Periodic Table Notes

THE PERIODIC TABLE

The Periodic table was devised (created) in 1869 by the Russian professor of chemistry
Dmitri Mendeleev. His periodic table at the time was based on his proposal that their
was a definite relationship between the chemical properties of elements and their atomic
masses.

Mendeleev through close examination of the elements, found a recurring pattern when
the elements were arranged into horizontal rows with increasing atomic masses – which
we now called today Periods. With this arrangement he found that chemically similar
elements could be placed in vertical columns beneath each other – which we now today
called Groups.

Mendeleev’s classification table – which we refer to today as the Periodic Table – has
being successful in making sense of and predicting the chemistry of all the elements so
far discovered.

The Modern Periodic has been modified slightly in light of works carried out by H. G.
Mosely and Ernest Rutherford a few changes due to the following

Ernest Rutherford discovery of the presence of protons in the nucleus of atoms.

H. G. Mosely (1887 - 1915) contributed to the further development of the Modern

Periodic table of elements by arranging the elements according to their atomic (proton)
number. H. G. Mosely used the aid of X – rays to arrange the elements according to their
atomic numbers instead of their atomic masses, and with this arrangement all the
elements in Mendeleev’s Periodic table which posed a issue placing, fell into their correct
groups.

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

The Modern Periodic Table as it stands today is as a result of the collective contributions
of Dmitri Mendeleev, Ernst Rutherford, and H. G. Mosely.

The Modern Periodic Table is composed of a grid work of horizontal rows and vertical
columns of elements arranged in terms of their: -

1. Increasing atomic numbers.

2. Electronic structures.

3. Similar chemical properties.

 NB: There are 115 elements in the Modern Periodic table.

The Periodic table divides the elements into metals, metalloids, and non-metals.
 Periodic Table Notes

The majority of the elements in the table are metals with about 20 being non-metals.
The metals are to be found to left of the imaginary zig-zag line (step line) and the non-
metals to the right as shown in figure [L] below.
Many of the elements particularly those close to the imaginary zig-zag line show
properties of both categories. These elements are called semi-metals or metalloids.
Examples of metalloids include boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, and tellurium.

Figure [L]

* He
+ + * * * * * Ne
+ + + * * * * Ar
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + * + * + * + * + Kr+ +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + * + * + Xe+ +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Rn
+ Metals + + + + + + + + + + + + Uno *
Metalloids * Non-metals + Transition metals * Noble gases

PERIODS
A horizontal row of elements in the periodic table is called a Period.
The table has seven periods, each numerated with Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3.. to 7.
Periods 1, 2, and 3 are often called short Periods due to their lengths being short.
Periods 4, 5, 6, and 7 are called long Periods due to their lengths being long.

An element is assigned to a period based on the number of occupied electron shells it

possesses – (which can be determined from an elements electronic configuration).
35.5
Example 1. Chlorine, Cl
17

Number of occupied shells : 1st 2nd 3rd

Electronic configuration : 2 , 8 , 7

Period 3

Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Electronic configuration 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

 NB: A new period is started when a new shell of electrons are entered.

GROUPS

A vertical column of elements in the periodic table is called a Group.

Example 1.
 Periodic Table Notes

Group I

Li
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr

The table has eight groups, each numerated with a Roman numeral from I to VII with a
final group 0.

An element is assigned to a Group based on the number of electrons in its outermost

(last) shell – (which can be determined from an elements electronic configuration)

 NB: The outermost shell in an atom is called the valence shell and the electrons
in that shell called valence electrons.

Example 1. Magnesium 2412Mg

Number of occupied shells : 1st 2nd 3rd

Electronic configuration : 2 , 8 , 2

Group II (since it has 2 electrons its valence shell)

Group II Group VII

Be = 2,2 F = 2,7
Mg = 2,8,2 Cl = 2,8,7
Ca = 2,8,8,2 Br = 2,8,18,7
Sr 2,8,18,8,2 I = 2,8,18,8,7

Some groups of elements are given alternative family names, by which they are also
known, these are listed below:

Group I – also known as – The Alkalis Metals

Group II – also known as – The Alkaline Earth Metals
Group VII – also known as – The Halogens (salt makers)
Group VIII or 0 – also known as – The Noble or Inert Gases

 NB: The Noble gases were discovered between 1894 – 1900 by Sir William
Ramsay and Lord John William Strutt Rayleigh.

 NB: These gases exist as individual atoms and are chemically unreactive –
because they have electronic configurations which are stable and very difficult to
change.
 Periodic Table Notes

 NB: The elements in group 0/VIII do not readily react with other elements - The
elements in this group have completely filled shells of electrons which are all
paired up and energetically stable and do not need to lose/gain or even share
with other elements in an effort to achieve this.

