Biological Wastes 19 (I 987) 35-62

Effect of the Application of Town Refuse Compost on the

Soil-Plant System: A Review

F. Gallardo-Lara" & R. Nogales ~

Departamento de Quimica Agricola, Estaci6n Experimental del Zaidin (C.S.I.C.),
Granada, Spain
h Departamento de Edafologia, Faqultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, Spain

(Received 25 March 1986; accepted 20 June 1986)

A BSTRA CT

This paper reviews the current O' available #zformation concerning the use
of town refuse compost as a potential fertilizer. Many studies have generally
shown that the application of this material has protnoted a positive #lfluence
on a wide varie O" of crops. Necertheless, contradictory results of crop yields
hat~e been obtahwd when the fertilizing capaci O, of compost has been
contrasted with those of organic and mineral fertilizers. It has been
demonstrated that the application of compost to soil improves some physical
properties such as porosity, water-holding capacity and bulk density. It also
promotes buffering capacio' of soil and increases the percentage of organic
matter and cation exchange capacity. Occasionally, negative aspects can
emerge from compost incorporation, such as an increase in organic pollutants
and electrical conductivity of soils. In general, compost application to
soil has a positive effect on the microbial population and rhi-osphere
microorganisms and also contributes to the reduction of nematode popula-
tions in plants. However, when big doses of compost are used, an inhibitory
effect on seed germ#ration may appear. The nitrogen availability of the
municipal compost is closely related to the maturity of this material..-t wide
range of results has been obtained front different studies performed to
evaluate the efficiency of compost as a source of phosphorus, sulphur,
calcium and magnesium for plants. The incorporation of municipal compost
constitutes a valuable resource Jor supplying potassium and some micro-
nutrients (i.e. boron and zinc), but also presents potential pollution
hazards associated with some heavy metals.
35
Biological Wastes 0269-7483/87/$03"50 © Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd,
England, 1987. Printed in Great Britain
36 F. Gallardo-Lara. R. Nogales

INTRODUCTION

The transformation of municipal garbage into compost is of double

interest: on the one hand, it helps to avoid the deficiencies of natural
manure, and, on the other, it eliminates this major polluting agent which
is increasing progressively as a consequence of rising populations.
Although a great number of systems for the preparation of compost
exist (Gray et al., 1973) they may be grouped into two types: those which
involve a slow or natural fermentation achieved by heaping up garbage in
piles and those that use an accelerated fermentation carried out in digesters
or closed chambers. The physical-chemical and microbiological principles
of the composting process have also been thoroughly studied and reviewed
(Gotaas, 1956; Breindenbach, 1971; Gray & Biddlestone, 1974; Nogales
et al., 1982).
The product obtained is usually of variable composition depending on
several factors, such as climate, type of food, season of the year, quality
of composting and time of maturation. Table 1 shows data related to the
compositions of composts produced in different parts of the world.
In spite of the heterogeneous character of these materials, a considerable
amount of currently available information concerning their use as fertilizer
has been obtained with experiments performed in fields, greenhouses or
elsewhere. These data have been summarized in the present review.

EVALUATION OF THE F E R T I L I Z I N G VALUE OF COMPOST BY

D E T E R M I N I N G CROP YIELD

The application of compost as a fertilizer has brought about many studies

aimed at evaluating the fertilizing capacity of these products. Thus, field
and greenhouse experiments have been considered. As a whole, results
have been generally positive. Hortenstine & Rothwell (1973) showed that
the application of these materials increased sorghum crop yields. This
same effect has been observed with a wide variety of crops: corn (Zobac
& Vana, 1974); potatoes (Trenel, 1961; Fioromanti & Marty, 1966; Purves
& McKenzie, 1974); tobacco (Duggan, 1973); tomatoes (Vlamis & Williams,
1971); beet (Schneider, 1974) and ryegrass (Fioromanti & Marty, 1966;
Muller, 1973; Nogales et al., 1984a). According to Chanyasak & Kubota
(1983), apparently high quality compost, prepared by source separation
of non-compostable materials, is more suitable for fruit orchards than for
vegetable production, even when not-so-well matured composts are applied.
It has been also established that crop response appears to be conditioned
by the innate soil fertility in such a way that positive increases have been
 TABIJ,~ i
C o m p o s i t i o n o f S o m e T o w n R e f u s e C o m p o s t s P r o d u c e d in D i l l ' t r e n t P a r t s o f the W o r M

France Germany Netherhmds Leicester Au.vtria Granada lhmg Kong Guadalotlpe Otllario Tt'ntw.~ee
(1) (2) (3) UK (5) Npain (7) (,~') ('anada USA
(4) (0) (9) ( lOJ

Moisture (%) 47.3 35.0 38-8 25 35 41-0 -

-- 7.4 7-8.5 7-I 8.0 8.9
pH 7'6 --
% dry matter
O.M. . - 24-0 22-0 36.8 20 35 58-4 48.9 13.6 64.1)
N 0.96 0.45 1-00 1.06 0-5-I-5 1.40 1.67 0.52 I).57 I).93
p 0.39 0.17 0-18 0.2 0-4 0-38 0.55 0.20 0.08 0.26
- - 0-26 -- 0-20' --
S 0-38 -- --
K 0.20 0.27 0.50 0-25-0.85 0-65 0-40 0.20 /)-31 0.30
Ca 4-41 2.32 1.79 2 12 8-72 2-25 1.10 0.85 1.55
Mg 0.22 0.27 0 18 -- 0.5 3-0 0.80 0.63 0-20 0.21 1.61
Na 030 -- 0.65 0.82 0-70 0- 18 0-42

t~gg ~ dry matter

Fo 17 I I 0 --
-- l 000 6 0 0 0 5900 27 648 I I 800
Mn 854 330 800 500 I 200 263 702 984 250 < 500
Cu 357 170 50 610 100 215 511 242 28 < 500
Zn 1 525 650 500 1 350 300 I 500 495 I 460 I 024 400 < 50
B 10 32 20 174 2 20 66-5 -- 10.2 <5
M O " - -
25 4-2
As --- 5 52 -- --

