 K 500 h 339 381 4 14
948 K 1 000 h 340 370 4 14
948 K 5 000 h 344 359 3 13
973 K Unaged 280 442 12 21
973 K 100 h 293 384 7 16
973 K 500 h 300 384 7 16
973 K 1 000 h 329 348 4 14
973 K 5 000 h 337 353 3 14
998 K Unaged 279 451 13 20
998 K 100 h 295 400 8 17
998 K 500 h 286 408 8 16
998 K 1 000 h 333 367 4 14
998 K 5 000 h 326 350 4 14
1 023 K Unaged 264 495 21 27
1 023 K 100 h 288 429 12 22
1 023 K 500 h 275 438 13 21
1 023 K 1 000 h 301 338 5 15
1 023 K 5 000 h 268 300 5 17
 262
Table 9. Charpy V-notch impact properties of Inconel 182
weld metal used in Alloy 800]2.25 Cr-lMo steel joint at
room temperature. (Variation with post-weld heat treat-
ment or short-term aging)
Heat Impact
treatment energy (J)
(MPa.m°'5)
As-welded 27
PWHT: 973 K/1 h 26
PWHT: 1023 K/1 h 32
Aging 903 K/4 h 31
Aging 903 K/10 h 29
Aging 973 K/10 h 29
Aging 1 073 K/10 h 30
decreases gradually with increased aging. 66
Hence, a lowering of the P W H T temperature
improves the mechanical properties and mic-
rostructural stability of this joint, while aging
results in extensive precipitation on the martens-
ite band at the weld metal/ferritic steel interface
and deterioration in the mechanical properties
and microstructural stability of the ferritic steel
H A Z . Thus, to achieve optimum properties and
improved performance on prolonged aging, the 1
h P W H T of the Alloy 800/2.25Cr-lMo steel
(welded with Inconel 182) is to be carried out at
973 K. This is in excellent agreement with the
British Standard BS 5500, which specifies a
P W H T temperature range of 953-993 K for
2.25Cr-lMo steel to impart to it optimum high
temperature properties; TM and P W H T of this joint
at 973 K, which is exactly at the middle of the
above specified temperature range, will addition-
ally impart optimum high temperature properties
to the weakest component of this trimetallic
TMJ.
3.3 P e r f o r m a n c e test b y a c c e l e r a t e d t h e r m a l
cycling
The difference in thermal expansion characteris-
tics between the base metals and the weld metal
in TMJs generate thermal stresses during cycling
of the power plant between the numerous
startups and shutdowns, and these cyclic thermal
stresses are considered to be primarily respon-
sible for the premature service failures of TMJs
in operating power plants. Hence, the perfor-
mance of the trimetallic TMJ has been
studied 64'68'69 by an accelerated thermal cycling
test procedure , in which transverse-weld specim-
ens from the Alloy 800/2.25Cr-lMo steel joint
A . K . Bhaduri et al.
were subjected to P W H T at the optimum
temperature of 973 K (cf. Section 3.2). The
specimens were loaded by set-screws in three-
point-bending fixtures and thermally cycled
Fracture between room temperature and a hold tempera-
toughness ture of 873 K (first test series) and 908 K (second
test series). In this performance test, the effect of
373 accelerated thermal cycling on the joint would
393 represents the cumulative effect of long-term
391
378 aging at the hold temperature under the applied
375 stress (viz. creep) and of cyclic loading under
352 thermal stresses generated by the difference in
346 CTE between the components of the joint (viz.
thermal fatigue).
The microstructures after thermal cycling show
that precipitation of carbides at the weld/ferritic
steel interface decreases on PWHT, and increases
with an increase in the duration of P W H T or
starting stress level. Further, prolonged thermal
cycling results in the formation of (a) a narrow
band of coarse spherical carbide precipitates at
the weld/ferritic steel interface; (b) oxide notches
on the ferritic steel surface close to the weld
interface; and (c) a decarburised zone in the
ferritic steel H A Z adjacent to the weld interface.