TRANSITION ELEMENTS

The block/group of elements found between groups II and groups III are called the
Transition elements (or alternately the transition metals – since they are all metals).
Familiarity with the first ten elements from the block is required knowledge at this level.

H He
Li Be Transition metals
B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Br Kr
Rb

The first 10 transition elements (metals)

Transition Atomic Electronic

metals Numbers configurations
Sc 21 2, 8, 9, 2
Ti 22 2, 8, 10, 2
V 23 2, 8, 11, 2
Cr 24 2, 8, 12, 2
Mn 25 2, 8, 13, 2
Fe 26 2, 8, 14, 2
Co 27 2, 8, 15, 2
Ni 28 2, 8, 16, 2
Cu 29 2, 8, 18, 1
Zn 30 2, 8, 18, 2

 NB: Zinc even though in the transition block is best regarded as belonging more
to the B metal rather than a member of the transition elements.

Some properties of the transition elements are listed below:

 Transition elements are all metals.

 Transition elements are harder and stronger than the metals in groups I, II, and
III.
 Periodic Table Notes

 Transition elements have high densities – i.e. they are heavier – in comparison to
the metals in groups I, II, and III.
 Transition elements have melting and boiling points – (with the exception being
mercury Hg which is the only liquid metal at room temperature).
 Transition elements are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 Transition elements can form a range of brightly coloured compounds e.g. –
copper Cu2+ blue, vanadium V3+ green, Chromium Cr3+ orange, manganese Mn7+
purple.
 Transition elements are less reactive in comparison to the metals in groups I, II,
and III.
 Transition elements show/exhibit catalytic activity – i.e. they can be used to
promote (speed up) or inhibit(slow down) certain chemical reactions.
 Transition elements display/exhibit more than one oxidation states – eg. +1 and
+2 in Copper ions Cu+ and Cu2+ or +2 and +3 in Iron ions Fe2+ and Fe3+ .
 Transition elements do not react (corrode) readily with Oxygen and/or water –
with the exception of Iron Fe).

PERIODICITY

Periodicity is the study of the changes (variation) in both the physical and chemical
properties of elements in a period or group.

PERIODIC AND GROUP TRENDS

A Trend is an observable pattern in the physical or chemical properties of the elements

that belong to a group or period of elements.

Some of the physical properties one can observe a trend in (periodicity) are as follows:

1. Atomic radii - refers to the size of atom.

2. Melting points and/Boiling points – refers to temperatures at which an element

melts or boils respectively.

3. Density – the mass per unit volume of an atom of an element.

Some of the chemical properties one can observe a trend in (periodicity) are as follows:

1. Electronegativity. – is a measure of tendency (ease) with which an atom attracts

the electrons in a covalent bond. (non – metallic nature)
 Periodic Table Notes

2. Electropositivity - is a measure of the tendency (ease) with which an atom loses

its outermost electrons to form positive ions. (metallic nature)

There are two effects which accounts for (or explains) the periodicity in a group or
period of elements. These two effects are:

1. Nuclear Charge effect.

2. Shell Shielding effect.

The ‘Nuclear charge effect’ – refers to force of attraction the positively charge
nucleus has on the shells of negatively charge electrons in an atom.

The ‘Shell Shielding effect’ – refers to how the inner shell(s) of negatively charged
electrons shield the outermost shell of electron(s) from the force of attraction on them
by the positively charge nucleus.

Now both the ‘nuclear charge effect’ and ‘shell shielding effect’ are present inside a
given atom of an element. However the stronger of the two effects usually wins out in
determining the periodicity of a physical or chemical property in a group or period of
elements.

 NB: Down a group the shielding of outer electrons by the inner shells of electrons
overcomes the influence of the increasing nuclear charge. Thus the outer
electron(s) are progressively easier to be removed or lost.

 NB: As one go across a period the increasing nuclear charge has a greater
influence than the shielding by inner shells of electrons on the outermost
electron(s). Since the number of shells across a period remains unchanged, whilst
the nuclear charge and the electron number increases. Hence the electrostatic
attraction between the nucleus and electrons increases progressively resulting in
the electrons being held onto more tightly by the nucleus. (NB – The Shielding
effect is only exhibited in instances where an electron shell is filled)

Below are some of the trends in properties in a group or period and explanations for the
trend.

Atomic Radii increases as one GO DOWN a group.

Group I Group VII

 Periodic Table Notes

elements elements

H F

Li Cl atomic radii
increases down
a Group
Na Br

K I

Explanation : As one go down a group both the number of shells of electrons and the
nuclear charge will increase hence the respective ‘effects’ attributed to each of these
properties will do likewise. However ‘shell shielding’ has a greater effect than the
increase ‘nuclear charge’. Since the number of shells are increasing as one go down the
group this results in the outermost electrons being well shielded from the progressively
increasing nuclear charge and thus the outermost electrons become progressively easier
to remove.