Cd 8.5 0.7 3 7.5 I-6 -- 14 1.7 2.0

- 48 - 31
Co
Cr 2-9 - 25 170 50-300
Hg 34 1 0-5 21 1 4
Ni 196 15 140 30- 200 26.9 < I lit)
Pb 599 150 100 I 630 200 900 287 246 200

l,?,cI'clcncc.,,: I .lu~>tc'
. . . . . (",-)8,)p,
'~ ~' 2 T:..,;, TM
"-<.l .... (,~),vv~.,s . . ."~
. t ) .....
. . . ,I. . . . . . . .k (,l~L,l,p,
~'> ~" ,~ (h'ay & P, idd!'cr;!'.;n 'e (!9~(.I); 5 ! .....
,,l, (!084): (, N,~!,:lh:,; ~,t ~d ( 1 9 8 4 a ) : 7
('1111 <~ Wolltt (198,1); ,<'4 ('111i1oll c l ft/, (1982); t) Kill[~' el al. ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; lO ('lt_'lUOllY; (1<)75).
38 F. Gallardo-Lara, R. Nogales

obtained with poor soils but not with fertile ones (Stephen & Lin, 1970).
Occasionally, the application of domestic waste compost does not
always induce the same response, as shown by Van Assche & Uyttebroeck
(1982), who obtained a decrease in lettuce production in constrast to a
yield increase for celery.
Other studies have been accomplished in order to compare the fertilizing
capacity of these materials with that of organic fertilizers. De Almeida
Lima et al. (1984) studied the effect of different sources of organic matter
on garlic and stated that the best treatments on a two-year basis were
processed garbage and cattle manure. Generally, crop yields obtained in
the case of fertilization with municipal compost are higher than those
obtained with sewage sludge (Mortvedt & Giordano, 1975; King et al.,
1977). However, Wong et al. (1983) performed a greenhouse assay on
two vegetable species, Brassica parachinensis and Brassica juncea: lower
productivity was obtained with refuse compost treatments than with
activated sludge and a commercial fertilizer. Other findings demonstrated
that natural manure (Seiberth, 1960; Garner, 1962, 1966a.b; Hortenstine
& Rothwell, 1968; Seigel & Rasp, 1972) or ammonium nitrohumate (Wang,
1977) appear to be more efficient fertilizers in improving crop yields than
municipal compost.
On the other hand, Sanderson et al. (1969, 1971) indicated that composts
were less effective than peat when used as substrates for ornamental plants.
Finally, application of 50% mixtures of municipal compost and horse
manure gave better yields of Agaricus sp. crops than application of manure
only (Shisler & Grable, 1976).
Some investigations have demonstrated that composts are less efficient
than N P K commercial chemical fertilizers for obtaining immediate crops
(Terman et al., 1973; Mays et al., 1973; Diez & Weigelt, 1980; Ryan et al.,
1985). On the other hand, high doses of compost have been claimed to be
more efficient than normal mineral fertilizers (Hortenstine & Rothwell,
1973). It has also been shown that composts are more effective than
chemical compounds which are eminently providers of micronutrients,
such as ZnSO 4 (Giordano et al., 1975).
Occasionally, the effect of the combined application of composts together
with mineral fertilizers has been studied in order to see if this improved
the value of these materials. The results obtained indicated that these
mixtures are more efficient than the separate applications of compost or
mineral fertilizers. Thus, Yousef & Ai-Zubar (1974) using (NH4)2SO.~;
McCormick & Galiano (1964) and Gupta et al. (1975) using superphos-
phates and Casini & Chiavacci (1968) incorporating different sulphates,
obtained results of this type. Similar observations were reported by Galiano
& Rodriguez (1963), Hortenstine & Rothwell (1972) and Kropisz &
 Application of town refuse compost opt the soil-plant system 39

Wojciechwski (1978al-after adding NPK, and by Nogales et al. {1984a)

using NPKS.

EFFECT ON SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Municipal garbage compost with a high organic matter content should

improve soil physical properties, although limited references exist on this
point.
Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that the apparent soil density
decreases significantly after incorporation of these materials (Tietjen &
Hart, 1969; Biswas & Khosla, 1971; Mays et al., 1973; Duggan & Wiles,
1976), which may be due to the low density of these products and their
tendency to increase soil pore size.
Schrader (1967) indicated that high doses of compost (400 metric tonnes
per hectare) applied to soils increases total pore volume. Similar effects
were observed by Banse et al. (1972); Walter (1977), Ortega et al. (1981)
and Nogales et al. (1984¢). It has been found that sewage sludge and
refuse compost increases total porosity and the pore size distribution, with
an improvement comparable to that from manure (Pagliai et al., 1981;
1983). Likewise, Brudel & Vorwerk (1977) observed that the addition of
compost to the top layer of a soil favours the penetration of water and
the air permeability. Facek (1974) obtained similar results with manure
but indicated that only pores below 0.2 microns in diameter increased in
size.
Soil temperature remains unaffected by the presence of composts
(Sanderson et al., 1971). However, it has been reported that sewage sludge
added to sand and gravel spoil areas reduces extreme soil temperatures
(Hornick, 1980; 1982).
The addition of this type of product increases soil water holding capacity,
an effect which may be attributed to the colloidal nature of composts
(Biswas & Khosla, 1971; Bell, 1973; Bengtson & Cornette, 1973; Hortenstine
& Rothwell, 1973; Mays et al., 1973; Wang, 1977).
Similarly, the incorporation of these materials plays an important role
in the formation and stabilization of soil aggregates (Fioromanti &Marty,
1966; Allison, 1968; Biswas & Khosla, 1971; Mallouhi, 1978: Webber,
1978).
All things considered it has been established that the application of
compost improves the physical properties of the soil, especially in the case
of heavy soils, as it appears to promote a better soil structure and reduces
the process of erosion (Banse, 1961; Duggan & Scanlon, 1974; Tietjen,
1976). Volk (1976) says that shredded or composted municipal waste must
40 F. Gallardo-Lara, R. Nogales

be well mixed with the surface soil to accomplish erosion control. If the
waste is not incorporated, blowing debris may present serious problems,
although well mixed shredded wastes, containing 50% moisture, blow
surprisingly little.

EFFECT ON SOIL pH

Municipal compost has a neutral or slightly alkaline pH and a marked

buffering capacity, and these properties appear to be extremely useful in
the case of application on acid soils where compost acts as a pH corrector,
thus avoiding the risk of toxicity by aluminium or manganese which takes
place when pH values are below 5 (Thompson & Troeh, 1978). Thus,
Scanlon et al. (1973) indicate that the addition of these materials increases
soil pH values from 2"8 to 5'8. This effect has been demonstrated in less
acid soils (Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1972; Bengtson & Cornette, 1973;
Duggan & Wiles, 1976), and even in the case of mixtures of acid peat and
compost, where pH values are raised to an extent proportional to the
amount of compost incorporated (Alt & Kromhout, 1977). On the other
hand, no changes have been observed in neutral or calcareous soil after
compost application (Gupta et al., 1975; King et al., 1977). Finally,
according to Rowaan (1949) the efficiency of these materials in correcting
pH values is slightly lower than that of lime while the improvement of crop
yields obtained with compost is considerably better.

