C4: Conservation of Biodiversity

Entire communities need to be conserved in order to preserve biodiversity

Indicator Species

An indicator species is an organism used to assess a specific environmental condition

Indicators species are sensitive to specific environmental conditions and consequently have a limited
range of tolerance. Their population growth or reduction indicates changes in the environment, making
them a useful means of monitoring change.

Indicator species may be sensitive to a number of different environmental conditions:

- Lichen, along with mosses, are susceptible to air-borne pollutants dissolved in water (e.g. sulfur

dioxide)
- Tubifex worms are sensitive to concentrations of heavy metals
- Mayfly larva and certain aquatic invertebrates are sensitive to dissolved oxygen levels in water
Relative numbers of an indicator species can be used to calculate the value of a biotic index

Biotic indices compare the

relative frequency of indicator
species and provide an overall
assessment of environmental
health. Calculating a biotic
index involves multiplying the
population size of each indicator species by its pollution tolerance rating:

The following conclusions can be drawn from a biotic index:

- A high biotic index indicates the presence of many pollution-sensitive organisms, denoting an
unpolluted environment
- A low biotic index indicates a polluted environment, due to a relative abundance of pollution-tolerant
organisms
- A change in the biotic index over time marks a change in the environmental conditions within a given
ecosystem

Pollution Tolerance
and Environmental
Pollution Levels

Practice Question:
Calculate the biotic
index to compare
levels of pollution at
two locations along a
stream.
Site 1: 8 stonefly
nymph, 1 freshwater
shrimp and 1 tubifex
worm was collected.
Site 2: 4 stonefly
nymph, 10 freshwater
shrimp and 6 tubifex
worms were collected.
Biodiversity

Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity

Biodiversity describes the variety and variability of all living organisms within a given ecological area.
Biodiversity can be used to refer to the number of species, their genetic diversity or habitat variety
(ecological variations).

There are two main components that contribute to biodiversity – species richness and species evenness
- Species richness describes the number of different species present in an area (more species = greater
richness)
- Species evenness describes the relative abundance of the different species in an area (similar
abundance =
more
evenness)

Biodiversity
(Richness versus
Evenness)

Analysis of the biodiversity of two local communities using Simpson’s reciprocal index of diversity

The Simpson’s reciprocal index can be used to measure the relative biodiversity of a given community
 - It takes into
account both the
number of
species present
(richness) and the
number of
individuals per
species (evenness)
- A higher index value is indicative of a greater degree of biodiversity within the community

Simpson’s reciprocal index can be used to compare communities to identify intrinsic qualities:

- A high index value suggests a stable site with many different niches and low competition (high
richness and evenness)
- A low index value suggests a site with few potential niches where only a few species dominate (low
richness and evenness)
- The index value may change in response to an ecological disturbance (such as human intervention or
natural disasters)

Practice Problem:
Use Simpson's reciprocal index to compare the biodiversity at two specific locations:
Site 1: Species A = 6 ; Species B = 1 ; Species C = 1
Site 2: Species A = 4 ; Species D = 4
 Biogeographic Factors

Biogeographic factors affect species

diversity

Biodiversity within a given ecosystem

will be affected by a number of
biogeographic factors:

- Larger habitats tend to promote

biodiversity better than smaller
habitats (more available niches =
less competition)
- Ecology at the edges of ecosystems is different from central areas (e.g. more sunlight, more wind,
etc.)
- This is known as the edge effect, whereby species distribution is influenced by the divergent
environmental conditions
- Edges tend to have greater biodiversity, as different habitats with different abiotic factors exist in
close physical proximity
- However edges tend to have more competition than central regions, which may restrict survival
prospects of certain species
- Habitat corridors between parts of a fragmented habitat can connect disparate regions to improve
genetic diversity

These principles are routinely applied when setting aside land as a nature reserve to improve the
conservation of
biodiversity.

General
Biogeographic
Principles of Nature
Reserves

Analysis of the impact of biogeographic factors on diversity limited to island size and edge effect
Island Size
The biodiversity of an island is typically proportionate to island size (i.e. larger islands have greater
biodiversity)

- Larger islands support a greater range of habitats (and hence more available niches for species to
occupy)
- Larger islands can sustain higher population numbers for each species (increases species evenness)
- Larger islands have greater productivity at each trophic level, leading to longer and more stable food
chains

Relationship between Island Size

and Biodiversity

Conservation

In situ conservation may require active management of nature reserves or national parks

Conservation involves the protection and maintenance of natural resources, such as trees, water and
wildlife. Conservation can be either in situ (on site) or ex situ (off site). In situ conservation is the
preservation of plant and animal species within their natural habitat. This typically involves the
designation of protected areas of land as either nature reserves or national parks.

