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Lecture 2 Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Lecture 2 Atoms, Molecules and Ions
ATOMIC MODEL
· All forms of matter are made up of PARTICLES
· These PARTICLES may be:
Ø atoms (Carbon atoms in diamond)
Ø molecules (H2O molecules in water)
Ø ions (Na + and Cl- ions in sodium chloride)
· The particulate nature of matter as we know it today evolved over a very long period of time.
· Democritus (about 470370 B.C.) thought that all forms of matter were finitely divisible
into very small particles which cannot be divided further. He called these particles atoms.(
atomos = indivisible in Greek)
· Democritus idea was a speculative hypothesis which was not based on scientific
observations.
· Aristotle (384322 B.C.) opposed the theory of Democritus, and the existence of atoms
was no longer considered until the 17 th century
II. DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
· John Dalton revived the concept of atoms and proposed an atomic theory based on
indirect experimental evidence (18031810)
· Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
Ø explains the difference between an element and a compound
Ø explains two scientific laws, and
Ø predicts a new scientific law.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
POSTULATES DEDUCTIONS
· All matter is composed of indivisible
particles called atoms.
· An atom is a very small particle of
matter that retains its identity during
a chemical change.
· An element is a type of matter · Gives a more precise definition
composed of only one kind of atom. for an element.
· All atoms of a particular element are
identical (e.g. they have the same
mass)
· A compound is a type of matter · Give a more precise definition for
composed of atoms of two or more a compound.
elements chemically combined in · Supports the “Law of Definite
fixed proportions. Composition”.
· Predicts the “Law of Multiple
Proportions.
· A chemical reaction consists of the · Supports the “Law of
rearrangement of atoms from one set Conservation of Mass”
of combination to another.
· Atoms are not created or destroyed,
but are rearranged.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
· When two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element in these
compounds for a fixed ratio mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers.
Example: CARBON and OXYGEN form two compounds: CO and CO2
Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide
Equal Masses
of Carbon
Ratio of Oxygen Masses is
1 : 2
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
ATOMIC MODEL
III. THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON
· J. J. Thomson showed that the atoms of any element can be made to emit tiny negatively
charged particles.
· He investigated the conductance of gases through glass tubes called “gas discharge tubes”
Cathode Rays
J.J. Thomson investigated the properties of “CATHODE RAYS” and concluded:
· Cathode Rays are a stream of very small and very light particles emitted the cathode.
· These particles are negatively charged, since they travel from the Cathode () toward the
Anode (+), and they are repelled by the negative plate of an electric field.
· These particles are present in any form of matter (No matter what metal was used as a
Cathode, each emitted Cathode Rays).
· J.J. Thomson called these particles “electrons”
Conclusions:
The atom is not the smallest particle of matter.
Atoms contain smaller particles, such as the electron.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
ATOMIC MODEL
IV. The Discovery of the Proton
· Protons were first observed by E. Goldstein in 1886
· William Thomson (better known as Lord Kelvin, and no relation to J.J. Thomson)
investigated the properties of the proton.
· He concluded:
2. The mass of the proton is about the same as the mass of the H atom (1840 times
larger than the mass of the electron)
Conclusion:
The atoms contained both negatively and positively charged particles.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
ATOMIC MODEL
V. The Discovery of the Nucleus
· Rutherford investigated the penetrating power of a particular type of radioactive rays
(Alpha rays) through thin metallic foils
· Alpha (a) rays consist of a stream of particles (a particles) which:
Ø are positively charged
Ø are relatively heavy (four times as heavy as the H atom)
OBSERVATIONS INTERPRETATIOINS
· Most of the aparticles pass through · The gold atom is mostly occupied
the gold foil. by lightweight electrons that
cannot deflect the apartilces.
· A very small part of the atom is
· A few aparticles (1 in 8000) were dense (contains most of its mass)
scattered at large angles and and is positively charged.
sometimes deflected back.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
ATOMIC MODEL
Conclusion:
· The nuclear model of the atom contains a nucleus and electrons surrounding them.