EFFECT ON SOLUBLE SALTS IN SOILS"

Incorporation of composts into soil increases the salt content as well as

soil electrical conductivity, especially if high doses of compost are applied,
because of the high salinity of composts (Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1972,
1973; Juste, 1980; Martin et al., 1980). Thus, Guidi et al. (1982) showed
that when sewage sludges and composts were applied on a sandy loam
soil the electrical conductivity increased in all plots, but, in every case,
winter rainfall lowered the content of soluble salts to a level close to that
of the control. Recently, Chanyasak et al. (1982) assumed that the relatively
high electrical conductivity after garbage-compost treatment might be one
of the main causes of the inhibitory effect on turnip growth caused by
high loading of composts. Nevertheless, this disadvantage appears to be
less acute than in the case of sewage sludges which easily promote
salinization states equal to, or higher than, 4mMhos/cm (Epstein et al.,
1976) representing a serious risk to the growth of several types of crops
(Allison, 1973).
 Application off town refuse compost on the soil-planf system 41

Van Assche & Uyttebroeck (1980, 1982) have pointed out that the
application of a calculated quantity of ion exchangers can modify the
phytotoxic effects of heavy metals as well as the salts in domestic waste
compost. The favourable effects caused by the application of cation
exchangers to a contaminated soil and/or substrate are reflected by the
positive influence on plant growth and the restoration of soil fertility,
microbial activity and production capacity.

E F F E C T ON C A T I O N E X C H A N G E C A P A C I T Y OF SOIL

The incorporation of compost to soil, especially at high doses, increases

the cation-exchange capacity. Hortenstine & Rothwell (1968) performed
a pot experiment using sandy soil with an exchange capacity of 3.67 meq
per 100g and found that the addition of high quantities of compost (128
or 512 metric tonnes per hectare) increased this capacity to 4.81 or 7.14
meq per 100g, while small doses (8 or 32 metric tonnes per hectare) had
no significant effects. Similar results in field experiments were obtained by
Bengtson & Cornette (1973) and Shelhaas (1978).

E F F E C T ON SOIL O R G A N I C M A T T E R A N D P O L L U T A N T S

Moderate attention has been paid to the study of the content and
composition of humus in municipal-refuse compost (Sugahara & Inoko,
1981; Riffaldi et al., 1983; Nogales et al., 1984d).
Some information exists about the capacity of these materials to
enrich soils containing organic matter. Seiberth (1960) observed in field
experiments that compost incorporation promotes an increase in the humic
acid content, while Kick (1960) indicated that the addition of compost
improves organic matter levels in relatively poor acid soil. This effect has
been verified in different circumstances: thus, Keonoh (1978) demonstrated
that the continuous application of compost increases organic matter, and
in the case of soils with a low organic matter content equilibrium is
achieved with five-year treatments. Hoffmann (1983) conducted long-term
field experiments on acid and alkaline soils, and the results in acid soils
showed that, by raising municipal compost doses, soil organic matter
content was increased from 2% to 6"9%. Aerobic sludge compost plus the
organic fraction of urban refuse has also been reported to bring about an
increase in organic carbon in the soil (Guidi et al., 1983). Dalmat et al.
(1982) showed that co-composted municipal refuse and pit latrine waste
provided a stabilized form of organic matter and a source of plant nutrients
42 F. Gallardo-Lara, R. Nogales

that could significantly increase the tilth, fertility and productivity of

Haitian soils.
In floriculture experiments the amount of humus was increased in pots
treated with compost (Ishigami, 1979). This beneficial action has been used
in an attempt to recover a nutrient-poor soil obtained from an exploited
phosphate mine. Significant increases were observed in these soils after
compost application (Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1972). Duggan & Wiles
(1976) found, after performing a comparative study, that the addition of
compost increased the amount of organic matter of clayed soil while a
decrease was observed when only nitrogen was added.
The incorporation of organic matter to soil by the use of composts
nevertheless presents negative aspects as these materials enrich soil in
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, although the plant content of these
detrimental compounds remains unaffected (Ellwardt, 1977). At a low
loading of immature garbage-compost inhibitory effects on the growth of
turnips, especially in the early stages of development, were found to be
primarily due to the presence of short-chain fatty acids, especially propionic
acid and n-butyric acid (Chanyasak et al., 1983a,b). Gonzalez-Vila et al.
(1982) found that several Spanish refuse composts contained free organic
chemicals: alkanes, fatty acids and phthalate esters. These authors indi-
cated, however, that these chemicals cannot be considered toxic if compost
application is made at a normal rate of 30 metric tonnes per hectare.
When raw municipal compost is dumped, Hoecks (1977) reported that
water-soluble components are leached from the refuse by percolating rain
water. Microbial reactions in the refuse may cause the formation of organic
acids in the leachate, especially isovaleric acid, valeric acid and isobutyric
acid, which may form complexes with metals. Artiola-Fortuny & Fuller
(1982) said that municipal solid waste landfill leachates retain large
quantities of natural phenols in solution, which remain in relatively large
concentrations for periods of over 1 year and can migrate through soils
relatively rapidly.

EFFECT ON N I T R O G E N , PHOSPHORUS AND S U L P H U R OF SOIL

The availability of municipal-compost nitrogen is closely related to the

maturity of these materials.
The addition to soil of immature compost with a C/N ratio above 30
produces a biological blockage of available nitrogen due to the accelerated
growth of microflora that use nitrogen for their own development (Korea
Alimu et al., 1977; Fuller & Bosma, 1965; Ahrens & Farkasdi, 1969;
Duggan, 1973). On the other hand, composts with C/N ratios lower than
 Application of town refuse compost on the soil-plant system 43

