JARVEN T.

SAGUIN Educational Leadership and Creative Strategies in Education

MED – Educational Leadership SY 2019 - 2020

Introduction

School leadership has become a priority in education policy agendas internationally. It plays a key role in improving
school outcomes by influencing the motivations and capacities of teachers, as well as the school climate and
environment. Effective school leadership is essential to improve the efficiency and equity of schooling. As countries
are seeking to adapt their education systems to the needs of contemporary society, expectations for schools and
school leaders are changing. Many countries have moved towards decentralization, making schools more
autonomous in their decision making and holding them more accountable for results. At the same time, the
requirement to improve overall student performance while serving more diverse student populations is putting
schools under pressure to use more evidence-based teaching practices. As a result of these trends, the function of
school leadership across the countries is now increasingly defined by a demanding set of roles which include
financial and human resource management and leadership for learning. There are concerns across countries that the
role of principal as conceived for needs of the past is no longer appropriate. In many countries, principals have heavy
workloads; many are reaching retirement and it is getting harder to replace them. Potential candidates often
hesitate to apply, because of overburdened roles, insufficient preparation and training, limited career prospects and
inadequate support and rewards.

Body
School vision must support student learning. A comprehensive school programming process affords a symbiosis
between curriculum, instruction, assessment, and implementation must poly exist within successful school
environments. A delineated purpose identifiable along with a process of how to meet school functional-practical, and
intangible needs pertaining to the improvement of student achievement. A vision serving purpose takes in
consideration of subsequent skills, attitudes, aptitudes and how those dispositions impact school programming. The
associative properties of vertical and horizontal integration articulate prognosis and diagnosis of student learning,
while this synergism can streamline identified issues and closely guide implementation efforts.
Student achievement is a predictor of school proximity and regulation. The foci for raising student achievement are
central, legal proposition for school leadership. Within this paradigm, an accurate evaluation of student skills
premeditates student performances on multiple types of assessments. Effective leaders improve student outcomes on
state-standardized testing. State-standardized testing although on its own does not truly forecast a conclusive pulse of
student achievement. There are limitations and assumptions that state-standardized testing does not weigh in student
growth and critical thinking skills. Principals must conclusively render all factors that produce successful student
outcomes. Defined, student’s achievement as several external and internal contingencies that help children reach their
highest potential, to contribute productively in society. That is not only a premise on raising students’ state
standardized testing but also target others factors such as graduation and attendance rate, parent involvement, and the
acceptance and the rate of longevity, as well as the successful completion of a college degree. School improvement
practices exemplify high utility and fidelity on addressing specific AYP targets goals. Schools internally sample and
specify areas of improvements feasibly apply an identity through data and assessment. The identification of school-
wide improvements sets the stage for implicit, specialized initiatives. For effective school improvement, principals
must closely intertwine and, with relevancy assess curriculum and instruction: theory, strategy, and implementation. In
this process, we see cohesion, heterogeneous application among each agency. This then, provides transparency for the
organization and staff members.

Reflection
Teacher leadership is an important part of building successful schools. Principals must instill the derivative of
leadership within each teacher. The etymological leadership aptitude, a developmental process beginning in the early
stages of a teacher's career. Effective principals identify teachers’ strengths, to hone their skills, as well as bring to the
discussion their weaknesses. Progressively, weaknesses are aspirations and not inadequacies, while many teachers do
not disclose them or are hesitant to express them, because of the negative merits it distinguishes on each teacher. A
finite, closed perception of a teacher’s skill should not be undertaken after the teacher demonstrates or expresses, of a
weakness. Effective principals construct the effectiveness of performance through growth and development. If the
advent assessment of human skills is growth from one presence to a delineated impression, principals evaluate and
perceive teachers merits and value albeit to principles of development and maturation.
JARVEN T. SAGUIN Curriculum Theory, Design and Development in
Education
MED – Educational Leadership SY 2019 - 2020

Introduction

The importance of curriculum is to help and guide educators or trainers to keep with relevant culture and provide the
necessary motivation to the learner. It helps the education system to maintain a common standard for learning and
evaluation The learners are exposed to the same learning surroundings and instructional objectives, hence subjected to
the same assessment based on latter precondition for maintaining standards. Through curriculum implementation the
learner is influenced or changed.