NUCLEUS ELECTRONS
· Located at the center of the atom · Are located outside the nucleus
· Contains all the protons
· Is positively charged · Are negatively charged
· Contains most of the mass of the · Have negligible mass
atom · Occupy most of the volume of
· Is very small the atom
· Is very dense
VI. The Discovery of the Neutron
· James Chadwick discovered in 1932 that the atom contains a third subatomic particle called
neutron.
· The neutron:
Ø is located in the nucleus
Ø is electrically neutral
Ø has about the same mass as the proton
Properties of Subatomic Particles
· The nucleus has a positive charge (contains protons and neutrons)
· The positive charge of the nucleus is referred to as NUCLEAR CHARGE and is abbreviated Z.
· The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of the protons and of the neutrons
A = Mass Number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
· Any nucleus is characterized by:
Z = Nuclear Charge = number of protons
A = Mass Number = number of protons + number of neutrons
· A NUCLIDE, is an atom, characterized by:
Ø a definite nuclear charge, Z (atomic number)
Ø a definite Mass Number, A
· Symbolic Representation of a Nuclide:
A
Z Symbol
12
For example: A Carbon (C) nuclide: 6 C (Z = 6 A = 12)
Examples:
Determine the subatomic particles for the nuclides indicated below:
208
1. 82 Pb p + = n 0 = e – =
137
2. 56 Ba p + = n 0 = e – =
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
ISOTOPES
· Atoms with the same number of protons (same Atomic Number, Z) but different number of
neutrons (different Mass Number, A) are called isotopes.
· Most of the elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes.
· Naturally occurring copper is found to contain 2 isotopes:
63 65
Isotope 29 Cu 29 Cu
29 protons 29 protons
Nuclear Particles
34 neutrons 36 neutrons
Relative Abundance 69.09 % 30.91 %
Relative Atomic Mass 62.9298 amu 64.9278 amu
Average Atomic Mass 63.55 amu
Isotopes & Atomic Mass:
· The mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of a chosen standard (carbon12 atom), and
is expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
· The average atomic mass of an element is the weighted average for the mass of all the
naturally occurring isotopes of that element expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
· Therefore the atomic mass of an element is closest to the mass of its most abundant isotope.
· As an example, the two naturally occurring isotopes of copper are listed below:
· The average atomic mass of copper can be calculated as follows:
ïìïAtomic mass ï ü ì ü ï
ïæç Abundance ö÷ æç Mass of ö÷ï ìæAbundance ö æ Mass of öï ü
í ï
ý=ï
íçç ÷xç ÷ï +ïçç ÷÷ x ç ÷÷ï
ïîïof an elementï
ï ï ÷ ç ÷ ïçèof isotope 2÷ø çèisotope 2ø÷ý
ý í ç
þ ïèof isotope 1ø èisotope 1øï
î ï î
þ ï ï
ï
þ
69.09 30.91
Avg atomic mass = (62.9298 amu)( ) + (64.9278 amu)( )
100 100
= 43.48 amu + 20.07 amu
= 63.55 amu
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
Examples:
1. Which of the structures shown below represent isotopes?
207 207
82 X 83 Y 209 209
84 Z 82 R
2. An element has three naturally occurring isotopes with the following masses and abundances.
Determine the average atomic mass and identity of this element.
Isotope Mass Abundance
(amu) (%)
27.977 92.21
28.976 4.70
29.974 3.09
3. Two samples of different compounds of sulfur and oxygen have the following composition. Show
that the compound follows the law of multiple proportions. What is the ratio of oxygen in the two
compounds for a fixed amount of sulfur?
Amount S Amount O
Compound A 1.210 g 1.811 g
Compound B 1.783 g 1.779 g
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Modern Periodic Table: elements arranged in increasing order of their Atomic Numbers
elements are classified as metals, nonmetals and metalloids.
Metalloids
Metals Nonmetals
(Semimetals)
· Mostly solid · Have both metallic and non · Can be solid, liquid or gas
· Have shiny appearance metallic properties · Have dull appearance
· Good conductors of heat · semiconductors · Poor conductors of heat and
and electricity electricity
· Are malleable and ductile · Are brittle (if solid)
· Lose electrons in a chemical · Gain or share electrons in a
reaction chemical reaction
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
· The periodic table is composed of periods (rows) and groups or families (columns).