20 cause a smaller increase in the microflora than those with C N ratios

above 30 (Abd-E1-Malek et al., 1968), implying that soil nitrogen is not
biologically immobilized (Snell, 1957). According to Chanyasak & Kubota
(1981) the C..N ratios of sufficiently well composted materials vary widely,
from 5 to 20, depending on the type of raw material, and thus the C/N
ratio cannot be used as an absolute indicator of compost maturity.
However, Chanyasak & Kubota (1981) and Chanyasak et al. (1982)
considered that the C/N organic ratio of water extracts should be an
effective and simple quantitative indicator of compost maturity, because
this C/N organic ratio of water extracts from various well-matured
composts showed almost constant values of 5 to 6 regardless of the type
of raw material.
In spite of all these considerations, the biological activity and C/N ratio
of soil tend towards an equilibrium after a certain time (Dommergues &
Mangenot, 1970) which allows the normal progress of mineralization
processes that regulate the availability of assimilable nitrogen in soil. Thus,
Arhens & Farkasdi (1969) indicate that mature compost brings about
higher concentrations of NO3-N in soil, but lower amounts of total
nitrogen, than poorly developed compost. On the other hand, Rothwell &
Hortenstine (1969) observed that the nitrification of a sandy soil decreases
gradually with increasing doses of compost. These authors also indicate
that, of the different materials assayed (cow manure, sewage sludge, chicken
manure and garbage compost), the latter is the fertilizer that least stimulates
nitrification.
The residual effects of compost fertilization on soil nitrogen have also
received certain attention (Kropisz & Russel, 1978). Results obtained in
these studies, performed during a 3-year period with lettuce and spinach
crops, showed that the amount of NO3-N in soil increased in compost-
treated pots compared to both controls and pots treated with exclusively
mineral fertilizers. The NH,~-N content in soil was enhanced with respect
to controls but appeared to be similar to that observed in the case of
mineral fertilizer application.
Regarding the effects of compost application on the phosphorus content
of soil, studies performed up to the present have given conflicting results.
On one hand, field experiments have shown that these compounds
contribute towards an increase in the available phosphorus in soil (Trenel
t961; Sanderson et al., 1969; Bengtson & Cornette, 1973) and this same
behaviour, promoted by the residual effects of compost, has been verified
in field and greenhouse experiments in plots and pots, respectively, after
harvest (Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1968; Gupta et al., 1975). In disagreement
with this are studies of Duggan & Wiles (1976) who observed that the
application of higher doses of compost to acid soils (pH 5.8) originated a
44 F. Gallardo-Lara, R. Nogales

decrease in the values o f available phosphorus. These results were con-

sidered by the authors as an abnormal phenomenon, probably a result of
improper sampling techniques or analytical error. Nevertheless, similar
effects have been described by other authors working under different
conditions (Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1972: Lahv, 1976: Diez & Weigelt,
1980). However, Kropisz & Wojciechowsky (1978a,b) have shown in
comparative studies that the combined addition of compost and mineral
fertilizer NPK resulted in values of residual available P in soil interior to
those obtained when only mineral fertilizers are added.
Very little information has been found with respect to the repercussions
of compost application on soil sulphur. This is not really surprising, as
sulphur, on the whole, has received much less attention than nitrogen or
phosphorus. Nevertheless, a recent study reviewing the results of research
on municipal waste compost in The Netherlands showed that compost
application increased the sulphur content of the soil (De Haan. 1981).

E F F E C T ON POTASSIUM, C A L C I U M A N D M A G N E S I U M OF SOIL

Several authors have demonstrated the capacity of composts to enrich soil

in potassium, calcium and magnesium. Kick (1960), Hortenstine &
Rothwell (1968, 1969, 1972, 1973), Mays et al. (1973), Bengtson & Cornette
(1973), Duggan & Wiles (1976), Giordano & Mays (1978) and Ortega et
al. (1985) have all indicated that levels of these elements in soil rise with
increasing doses of compost. Similar observations were obtained in
comparative studies on the effects of combining mineral fertilizers with
these materials with respect to those observed when mineral fertilizers
alone were applied (Kropisz & Wojciechowsky, 1978a,b).

E F F E C T ON SOIL T R A C E E L E M E N T S

Richness in essential plant micronutrients is one of the main characteristics

of town refuse compost. It has been stated, for example, that compost
may contain 100 times more boron and copper and 300 times more zinc
than a cultivated soil (Purves & McKenzie, 1973). This peculiarity entails,
once these materials are incorporated, an increase in the above-mentioned
elements in soil. These materials can, therefore, be considered as deficient-
soil correctors.
Especially noteworthy are the studies of Purves (1973, 1977) and Purves
& McKenzie (1973, 1974) who demonstrated a significant increase in the
 Application ~l town re~se compost on the soil-pla~tr .systet~z 45

amount of" Cu, B and Zn extractable from soils after compost application.
Similar results were reported bv Cottrell (1975), Kick (1976) and Mohr
(1979a) with respect to zinc and copper and by Giordano et al. (1975) with
respect to manganese and iron. More recently'. Gallardo-Lara et al. (1984)
conducted greenhouse investigations and, at the postharvest, found that
increasing application of town refuse compost linearly increased the
residual extractable Zn in two soils of different fertility, while similar
effects for Fe were recorded in the low-fertility soil, but not in the other
soil.
The positive aspects mentioned above do not obviate the fact that
compost, at high doses, or added repeatedly, produces undesirable effects:
either due to an increase in the amount of certain essential micronutrients
to toxic levels, as in the case of boron (Purves & McKenzie, 1974); or to
increase in the uptake of other heavy metals, which, according to Giordano
& Mays (1981), leads to a contaminating process that may be summarized
as: provoking toxicities in plants; entering the food chains and affecting
men and animals; contaminating by migration to subterranean waters.
The most important sources of these toxic elements are industrial wastes
and wastewaters. It would, therefore, be advisable to exclude these residues
from the public collection of garbage and avoid their mixture with
innocuous municipal wastes (Tietjen, 1976).
The information currently available shows that maximum contamination
takes place in the top layers of soils (EI-Bassam, 1977: E1-Bassam et a/.,
1979; Mohr, 1979a). Lead and cadmium show maximum increases, while
Co, Ni and Cr are unaffected or exhibit only slight increases (Andersson,
1976; Mohr, 1979a,b; Keller & Brunner, 1983). Finally, no significant
variations were observed in the amount of As or Hg (E1-Bassam et al., 1979).
The potential hazards associated with the heavy-metal contamination of
soils tend to increase with time. This may be caused by' a decrease in soil
pH, especially when the nitrogen and sulphur contents of the waste
products are high and the lime content low (De Haan, 1983). Keeping in
mind the EEC regulations and guidelines for permissible levels of heavy
metals in soils, Guns (1982) reported, with reference to Belgian municipal
composts, that application at a maximum rate of 20 metric tonnes per
hectare could be acceptable up to a maximum of I0 years.
In order to avoid the heavy metal pollution of soil, Furrer & Gupta (1983)
have summarized the following constructive suggestions for improving the
quality of compost: in consumer products heavy metals must be replaced
with suitable substitutes; collection and suitable disposal of consumer
products in which substitutes for metals cannot be used; the recycling of
metal wastes occurring in production processes should be done in such a
manner that the metal content of industrial waste is reduced to a minimum
46 F. Gallardo-Lara, R. Nogales

before it is allowed to join municipal wastes; the introduction of separate

collection systems.

