The Physical Layer

● Course outcome 3
● Describe the physical layer by illustrating and
discussing the concept of signal and how it
represents data

Duties of Physical
Layer

Bit Signal Bit Multiplexing

Bit-Rate Circuit
Trans- Synchroniz and
formation Control ation Spreading
Switching
 Learning Outcomes
● Describe how data and signals can be analog or digital
● Draw and describe the sine wave as mathematical model
for representing signals, identifying its properties (namely
amplitude, frequency, period, phase, wavelength,
bandwidth)
● Identify and describe transmission impairment and its
causes
● Compute data rate limit of noiseless and noisy channels
● Illustrate and describe how data are represented and
transmitted by digital or analog signal
● Illustrate and describe multiplexing and spreading
 Signals as used in Data
Communication
● Data and Signals ● Data rate limits
● Periodic Analog ● Digital Transmission
Signals ● Analog Transmission
● Digital Signals ● Multiplexing and
● Transmission Spreading
Impairment

B. Forouzan, Chp 3-5, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-184, 2012
 Data and Signals
● Data can be analog or digital
– analog data refer to information
that are continuous
– e.g. voice, audio, video,
temperature, presssure, distance
● digital data refer to information
that have discrete states or
values
– e.g. letters, numbers, symbols
● Signal can be analog or digital
– e.g. sine and cosine waves as
analog signal
– e.g. square wave as digital

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Periodic Analog Signals (l) wavelength:
T (Period):
l = f/c
● Mathematical model: sine T = 1/f c is the speed of light
wave Y(t) = A sin(2πft+ϴ) amplitude
5
● Characterized by
Period (T) in sec
– frequency (f) in hertz
-5
– Amplitude (A) (watt, volt, or Wavelength (l) n meters
ampere) Composite
signal
– Phase (ϴ) (in radian or degree)
– Period (T) (sec, hour)
– wavelength (λ) (m, km, or mi)
– Speed of propagation (c),
equal to speed of light in vacuum:
m/s, km/s, mi/s `

● Simple or composite
● Bandwidth of composite signal

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Phase (ϴ) of a Sine Wave
● Constellation diagram
π/2

0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π

0
π
2π
ϴ=0 ϴ = π/2

ϴ = 3π/2
3π/2 ϴ=π

B. Forouzan, Chp 5, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 135-154, 2012
 Sine wave example
● A = 10, f =3, ϴ=0 ● A = 11, f =4, ϴ=π
s(t) = 10sin(2π3t+0) s(t) = 11sin(2π4t+π)
= 10sin(6πt) = 11sin(π(8t+1))
11
10

1 sec
1 sec
● A = 8, f =4, ϴ=3π/2 8
s(t) = 8sin(2π4t+3π/2)
= 8sin(8πt+3π/2)
3 -8
8 sin (π (8 t + ))
2 1 sec
 Exercises: Sine Wave Properties
● Determine the amplitude, ● Determine the function of a
frequency, phase, period sine wave given:
and wavelength of the
– Amplitude = 100
following sine wave.
– Phase = 3π/2
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt)
– Frequency = 300 Hz
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt + π/2)
● Determine the period,
Y(t) = 5 sin[π(2000t + 1/2)] wavelength of this sine
Y(t) = 10 sin[π(4000t + 1)] wave
Y(t) = sin[π(10000000t + 1)] ● Draw the first two cycles of
this signal

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Frequency and period

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Exercises: Bandwidth = fu - fl
Exercise:
A nonperiodic composite signal has
a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a
middle frequency of 140 kHz and
peak amplitude of 20 V. The two
extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency
domain of the signal.

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Digital Signals
● Data can be
represented by either:
– analog signal
– digital signal
– e.g. a 1 can be encoded
as a positive voltage and
a 0 as zero voltage
● A digital signal can have
more than two levels
– i.e. we can send more
than 1 bit for each level

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Exercises: Bit rate and Bit Length
● Given 1 Mbps bit rate
– Determine the bit
length (in terms of time
T and displacement λ)
● Given a bit length of 2
micro second
– Determine the bit rate
R.
– Determine the bit
length λ.

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Transmission Impairment
● Signals travel through
transmission media
● Impaired signal
– Signal at the beginning of the
medium is different at the end of
the medium.
● Causes of impairment
1.Noise
2.Interference
3.Imperfect transmission media
● Effects of impairment
1.Attenuation
2.Distortion

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Data Rate Limits
Nyquist theorem for Shannon's theorem for noisy
noiseless channel channel
N = 2B x log2L C = B x log2(SNR + 1)
● L refers to the ● Where SNR is the signal to
number of symbols, noise power ratio in decibels
B for the bandwidth
● SNR = 10 log10(S/N)
and C for the
capacity in bps ● Using both limits
● Baud rate or symbol 2Bxlog2L = B x log2(SNR + 1)
rate vs bit rate
Or L = √SNR + 1
B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Exercises: Data Rate Limits
Consider a noiseless Consider the same
channel with a bandwidth of noiseless channel
3000 Hz transmitting a transmitting a signal with
signal with two signal four signal levels (for each
levels. Determine maximum level, we send 2 bits).
bit rate. Determine maximum bit
rate.
Increasing the levels of a
N = 2 x B x log2L
signal may reduce the
reliability of the system.
True or false? Why?