· Elements in the same family have similar properties, and are commonly referred to by
their traditional names.
· The group of metals in between the main group elements are called the transition
metals.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS
Pure substances may be classified according to the particles they contain into:
I. MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES II. IONIC SUBSTANCES
· are made up of molecules · are made up of ions
MOLECULE: a group of atoms (identical or ION: electrically charged particle obtained from
different) chemically bonded together an atom by adding or removing electrons
· contain nonmetallic atoms only · contain metals and nonmetals
· Molecular Substances are represented by molecular formulas
· Molecular formulas give the exact number and type of atoms in a molecule
· Ionic Substances are represented by ionic formulas
· Ionic formulas give the smallest whole number ratio of the ions.
NaCl or Na + Cl-
(There is a 1:1 ratio between the Sodium Ions and the Chloride Ions)
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
FORMULA OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
· An ionic compound is composed of cations and anions arranged in a crystalline structure.
CATIONS are positive ions formed by removal of ANIONS are negative ions formed by gaining
electrons from metallic atoms. of electrons by nonmetallic atoms.
Examples: Examples:
· In an ionic compound, the cations and the anions combine in the smallest wholenumber ratio
which mutually neutralizes the overall charge.
· All ionic compounds are electrically neutral as a whole.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
NOMENCLATURE OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
· Chemical nomenclature is based on rules set forth by the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemists (IUPAC).
Binary Compunds:
· Binary compounds are those that contain only two elements.
· All binary compounds names end in “ide”.
· Binary ionic compounds contain:
Metallic cation Nonmetallic Anion
Cation (+) is always written first Anion (–) is always written second
Na Na + Cl Cl –
sodium atom sodium ion chlorine atom chloride ion
Examples:
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
IONIC CHARGES
· In order to write correct formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds, the charges of ions (both
cations and anions) must be known.
· Many of these charges are readily obtained by the use of a periodic table.
· For the maingroup elements, the charges depend on the group numbers as outlined
below:
CHARGES OF CATIONS CHARGES OF ANIONS
Charge of cation = Group No. Charge of anion = 8 – Group No.
1A IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
Li + Be 2+ C 4– N 3– O 2– F –
Na + Mg 2+ Al 3+ P 3– S 2– Cl –
K + Ca 2+ Ga 3+ As 3– Se 2– Br–
Rb + Sr 2+ In 3+ Te 2– I –
Cs + Ba 2+ Tl 3+
Exceptions: Sn 2+ , Sn 4+
Exceptions: Tl + Pb 2+ , Pb 4+
· For cations from Transition Metals the most common ionic charge is 2+
· There are many other charges and exceptions. Some of these charges must be memorized.
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
IONIC CHARGES
· Writing formulas of ionic compounds is based on the knowledge of the ionic charges. (Recall
that the charges must balance).
Examples:
Write correct ionic charges and formulas for the following binary ionic compounds shown
below:
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
IONIC NOMENCLATURE
2+ 1 3+ 1
FeCl2 and FeCl3
iron chloride iron chloride
· Note that the usual nomenclature rules do not distinguish between the two different compounds.
· To distinguish between such compounds, two common nomenclature systems are presently in use:
2+ 3+
FeCl2 FeCl3
· “ous” ending for the lower · “ic” ending for the higher
charge charge
Old System
ferrous chloride ferric chloride
Stock System
Roman numeral
indicates the iron (II) chloride iron (III) chloride
cation’s charge
Examples:
1. Name the compounds listed below, using the old system and the stock system:
2. Write formulas for the following compounds:
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Chemistry 101 Chapter 2
NOMENCLATURE OF MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
Binary Molecular Compounds
Contain: 2 nonmetals
Examples: CO CO2
carbon monoxide carbon dioxide
IUPAC RULES:
1. The element written first is the one more to the left and lower down on the Periodic Table.
Element written first
Exception: NH3
Examples:
1. Name the following compounds:
2. Give the formula for the following compounds:
dihydrogen sulfide _________carbon disulfide ________ dinitrogen tetroxide _________
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