EFFECT ON SOIL BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

The influence of these fertilizers on the biological activity of soil has also
been studied. Rothwell & Hortenstine (1969), working with sandy soils,
found that the fungal population increased progressively with time and
amount of dose. At first, the number of bacteria increased considerably,
but after the sixth day it began to decrease, presenting final values slightly
higher than control soils. The release of CO~ increased with compost
incorporation. This release was more intense than that observed with cow
manure but less than CO 2 released by chicken manure or activated sludge.
These authors also observed that compost depressed nitrification when
compared to other organic fertilizers. This phenomenon would explain the
nitrogen-deficient states observed in plants by certain investigators who
worked with this sort of material. Results from an incubation study
(Loewen-Rudgers et al., 1981) indicated that the rate of refuse decomposi-
tion was not influenced by the amount of supplemental N or by N carrier,
probably because the soil and/or the refuse supplied substantial N. Nitrate
levels in most treatments including refuse were similar to, or lower than,
those in the control (soil alone).
On the other hand, Kropisz & Russel (1978) compared the effects of
compost of varying degrees of maturity on the microflora content of a
soil. Both total and fungal microflora decreased as the degree of maturity
rose, while the number of actinomycetes increased. Likewise, Miyashita et
al. (1982) observed increases in the number of actinomycetes when
composts were applied to different types of soils, and Hoffman (1983)
reported that applied municipal waste compost slightly increased the plate
counts of bacteria and significantly increased the number of particular
genera (e.g. Azotobacter).
Recently, Pera et al. (1983) investigated the effects of composted organic
matter, from solid urban waste mixed with urban sewage sludge, on
rhizosphere microorganisms of sorghum plants in two different soils.
Microbial populations showed variations closely connected either with
increasing doses of organic matter in both types of soils or with the
characteristics of each soil. Increasing doses of compost positively affected
the growth of total fungi and actinomycetes and doses of compost also
stimulated the growth of total aerobic bacteria, which reached a maximum
in both soil types after 45 days. In agreement with the report mentioned
before, Chopra & Magu (1985) showed that the addition of 0.5% city
compost to different urea herbicides resulted in a significant increase in
rhizospheric fungi of wheat and maize cultivated in pots.
 Application oJ" town refitse compost on the soil-plant system 47

Regarding the beneficial role of organic matter in agriculture, Cook

(1976) indicated that the oxygen-ethylene cycle is enhanced in soil when
organic matter or compost is added. Its benefits include protection against
soil-borne diseases, the interruption of the reproductive cycle of plant
pathogens, and the stimulation of a variety of hormonal responses by the
plant when exposed to ethylene gas produced in the soil.
Several authors have demonstrated that the incorporation of different
organic materials to soil contributes to the reduction of nematode popula-
tions in plants (Patrick et al., 1965; Lindford et al., 1938). With regard to
this latter observation, Hunt et al. (1973a), working with sandy soils,
studied the effects on nematode plant-parasite populations. These authors
indicated that certain species (Helicontylenchus spp) were considerably
reduced in number, while others (Criconemoides spp) remained unaffected.
In addition, Hunt et al. (1973a) observed that aqueous extracts of compost
immobilize soil nematodes (Belonolaimus longicaudatus). Furthering these
studies, Tarjan (1977) added composts to citrus fruit plantation (orange
and lemon trees) parasitized by different nematodes and evaluated the
infection-suppressing capacity by measuring crop yields. Yields were
slightly improved although differences were not significant.

EFFECT ON SEED G E R M I N A T I O N

Several authors have verified the effects of composts or of compost extracts

on seed germination (Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1969; Hunt et al., 1973c;
Volk et al., 1973; Nogales et al., 1984a). No negative effects should appear
if the doses used are not excessively high. However, when greater doses
are applied, several plants present different degrees of sensitivity towards
the depression of germination caused by the application of these organic
materials. In recent papers Wong (1985) and Wong & Chu (1985) postulated
that the contents of ammonia, ethylene and heavy metals in compost were
inversely correlated with seed germination and root elongation of different
crops. Because the ammonia and ethylene oxide contents declined with
age of compost (Wong, 1985), it was concluded that compost should be
stored at least 115 days before being applied to crops.

EFFECTS ON PLANT-AVAILABLE NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS

AND S U L P H U R

As previously described, incorporation of compost to soil to yield a C/N

ratio above 30 results in the immobilization of soil nitrogen, which
originates a deficiency of this element in plants. This effect has been
48 F. Gallardo-Lara. R. Nogales

demonstrated in several crops, such as corn (Terman & Mays, 1973),

tobacco (Duggan, 1973), radish, oats, sorghum and turnip (Hortenstine &
Rothwell, 1967, 1973). These deficiencies may be corrected by the addition
of nitrogenated mineral fertilizers (Dickens et al., 1971; Vlamis & Williams,
1971; Terman & Mays, 1973; Duggan & Wiles, 1976; Gilmour et al.,
1977). On the other hand, massive addition of these materials to agricultural
land appears to increase significantly the amount of nitrogen absorbed,
although salinization of soil may also occur (Hortenstine & Rothwell,
1969, 1973).
Kropisz & Wojciechowsky (1978a,b) and Kropisz & Russel (1978)
indicate that the combined application of triple-fertilizer NPK and muni-
cipal garbage compost slightly increases the N content of several types of
crops when compared to the application of mineral fertilizer alone. Several
studies have been conducted to evaluate the efficiency of compost as a
source of nitrogen. Terman & Mays (1973) came to the conclusion that
this efficiency is 16% that of NHgNO 3 and Zvara & Herger (1982)
concluded that one tonne of compost is equivalent to 0.5 kg of nitrogen.
Bengtson & Cornette (1973) and King et al. (1977) indicate that the
addition of composts to soil does not produce significant changes in plant
phosphorus concentration; producing, at most, slight increases in the
amount of this nutrient when high doses of compost were used (Duggan
& Wiles, 1976). Data concerning the amount of phosphorus absorbed
reflect progressive increases promoted by increasing doses of this material
(Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1968, 1969, 1973; Grubben, 1976). Likewise,
Mehta & Daftardar (1984) conducted field experiments to evaluate city
garbage compost using wheat as a test crop. Sieved city garbage compost
was noted to increase the P uptake up to 60 days of crop age, while a poor
P uptake was observed when ground city garbage compost was applied.
On the other hand, Kropisz & Wojciechowsky (1978a,b) demonstrated
that application of compost together with a complex fertilizer NPK does
not introduce significant modifications in the concentration of phosphorus
in plants when compared to the application of the mineral fertilizer
alone. Sanderson (1971) indicated that phosphorus content was higher in
chrysanthemum cultures when turf was used as a substrate instead of
compost. All things considered, the short-term assimilability of phosphorus
contained in municipal garbage compost (according to Terman & Mays,
1973) may reach 70% of that observed with soluble phosphate fertilizers.
Few experiments have been conducted to study the effect of applied
garbage-compost on sulphur uptake by plants. Gallardo-Lara et al. (1979)
observed no significant differences in the sulphur content of ryegrass during
the first two crops when increasing doses of compost were applied.
Later on, however, treatments with compost increased sulphur content
 Application qf town refuse compost on the soil-plant system 49

significantly. In contrast to this, Nogales et al. (1985a) reported that

compost addition resulted in a decrease in ryegrass sulphur content, during
four harvests, as compared with a control. Similarly, a study carried out
to establish tall rescue on a strip-mined spoil area showed that garbage
compost decreased forage concentration of sulphur (Mathias et al., t979).