Atomic radii decreases as one GO ACROSS a period.

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Atomic radii decreases across a period

Periodicity in Atomic Radii in period 3

Explanation : As one go across a period the increasing nuclear charge has a greater
influence than the shell shielding by inner shells of electrons on the outermost electron(s),
since the number of filled shells across a period remains unchanged, whilst the nuclear
charge and the electron number increases. Hence the electrostatic attraction by the
nucleus for the electrons increases progressively resulting in the electrons being held onto
more tightly by the nucleus. (NB – The Shielding effect is only exhibited in instances
where an electron shell is filled).
 Periodic Table Notes

Melting/Boiling Points increases as one GO DOWN a group.

Explanation: As one go down a group the number of shells and the number of nucleons
are increasing. As this happens the increasing nuclear charge has a greater influence than
the shell shielding by innermost shells of electrons on the outermost electron(s), since the
number of filled shells down a group is increasing. Hence the electrostatic attraction by
the nucleus for the electrons increases progressively resulting in the electrons being held
onto more tightly by the nucleus making the temperatures required to breakdown the
electrostatic forces of attraction in the atoms structure and packing arrangement
progressively high as one goes down a group .

Melting/Boiling Points decreases as one GO ACROSS a period.

Explanation: As one go across a period the increasing nuclear charge has a greater
influence than the shell shielding by inner shells of electrons on the outermost electron(s),
since the number of filled shells across a period remains unchanged, whilst the nuclear
charge and the electron number increases. Hence the electrostatic attraction by the
nucleus for the electrons increases progressively resulting in the electrons being held onto
more tightly by the nucleus. Thereby making the temperatures required to break down the
structure of the atom packing arrangement low.

Electronegativity decreases as one GO DOWN a group.

Explanation: As one go down a group both the number of shells and the nuclear charge
will increase hence the respective ‘effects’ attributed to each of these properties will do
likewise. However ‘shell shielding’ has a greater influence than the increase ‘nuclear
charge’. Since the number of filled shells are increasing as one go down the group this
results in the mutual repulsion between the inner most filled shells of electrons thereby
causing an increase in the volume of the atom and by extension the atomic radii. Which
results in the diminishing attractive influence the nucleus has on its outer electrons.

 NB: In general small atoms with high nuclear charges (high atomic numbers)
tend to have the highest electronegativities. Therefore non-metals are more
electronegative than metals.

 NB: The most Electronegativity elements are in group VII.

Electronegativity increases as one GO ACROSS a period.

Explanation : As one go across a period the increasing nuclear charge has a greater
influence than the shielding by inner shells of electrons on the outermost electron(s),
since the number of filled shells across a period remains unchanged. While the nuclear
charge and the electron number increases. Hence the electrostatic attraction by the
nucleus for the electrons increases progressively resulting in the electrons being held onto
more tightly by the nucleus. (NB – The Shielding effect is only exhibited in instances
where an electron shell is filled).

Electropositivity increases as on GO DOWN a group.

Explanation: As one go down a group both the number of shells and the nuclear charge
will increase hence the respective ‘effects’ attributed to each of these properties will do
 Periodic Table Notes

likewise. However ‘shell shielding’ has a greater influence than the increase ‘nuclear
charge’. Since the number of filled shells are increasing as one go down the group this
results in the mutual repulsion between the inner most filled shells of electrons thereby
causing an increase in the volume of the atom and by extension the atomic radii. Which
results in the diminishing attractive influence the nucleus has on its outer electrons.

Electropositivity decreases as one GO ACROSS a period.

Explanation: : As one go across a period the increasing nuclear charge has a greater
influence than the shell shielding by inner shells of electrons on the outermost electron(s),
since the number of filled shells across a period remains unchanged, whilst the nuclear
charge and the electron number increases. Hence the electrostatic attraction by the
nucleus for the electrons increases progressively resulting in the electrons being held onto
more tightly by the nucleus. (NB – The Shielding effect is only exhibited in instances
where an electron shell is filled).

Density increases as one GO DOWN a group.

Explanation: As one go down a group both the number of shells and the nuclear charge
will increase hence the respective ‘effects’ attributed to each of these properties will do
likewise. However the increase in the number of nucleons (the proton and neutrons) per
unit volume of the atom results in an increase in the mass of the atoms.

Density decreases as one GO ACROSS a period.

Explanation: As one go across a period the increasing nuclear charge has a greater
influence than the shell shielding by inner shells of electrons on the outermost electron(s),
since the number of filled shells across a period remains unchanged, whilst the nuclear
charge and the electron number increases. Hence the electrostatic attraction by the
nucleus for the electrons increases progressively resulting in the electrons being held onto
more tightly by the nucleus. And so their mass per unit gradually decreases as one go
across the period.