Body

There is disagreement between curriculum theoreticians and practitioners on several sources of curriculum decisions
e.g. early curriculum scholars advocated the adult survey and job analysis as the principal bases for determining
curriculum content, while others contended that man’s accumulated culture should be the recognized source. Most
curriculum theoreticians and practitioners today insists that both society culture and the learner should be considered
as relevant sources of curriculum decisions. A number of theoreticians and practitioners have different views on
curriculum decision making. Some scholars believe that past experiences in curriculum affairs serve as the basis for
curriculum decision making. For them, parents and teachers’ groups’ experiences are vital source of curriculum
decisions.
Other scholars the social-political authority as a source of curriculum decisions because these are the ones involved in
determining the national development policies. Utility has also been considered as a valuable source of curriculum
decisions through judgment of the success of students in learning school objectives. Any change in curriculum content
should therefore be judged with attention directed at whether the students learned more because of the curriculum
change. It is impossible to make curriculum which contains all cultural elements, so curriculum planning is the
selection of content from the total culture of which are of most value. Some issues on curriculum design are not clear
e.g. issues involve whether a curriculum should be a written document or not. Contemporary specialists advocate that
curriculum should be expressed in a written form, while others feel that commitment in writing is itself restrictive to
teachers in planning for teaching There are issues on to whether curriculum should be for a particular level e.g.
primary school, secondary O-level or A-level and whether it should include all subjects so that a total conception of an
educational plan is expressed. Some people argue that curriculum should be only a set of intended learning outcomes,
whether stated behaviorally or not. There is considerable agreement among curriculum scholars regarding the nature
of objectives. Current curriculum theory views the ends sought as desired changes in the behavior of learners,
“behavior” being used in the broad sense to include thinking, feeling, and acting. The aim of the school curriculum is
to develop in learners those reaction patterns that are of greatest significance. However, there are, varying conceptions
of what reaction patterns are of greatest significance, but the nature of educational objectives as changes in learner
behavior is a common concept of curriculum theories. The approach upon curriculum objectives has been given most
attention in curriculum theory. The problem of selecting and designing learning experiences to attain the desired
objectives has been given much less attention in its theoretical aspects, but theories of learning have contributed
greatly to our concepts in this field. For example, the associationism theory of learning, with its emphasis upon
exercise and effect, has played a large part in the planning of many curriculums. This theory places emphasis upon
learning experiences in which the learners practice the behavior desired as the objective and in which the pupils derive
satisfaction from these experiences.
On the other hand, dynamic theories of learning are also guiding many current curriculum developments. These
theories stress learning experiences which involve goals already recognized by the learners and which provide
opportunity for the learners to attain the goals or to move toward their attainment.

Reflection
Curriculum goals are purposes or ends stated in a general term without criteria of achievements. They are statements
of intents which tend to define in abroad and general terms, what the educational system of a given country should
strive to inculcate in its citizens. These goals usually refer to outcomes specified at the individual school or college
level, but usually they reflect the goals of the general school or college system. They may vary according to their
degree of specificity, but in general they will tend to be long-range in nature, and as targets that is differentiated from
what usually is considered to be immediate classroom assessment. Some educators refer to curriculum goals as
general objectives or general aims in the sense that they focus on activities and are generally broader in character than
specific objectives.

JARVEN T. SAGUIN Evaluation Models and Methods

MED – Educational Leadership SY 2019 - 2020

Introduction

According to Wor’hen , Sanders & Fitzpatrick (1987) the objective oriented evaluation is a process of determining
the extent to which program objectives have been /are being achieved without taking into account the unintended
outcome of the program . In education such an approach focuses on the degree to which educational goals and
objectives are being achieved .Theories and methodologies that fall into this category. Basically define evaluation as
the process of specifying and identifying goals ,objectives or standards of performance and comparing the
measurement data collected with the previously identified objectives in order to determine the degree of discrepancy
or congruence which exist (gardener 1977).
This kind of evaluation begins with the clarifications of the measurable objectives and the gathering data for
validating the Extent to which these kinds of objectives are met. Various evaluation approaches use goal or objectives
are the central focus in the evaluation process however, the key figure credited as the founder of the goal based
evaluation approach is Ralph w. Tyler whose contribution had been presented below. Other scholars built on the
foundation that was laid by Tyler.

Body

Prior to the 1970s, educational program evaluators tended to concentrate on determining the extent to which a
program met its stated objectives, a model first advocated by Tyler (1942) in a longitudinal study of schools in the
1930s. That model seemed sensible enough and served a generation or two of educators well, but during the 1960s
and 1970s researchers began developing new evaluation models that went far beyond Tyler’s original conception of
evaluation. Provus also suggested an optional fifth stage that called for cost-benefit analysis and comparison of
results with similar cost analysis of comparable programs .in recent times, with the funds for human services
becoming scarcer, cost benefit analysis have become an essential part of almost all program evaluations. The
discrepancy evaluation model was designed to facilitate development of programs in a large public-school system,
and later it was applied to state wind evaluations by a federal bureau. It attempts to ensure effective program
development by preventing the activity from proceeding to the next stage until all identified discrepancies have
been removed. Whenever discrepancy is found, provus suggested a co-operative problem-solving process for
program staff and evaluators. The process involving asking: Why is there a discrepancy? What corrective actions are
possible? Which corrective action is best? This process usually requires that additional information be gathered and
criteria developed to allow rational, justifiable decisions about corrective actions or terminations. this particular
problem-solving activity was a new addition to the traditional objectives-oriented evaluation approach.
The evaluation approaches outlined here have been referred to not only as objectives-oriented evaluation
approaches, the term we refer, but also as “objectives referenced” evaluation. “Objectives performance
congruence” approaches, “performance congruence” models and other similar terms. In each assessment of the
extent to which objectives have been attained is the central feature.