E F F E C T S ON P L A N T - A V A I L A B L E POTASSIUM, C A L C I U M .
MAGNESIUM AND SODIUM

The incorporation of these derivatives of garbage leads to significant

increases in plant potassium content (Bengtson & Cornette, 1973; Duggan
& Wiles, 1976; King et al., 1977). This tendency also appears when results
are expressed in terms of the amount of potassium extracted by the plant
(Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1973).
Generally, it has been claimed that potassium is present in compost in
an easily-assimilated form. Hortenstine & Rothwell (1969) found that the
addition to soil of 512 metric tonnes of compost per hectare resulted in
the extraction of 50 times more K by millet crops when compared to
control crops. In another study these same authors (Hortenstine 8,:
Rothwell, 1973) deduced that sorghum crops recover 74-98% of the
potassium present in compost. Terman & Mays (1973) estimated that the
efficiency of compost K is 64% that of K2SO, ,. According to Olsen &
Barber (1977) a compost with 1% of potassium should be added at a rate
of 40 to 50 metric tonnes per hectare and per year in order to obtain
optimum crop development.
With regard to the effects of these products on the concentration of
calcium and magnesium in plants, according to Juste (1980), no significant
changes are observed. Hortenstine & Rothwell (1972) found no differences
in the first crop of sorghum, although, in subsequent crops of oats the
content of these elements were increased in plants treated with compost.
Nevertheless, opposite tendencies to those previously mentioned have been
also observed (King et al., 1974) and have been attributed to an antagonistic
action promoted by the considerable absorption of potassium. Data
relative to the total amount of calcium and magnesium extracted by crops
show that increases are produced by the addition of compost, although
these effects are always less pronounced than in the case of potassium
(Hortenstine & Rothwell, 1968, 1972; Nogales et al., 1984b,e).
King et al. (1974) and Terman & Mays (1973) observed that the addition
of compost tends to decrease the concentration of sodium, although not
significantly. Similarly, Sanderson (1971) found that the sodium content
in chrysanthemum plants grown on different, mainly organic, substrates
tends to decrease when turf is replaced by compost.
50 F. Gallardo-Lara, R. Nogales

EFFECTS ON PLANT-AVAILABLE M I C R O N U T R I E N T S

The incorporation of composts to soil produces a considerable enhancement

of the plant absorption of Zn, Cu and B.
Purves (1973), Duggan & Wiles (1976), Mohr (1979a), Wong et al.
(1983) and Nogales et al. (1985b) have described increases in the content
of zinc in different plant species, although toxic effects have been observed.
According to Mays et al. (1973) and Terman et al. (1973), the absence of
toxicity is due to the immobilization of part of the assimilable zinc as a
consequence of the rise in soil pH produced by compost application. Parsa
& Lindsay (1972) indicate that these organic materials may be used as
sources of moderate doses of zinc, although it has been shown that the
efficiency is lower than that obtained with an inorganic source such as
ZnSO4 (Mortvedt & Giordano, 1975).
Increases in copper have been described in plants by Purves & McKenzie
(1973) and Mohr (1979b). The same effect was demonstrated in a field test
(King et al., 1977), although, in this case, increases in the concentration
of copper were detected in corn plants but not in other cereals. Another
observation concerning this element is that the combined addition of
compost and N P K increases the crop considerably in comparison to
compost alone, but this, in turn, occasions a dilution of plant copper
(Terman et al., 1973). Considering the different treatments used in the
studies previously mentioned, no conditions of copper phytotoxicity have
been observed as a consequence of compost application.
Contrary to what has been described for zinc and copper, town refuse
composts may give rise to an excessive absorption of boron in plants,
creating symptoms of intense phytoxicity (Purves, 1973; Gogue & Sander-
son, 1975; Czerney et al., 1978; Lumis & Johnson, 1982). This effect has
been observed with other types of compost (Gupta et al., 1973). The
symptomatology has been recorded in different crops and its most
important characteristics are chlorosis of the periphery of the leaf limb,
falling of leaves and defective growth. Purves & McKenzie (1974) indicated
that an intense washing of compost before use eliminates most of the
soluble boron and reduces considerably the toxic effects of this element.
On the other hand, Jones et al. (1963) and Gupta et al. (1973) observed
that when high doses of nitrogen are added to soil, boron toxicity decreases.
The addition of compost to soil does not promote significant changes
in the amount of iron in plants (King et al., 1977; Czerney et al., 1978),
leading, at most, to a slight reduction (Hofner et al., 1978).
Data which refer to manganese indicate that this element decreases in
plants (Schmidt et al., 1974; Hoffner et al., 1978; Czerney et al., 1978;
Wong et al., 1983). These results agree with those found by Gupta et al.
 Application of town refuse compost on the soil-plant system 51

(1973) who obtained progressive reductions in the manganese content

when increasing doses of composted plant residues were used.

E F F E C T S ON P L A N T - A V A I L A B L E HEAVY METALS

As previously mentioned, the application of large quantities of compost

may contaminate soils with heavy metals or other toxic elements. Neverthe-
less, only some of these elements appear to be absorbed by the plant in
great quantities. Thus, King et aL (1974, 1977). in a study of corn, reported
an increase in the amount of absorbed cadmium but not in the amounts
of Cr, Ni or Pb. Mortvedt & Giordano (1975) obtained similar results for
chromium in maize crops. The incorporation of compost has also been
noted to cause increases of cadmium in other types of crops (potatoes,
sugar cane, wheat, barley and oats) although no changes were observed
in the amounts of Hg, Ni, Cd and Pb (Schmid et al., 1974).
On the other hand, Liebhardt & Koske (1974) indicate that the addition
of compost to soil contributed towards a decrease in the concentration of
lead in ryegrass with respect to that of grass from control soil enriched
with this element. Identical effects have been obtained in ryegrass grown
on compost or natural soil (Lutz, 1981). Finally, Domsch et a[. (1976)
observed that mixtures of municipal garbage and horse manure used as a
substrate for mushroom cultures increased Hg, and, to a lesser extent, Cd,
As and Pb, in the crop.
According to Andersson (1977), some heavy metals added to soils in the
form of soluble salts appear to be more available to the plant than when
administered as municipal residues, as in this latter case they are retained
by the organic material. For this reason, the possibilities of contamination
from compost are small unless extreme circumstances, such as application
of very high doses of compost or very acidic soil pH values, exist. Plant
lead and mercury contents do not reflect soil levels, as these elements are
strongly retained in soil. Gray & Biddlestone (1980), in their trace metal
analyses of composts and soils, showed that municipal composts carry
high levels of some trace metals, e.g. Pb, Zn and Cu, and that they greatly
increase the total and extractable levels in soils to which they are applied.
However, the availability of these metals to crops is low.
On the other hand, cadmium absorption in plants is influenced by the
concentration of this element in soil in such a way that the concentration of
this element conditions the capacity of soil to receive compost (Andersson,
1977). In another study, Watanabe & Kurihara (1982) also found that the
application of garbage compost decreased the Zn and Cu concentration
in corn tissue, but slightly increased the Cd concentration, as compared
52 F. Gallardo-Lara. R. Nogales