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Solve the Data Rate Limits
The theoretical maximum We have a channel with a 1-
data rate for noisy channel MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
is defined as this channel is 63. What are
the appropriate bit rate and
C = B x log2 (1 + SNR) signal level?
Consider a telephone line
with 3.1Khz bandwidth and
a 2047 signal-to-noise ratio.
Calculate the maximum
data rate.

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
 Network Performance
How good is the network? Bandwidth in two context:
1.Bandwidth 1.Bandwidth in hertz (Hz)
the range of frequencies in a composite
2.Throughput signal or the range of frequencies that a
channel can pass.
3.Latency (Delay)
4.Bandwidth-Delay Product
Other metrics:
● Quality of service (QOS)
(Ch. 24) 2.Bandwidth in bits per second
(bps),
● Quality of experience the speed of bit transmission in a
(QOE) (outside the scope) channel or link.

B. Forouzan, Chp 3, Data Communications and Networking: Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, pp 51-94, 2012
Thank you!
 Activity 4a
● Describe how data and signals can be analog or digital
● Draw and describe the sine wave as mathematical
model for representing signals identifying its properties
(namely amplitude, frequency, period, phase,
wavelength, bandwidth)
● Describe and illustrate how analog signals are used in
data communication
● Describe and illustrate how digital signals are used in
data communication
● Identify and describe transmission impairment and its
causes
 Activity 4b
Copy and solve the problems on pp. 91-94
● #’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18, 19, 21, 22,
23, 23, 30, 31, 32
● 29, SNR only not SNRdb
 Answers to Sin function
● Determine the amplitude, s(t) = A sin (2πft + θ)
frequency, phase, period
and wavelength of the Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt)
following sine wave. Y(t) = 5 sin(2π(1000)t + 0)
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt) A = 5, f = 1000 Hz, θ = 0
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt + π/2) T = 1/f = 1/1000 = .001 sec
Y(t) = 5 sin[π(2000t + 1/2)] = 1 msec
km
Y(t) = 10 sin[π(4000t + 1)] (300000 )
c sec km
l= = =300
Y(t) = sin[π(10000000t + 1)] f
(1000
cycle
)
cycle
sec
 Answers to Sin function
● Determine the amplitude, s(t) = A sin (2πft + θ)
frequency, phase, period
and wavelength of the Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt + π/2)
following sine wave. Y(t) = 5 sin(2π(1000)t + π/2)
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt) A = 5, f = 1000 Hz, θ = π/2
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt + π/2) T = 1/f = 1/1000 = .001 sec
Y(t) = 5 sin[π(2000t + 1/2)] = 1 msec
km
Y(t) = 10 sin[π(4000t + 1)] (300000 )
c sec km
l= = =300
Y(t) = sin[π(10000000t + 1)] f
(1000
cycle
)
cycle
sec
 Answers to Sin function
● Determine the amplitude, s(t) = A sin (2πft + θ)
frequency, phase, period
and wavelength of the Y(t) = 10 sin[π(4000t + 1)]
following sine wave. Y(t) = 10 sin(4000πt + π)
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt) Y(t) = 10 sin(2π(2000)t + π)
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt + π/2) A = 10, f = 2000 Hz, θ = π
Y(t) = 5 sin[π(2000t + 1/2)] T = 1/f = 1/2000 = .0005 sec
Y(t) = 10 sin[π(4000t + 1)] = .5 msec = 500 μsec
km
Y(t) = sin[π(10000000t + 1)] (300000 )
c sec km
l= = =150
f cycle cycle
(2000 )
sec
 Answers to Sin function
● Determine the amplitude, s(t) = A sin (2πft + θ)
frequency, phase, period
and wavelength of the Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt)
following sine wave. Y(t) = 5 sin(2π(1000)t + 0)
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt) A = 5, f = 1000 Hz, θ = 0
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt + π/2) T = 1/f = 1/1000 = .001 sec
Y(t) = 5 sin[π(2000t + 1/2)] = 1 msec
km
Y(t) = 10 sin[π(4000t + 1)] (300000 )
c sec km
l= = =300
Y(t) = sin[π(10000000t + 1)] f
(1000
cycle
)
cycle
sec
 Answers to Sin function
● Determine the amplitude, s(t) = A sin (2πft + θ)
frequency, phase, period
and wavelength of the Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt)
following sine wave. Y(t) = 5 sin(2π(1000)t + 0)
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt) A = 5, f = 1000 Hz, θ = 0
Y(t) = 5 sin(2000πt + π/2) T = 1/f = 1/1000 = .001 sec
Y(t) = 5 sin[π(2000t + 1/2)] = 1 msec
km
Y(t) = 10 sin[π(4000t + 1)] (300000 )
c sec km
l= = =300
Y(t) = sin[π(10000000t + 1)] f
(1000
cycle
)
cycle
sec