Reflection

The challenge facing evaluators of technology-based programs is to design studies that can provide the feedback
needed to enhance their design or to provide evidence on their effectiveness. Evaluators need to look broadly across
the field of program evaluation theory to help discern the critical elements required for a successful evaluation
undertaking. These include attention to aspects such as the audience of the report and their information needs,
deciding to what extent the study will be influenced by stated objectives, whether a comparative design will be used,
and if quantitative, qualitative, or a combination of methods will be brought into play. The study should also be guided
by the criteria and approaches developed for or applicable to the evaluation of e-learning. When these steps are taken,
evaluators will be well on their way to devising studies that will be able to answer some of the pressing issues facing
teaching and learning with technology.

JARVEN T. SAGUIN Human Development and Learning Behavior Development

MED – Educational Leadership SY 2019 - 2020

Introduction

If you look around, you will notice that from birth onwards changes of various kinds are taking place in an
individual’s life, which continue even during old age. Over a span of time, a human grows and develops, learns to
communicate, walk, count, and read and write. S/he also learns to distinguish between right and wrong. S/he makes
friends, goes through puberty, gets married, rears children, and grows old. Even though we differ from each other, we
share many commonalities. Most of us learn to walk by the first year and talk by the second year. This chapter will
familiarize you with the changes observed in people during the course of their lifespan in different domains. You will
learn about key developmental processes and changes taking place in major periods during the life-span: prenatal,
infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. This would be a journey of personal understanding and self-
discovery which should help in your future development. The study of human development would also help you to
deal with others better.

Body
Contemporary research on learning and human development is a multi-disciplinary activity that draws on psychology,
anthropology, sociology, education and increasingly on cognitive science. As proposed by Bransford, Brown and
Cocking (1999) research at the intersection of these disciplines has changed our conception of learning and human
development specifically in five related areas: the structure of knowledge and memory; problem solving and
reasoning; the early foundations of learning; regulatory processes that govern learning; and the cultural and
community context of learning and development. These themes are particularly pertinent to the articles included in
this section of the Handbook which include consideration of problem solving, metacognition and approaches to
learning as well the environmental and community contexts within which learning occurs. Learning outcomes include
consideration of cognitive variables such as depth of learning and achievement in specific curriculum domains, as well
as social emotional and attitudinal variables such as levels of self-esteem and endorsement of different values.
Research conducted in the Asia-Pacific region in the past few decades has contributed significantly to the extension of
knowledge about learning and human development, principally through the affordances provided by the contrast
between the cultural traditions and values of Asia with those of the West. In the introduction to this section of the
Handbook, we provide specific examples of research from the Asia-Pacific region that have extended and at times
transformed an understanding of learning and developmental processes. The key conclusion is that learning and
development must be researched as processes embedded within interacting cultural, institutional and social systems.
This is in line with Peterson (see Lifespan Human Development) who proposes that developmental patterns and plans
are shaped by attitudinal factors within cultures, so it is impossible to understand fully the development of any person
in isolation. Rather, developmental processes need to be investigated within the cultural milieu of interpersonal and
institutional relationships. Below, these issues are explored initially with regard to moral development and values
education, and then with regard teaching and learning processes. We conclude the introduction by drawing attention to
two lessons derived from the articles that follow. First, researchers need to move beyond their national and cultural
boundaries to understand fully, learning and developmental processes. Second, since effectiveness is always
determined in relation to specific sets of values that change over time and culture, educational researchers need to
adopt the stance of critical participants in analyzing and interpreting the processes and outcomes of education.

Reflection
Scientists have had a long-standing fascination with the complexities of the process of human development. Parents
have always been captivated by the rapid growth and development that characterize the earliest years of their
children's lives. Professional service providers continue to search for new knowledge to inform their work.
Consequently, one of the distinctive features of the science of early childhood development is the extent to which it
evolves under the anxious and eager eyes of millions of families, policy makers, and service providers who seek
authoritative guidance as they address the challenges of promoting the health and well-being of young children.