with the concentration in corn grown in soil to which were added

water-soluble salts of heavy metals. Conflicting results were obtained in
experiments which compared refuse compost with chemical fertilizer (Chu
& Wong, 1984). These studies showed that the aerial tissues of three
different food crops contained similar, or significantly lower, concentrations
of cadmium when grown on compost-amended soil than when grown on
fertilizer-treated soil. The hazardous role of cadmium has been emphasized
by Keller & Brunner (1983) who calculated that, in only 14 years, the
use of compost will have enriched Swiss soils to such an extent that
their cadmium content will obviate the production of food for human
consumption.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the C.S.I.C. for financing this work through
Proyect: Reciclaje de residuos agricolas, urbanos e industriales para su
aprovechamiento como fertilizantes y su influencia en el sistema suelo-
planta.

REFERENCES

Abd-EI-Malek, Y., Naguib, A. I. & Guirguis, M. A. (1968). The effect of organic

matter additions on soil respiration, soil nitrogen and microbial activity. Ann.
Inst. Pasteur, 115, 657-68.
Ahrens, E. & Farkasdi, G. (1969). Investigations on nitrogen mineralization in
soil after application of town refuse of different degrees of decomposition.
Sonderh. Landw. Forsch., 23(2), 77-78.
Allison, F. E. (1968) Soil aggregation. Some facts and fallacies. Soil Sci., 106(2),
136-43.
Allison, F. E. (1973). Soil organic matter and its role in crop production. Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 637 pp.
Alt, D. & Kromhout, B. (1977). Einfluss von Miillkompost-Torf-Mischungen auf
das Wachtum von Tomaten und Salatjungpflanzen, Landwirt. Forsch., 30(2),
130-6.
Andersson, A. (1976). Influence of organic fertilizers on the solubility and
availability to plants of heavy metals in soils. Grundf6rbiittring, 4, 159-64.
Andersson, A. (1977). Some aspects on the significance of heavy metals in sewage
sludge and related products used as fertilizers. Swedish J. Agric., 7, 1-5.
Artiola-Fortuny, J. & Fuller, W. H. (1982). Phenols in municipal solid waste
leachates and their attenuation by clay soils. Soil Sci., 133(4), 218-27.
Banse, H. J. (1961). Beeinflussung der physikalishen bodeneigenschaften durch
Kompostgaben. Internationale Arbeitsgemeinschaft fiir Miillforschung h~for-
matiosblatt. Vol. 13, 30-4.
 Application oJ town re/itse compost on the soil-plant ~ystem 53

Banse. H. J., Buckmann, F. & Graft, O. (1972). Biological and physical investiga-
tions on vineyard soils of the Kronenberg near Kreuznach. Landwirt. Forsch.,
25(4), 355-65.
Bell, R. G. (1973). The role of compost and composting in modern agriculture.
Compost Sci., 14(6), 27-9.
Bengtson. G. W. & Cornette, J. J. (1973). Disposal of composted municipal waste
in a plantation of young slash pine: Effects on soil and trees. J. Enciron.
Q ual., 2, 441-4.
Biswas, T. D. & Khosla, B. K. (1971). Building up of organic matter status of
the soil and its relation to the physical properties of soil. J. Soc. Soil Sci.,
19(1), 31-7.
Breindebach. A. W. (1971). Composting of municipal solid wastes in t/ze United
States. Publication SW-47r in the Solid Wastes Series. US Environmental
Protection Agency, 103 pp.
Brudel, F. 8: Vorwerk, R. (1977). Die Wirkung von organischen Dungestofen auf
die Strukturstabilisierung der oberen Bodenschicht und der ertrag yon
Gemuse. Archiv Jiir Gartembau, 25(3), 107-20.
Casini, E. & Chiavacci, M. (1968). The fertilizing of grape wine. Two-year trials
with an organic manure from composted refuse. Italia Agric., 105. 334-41.
Chanyasak, V. & Kubota, H. (1981). Carbon/organic nitrogen ratio in water
extract as measure of composting degradation. J. Ferment. Technol., 59(3).
215-19.
Chanyasak. V. & Kubota, H. (1983). Source separation of garbage for composting.
Bioo'cle, 24(3/4), 56-8.
Chanyasak, V., Hirai, M. & Kubota, H. (1982). Changes of chemical components
and nitrogen transformation in water extracts during composting of garbage.
J. Ferment. Technol., 60(5), 439-46.
Chanyasak, V., Katayana, A., Hirai, F. M., Mori, S. & Kubota, H. (1983a).
Effects of compost maturity on growth of Komatsuna (Brassica rapa, var.
pervidis) in Neubauer's pot. I. Comparison of growth in compost treatments
with that in inorganic nutrient treatments as controls. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.,
29, 23%50.
Chanyasak, V., Katayana, A., Hirai, M. F., Mori, S. & Kubota, H. (1983b).
Effects of compost maturity on growth of Komatsuna (Brassica rapa. vat.
pervidis) in Neubauer's pot. II. Growth inhibitory factors and assessment of
degree of maturity by org-C/org-N ratio of water extract. Soil Sci. Plant
Nutr., 29(3), 251-9.
Chopra, P, & Magu, S. P. (1985). Effect of selected herbicides and city compost
on the rhizospheric microflora of wheat and maize. Indian J. Agron., 30(1).
5--9.
Chu, L. M. & Wong, M. H. (1984). Application of refuse compost: Yield and
metal uptake of three different food crops. Conservation & Recycling. 7, 221
34.
Clairon, M.. Zinsou, C. & Nagou, D. (1982). Etude des possibilites d'utilisation
agronomique des composts d'ordures m6nag6res en milieu tropicale. I.
Compostage des ordures m6nagdres. Agronomie, 2(3), 29%300.
Clemons, C. A. (1975). Composting at Johnson Cio'. Final Report on Joint USEPA-
TVA project. US Environmental Protection Agency, 336 pp.
Cook, R. J. (1976). The oxygen-ethylene cycle and the value of compost. Compost
Sci., 17(3/4), 23-5.
54 F. Gallar~h~-Lara. R. No,ales