It was also observed that accelerated thermal
cycling of the joint results in evolution of
interfacial microstructural features similar to
those observed in joints that had failed in
service. 68
No failure or cracking occurs in the joints,
irrespective of P W H T or starting stress level
used, either in the first test series (i.e., after
cumulative exposure of 6700 h at 873 K
accumulated over 200 thermal cycles) or in the
second test series (i.e., after cumulative exposure
for 3600 h at 908 K accumulated over 110
thermal cycles). The results of the second test
series, which were conducted under more severe
conditions by using a higher hold temperature of
908 K compared to that of 873 K in the first test
series, confirm the results from the first test series
and show that the performance of the joint is in
fact still better than that obtained from the first
test series. 69 These results have been compared
with information available in the literature 5 on
similar tests, under almost identical test condi-
tions, that were carried out on direct (bimetallic)
TMJ of type 316 SS/2.25Cr-lMo steel (welded
with 309 SS), in which cracks developed after a
cumulative exposure of only 2300 h at 866 K
accumulated over 64 cycles.
A Larson-Miller type parametric approach has
 Transition metal joints for steam generators
been used to interpret the results of the
performance test using the value of C as 8.4 in
the equation P = T ( C + l o g t ) . 38 Using this ap-
proach, it can be calculated that the minimum
expected lifetime of this trimetallic TMJ is
greater than about 256,000 h at 773 K based on
the results from the first test series, and that it is
greater than about 441,000 h at 773 K based on
the results of the second test series. 69 In contrast,
the available results of the test on direct
(bimetallic) transition joints, referred to earlier,5
showed that those thermally cycled specimens
had the same failure mode as joints that failed
after 50,000-100,000 h in an operating steam
generator of a fossil-fired plant.
Thus, accelerated thermal cycling of the Alloy
800/2.25Cr-lMo steel joint results in the
evolution of microstructural features at the
weld/ferritic steel interface similar to those
observed in joints that had failed in service, and
these performance tests show that a marked
improvement in performance of TMJs can be
obtained by using the trimetallic configuration,
with at least a four-fold improvement in its life
over that of direct (bimetallic) TMJs with
austenitic SS weld metals.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The TMJs between austenitic SS and ferritic
steels, used widely in steam generators of power
plants, have for a long time contributed to the
problem of premature failures in service. The
direct (bimetallic) TMJs presently in use are
usually designed for an operating service life of
about 200,000 h; but the TMJs with Fe-base weld
metals have been failing in service in about
one-third of their design lifetime, while their
counterparts with Ni-base weld metals fail in
about one-half of their design lifetime.
An improved TMJ is that with a trimetallic
configuration of austenitic SS/Alloy 800/Cr-Mo
ferritic steel. Accelerated performance tests in
the laboratory indicate a four-fold improvement
potential in the service life of TMJs on using this
trimetallic configuration in place of the present
direct (bimetallic) configuration. However, re-
ports of actual service performance are not yet
available.
Another alternative for improved TMJs is that
with a graded composition. As an alternative to
the traditional welded TMJs, graded-composition
263
type 316 SS/2.25Cr-1Mo steel joints have been
produced by vacuum arc remelting of a
controlled composition electrode. These graded-
composition TMJs have recently been adopted in
AGR nuclear power station boilers, where they
operate in the creep range at typical tempera-
tures of 823 and 848 K. 79 The data obtained from
physical and mechanical property surveys of
these joints, and from creep rupture and
creep-thermal fatigue testing of uniaxial specim-
ens, when compared with similar published data
on direct (bimetallic) TMJs with Ni-base weld
metals, showed that the graded-composition
TMJs exhibit superior elevated temperature
characteristics which, coupled with their ultraso-
nic inspectability, tend to endorse their suitability
for long term, high reliability application in the
AGR boilers. However, relative to the alterna-
tive of direct (bimetallic) TMJs with Ni-base weld
metals, the graded-composition TMJs are more
expensive and are less readily available. Also, the
production techniques for graded-composition
TMJs are primarily suited for thick-wall pipe
joints of about 35 mm wall thickness. Hence,
more detailed work on the graded-composition
TMJs is required to make them a viable
alternative.
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