These areas may require active management to ensure that an appropriate and sustainable ecological
balance is maintained:

- Ecological monitoring of species may be required to ensure viable population levels are maintained
- Interventions may be required to prevent habitat degradation or competition from invasive species
- Legislation may be necessary to ensure adequate funding for policing and education

In situ conservation offers several advantages when protecting endangered species from extinction:
- It allows species to live in the environment to which they are adapted and to occupy their natural
position in the food chain
- It maintains the animal's normal behaviour (offspring usually aquire skills from parents and peers
around them)
- Retaining the natural habitat prevents its eventual loss and ensures it remains available for other
endangered species
- Such areas provide a place to return animals from breeding programs as they provide realistic
conditions for reintegration
- Reserves in different areas can share information and provide a place for scientific study and
developing public
awareness

In situ Conservation
via Nature Reserves

Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside their natural habitats

Ex situ conservation involves the preservation of plant and animal species outside their natural habitats.
Ex situ conservation may typically be required for critically endangered species when urgent
intervention is required.

There are several advantages associated with ex situ conservation:

- It allows for greater control of essential conditions (e.g. climate control, dietary intake, veterinary
care, etc.)
- It can improve the chances of successful breeding by utilising artificial methods (e.g. embryo transfer,
IVF, etc.)

Ex situ conservation is also associated with several disadvantages:

- Such conservation methods do not prevent the potential destruction of their natural habitats
- Species raised in captivity are less likely to be successfully reintroduced into the wild (loss of
autonomous survival)
- Ex situ conservation increases inbreeding by restricting the gene pool and restricts the evolution of
the species

There are a number of ex situ conservation measures employed around the world, including:

- Captive breeding: animals are raised and bred in containment (e.g. zoos) to ensure survival prospects
- Botanical gardens: areas devoted to the collection, cultivation and display of a wide variety of plant
species
- Seed banks:
secure sites
that store and
catalogue
seeds, in order
to preserve
plant genetic
diversity

Ex situ
Conservation
Measures

Case study of the captive breeding and reintroduction of an endangered animal species

Case Study 1: Indian Rhinoceros

- The Indian rhinoceros is a endangered species with only approximately 3,500 rhinoceros living in the
wild
- This number was as low as 2,000 in the early 1990s, but has increased due to successful captive
breeding programs
- In addition to habitat loss, the Indian rhinoceros is threatened by poachers (their horn is considered
potent in some cultures)
- It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN red list and the majority of the species is situated in Indian
protected areas (reserves)

Case Study 2: Mountain Chicken Frog

- The mountain chicken frog is a species of frog native to the Carribean islands of Dominica and
Montserrat
- The population of this frog has declined 81% in the last ten years due to the fungal disease
chytridiomycosis
- The mountain chicken frog is also threatened by human consumption (it is a local delicacy said to
taste like chicken)
- It is now considered to be critically endangered with fewer than 8,000 individuals estimated to be
existing in the wild
- The frog has been artificially bred in laboratories in England prior to being reintroduced into the wild

Endangered Species

An endangered species is one that has been categorised by the IUCN as likely to become extinct. The
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) currently lists over 3,000 species as endangered.

The determination of a species conservation status (likelihood of becoming extinct) is based on

numerous factors. These include the rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution and
degree of population fragmentation. The IUCN has produced a red list, which classifies species into nine
groups:

- Extinct (EX) – no surviving individuals (e.g. tasmanian tiger)

- Extinct in Wild (EW) – captive individuals survive, but there is no wild population (e.g. Barbary lion)
- Critically Endangered (CR) – faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the near future (e.g. red wolf)
- Endangered (EN) – faces a high risk of extinction in the near future (e.g. snow leopard)
- Vulnerable (VU) – faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term (e.g. Indian rhinoceros)
- Near Threatened (NT) – may be considered threatened in the near future (e.g. tiger shark)
- Least Concern (LC) – no immediate threat to species survival (e.g. giraffe)
- All other organisms may be listed as Data Deficient (DD) or Not Evaluated (NE)

Extinction

Extinction describes the complete cessation of a species or higher taxon level, reducing
biodiversity. Extinctions can occur gradually as one population of organisms evolves into something else
(phyletic extinction). Alternatively, a species may not leave any identifiable descendents and simply
cease to exist (abrupt extinction). It can be very difficult to determine the moment of extinction, and so
most categorisations are usually done retrospectively. Occasionally species thought to be extinct can be
rediscovered after a period of time (Lazarus taxa). Over 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth are
considered to be extinct (estimated to amount to over 5 billion species). Occasionally, natural
catastrophes may cause mass extinction events (large scale loss of species in relatively short period).
Case Study: Tasmanian Tiger

- The Tasmanian tiger (Thylacinus cynocephalus) became extinct after the arrival of European settlers
to Australia
- The Tasmanian tigers would feed on introduced sheep and were subsequently hunted and poached
by man
- The loss of habitat to human development and lack of successful breeding programs led to population
numbers dwindling
- The last Tasmanian tiger died in captivity in 1936 and they were declared extinct by international
standards in 1986
- Aboriginal rock paintings suggest the Tasmanian tiger once lived on the mainland, but died out from
predation / competition