Cottrell, N. M. (1975). Disposal of municipal wastes on sandy soil: Ejyect oJplant

nutrient uptake. MSc Thesis, Oregon State Univ.. Corvallis, Oregon.
Czerney, P.. Fiedler, H. J. & Richter, B. (1978). Zur wirkung ','on Stadtkompsten
unter vershiedenen yon Deutschen Weidelgrass (Lolium perenne L.). Wiss. Z.
Tech. Univ. Dresden. 27 H3/4, 811-17.
Dalmat, D. J., Parr, J. F.. Von Lignau, A. & LaGuerre, P. A. (1982). Co-
Composting's potential for developing nations. Biocycle, 22(11/12), 43-7.
De Almeida Lima, J., Souza, A. F., Soares Castor, O. & De Menezes Sobrinho,
J. A. (1984). Efeitos de materia org~nica e vermiculita na produ~ao de alho.
Pesq. Agropec. Bras., 19(I), 41-5.
De Haan, S. (1981). Results of municipal waste compost research over more than
fifty years at the Institute for Soil Fertility at Haren/Groningen, The
Netherlands. Neth. J. agric. Sci., 29, 49-61.
De Haan, S. (1983). Municipal waste compost and sewage sludge as organic
fertilizer on soil amendment. Results of experiments in 1981. b~stituut voor
BodenL~ruchtbaarheid. Nota 119, 34 pp.
Dickens, R., Hiltbord, A. E., Orr, G., Sanderson, K. & Sturkee, D. G. (1971).
Conservation of resources in municipal waste. US EPA SW-13. Abstracted in
Compost Sci., 13(6), 3-7.
Diez, T. & Weigelt, H. (1980). Fertilizing effect of refuse compost and sewage
sludge. Landwirt. Forsch., 33(1), 47-66.
Dommergues, Y. & Mangenot, F. (1970). Ecologie microbietme du sol. Masson et
Cie, Ed., Paris, 796 pp.
Domsch, K. H., Grabbe, K. & Fleckenstein, J. (1976). Scbwermetallgehalte im
kultursubstrat und Erntegut des Champignons, Agaricus bisporus (Lange)
Singer, beim Einsatz von Mfilklarschlamm Kompost. Z. Pflanzenerm. Bonde-
kele, 4, 487-501.
Duggan, J. (1973). Utilization of municipal refuse compost. I. Field-scale compost
demonstrations. Compost Sci., 14(2), 1.
Duggan, J. C. & Scanlon, D. H. (1974). Evaluation of municipal refuse compost
for ash pond stabilization. Compost Sci., 15(1), 26--30.
Duggan, J. C. & Wiles, C. C. (1976). Effects of municipal and nitrogen fertilizer
on selected soils and plants. Compost Sci., 17(5), 24-31.
El-Bassam, M. (1977). Anreicherung und verlagerung von Cadmium in B6dem
dutch zufuhr Kommunaler siedlungsabf~ille. Landwirtsch. Forsch., 30(3), 215-
20.
EI-Bassam, N., Tietjen, C. & Esser, J. (1979). Long-term studies on application
of urban wastes on heavy metal inputs and crop ecology. Intern. Conf.
Manag. and Contr. Heavy Metals in the Environment, London, 521-4.
Ellwardt, P. Chr. (1977). Variation in content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
in soil and plants by using municipal waste composts in agriculture. In:
Proceedings of a Symposium on Soil Organic Matter Studies. Vol. II,
International Atomic Energy Agency. Vienna, 291-300.
Epstein, E., Taylor, J. M. & Chaney, R. L. (1976). Effects of sewage sludge
compost applied to soil on some physical and chemical properties, J. Environ.
Qual., 5(4), 422-6.
Facek, Z. (1974). Changes in soil fabric due to organic and mineral fertilization.
Rostlinna Vyroba, 20, 809-12.
Fioromanti, S. &Marty, J. R. (1966). Contribution a l'etude du compost obtenu
 Application o/ town refilse compost on the soil-plant system 55

par fermentation des ordures m~nag6res de la ville de Tolouse. Bull. Science

du sol, 18-43.
Fuller. W. H. & Bosma, S. (1965). The nitrogen requirement of some municipal
composts. Compost Sci., 6, 26-32.
Furrer, O. J. & Gupta, S. K. (1983). Effects of agricultural use of municipal
compost. Qual. Plant. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 33, 251-9.
Galiano, F. & Rodriguez, E. (1963). Fertilizantes org~nicos de basura de ciudad
aplicados en horticultura. Tecnologia, 5(24), 15 23.
Gallardo-Lara, F., Azcon, M., Gomez. M. & Esteban, E. (1979). Poder fertilizante
de un compost de basura urbana. 1. Capacidad de suministro de macronutri-
entes. Anal. Edaf y Agrobiol., 38(9-10), 1747-64.
Gallardo-Lara, F., Robles, J., Esteban, E., Azcon, M. & Nogales, R. (1984).
Poder fertilizante de un compost de basura urbana. II. Efecto directo y
residual sobre la asimilabilidad de Fe y Zn. In: Proceedings of I Congreso
Nacional de la Ciencia del Suelo. Vol. I., SECS, Madrid, 393-403.
Garner, H. V. (1962). Experiments with farmyard manure, sewage sludge and
town refuse compost on microplots at schools. Etnp. J. £vp. Agric., 30(120),
295-304.
Garner, H. V. (1966a). Experiments on the direct, cumulative and residual effects
on town refuse manures and sewage sludge at Rothamsted and other centres
1940-1943. J. Agric. Sci., Camb., 67, 223-33.
Garner, H. V. (1966b). Comparisons of farmyard manure, sewage sludge, and
other organic manures tested on potatoes and a succeeding cereal crop at
Rothamsted. J. Agric. Sci., Camb., 67, 267-80.
Gilmour, C. M., Broadbent, F. E. & Beck, S. M. (1977). Recycling of carbon and
nitrogen through land disposal of various wastes. In: SoilsJbr management
of organic wastes and wastewaters. (Elliot, E. F. & Stevenson, F. J. (Eds)),
ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, 172-94.
Giordano, P. M. & Mays, D. A. (1981). Plant nutrients from municipal sewage
sludge, hTd. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Det~., 20(2), 212-16.
Giordano, P. M., Mortvedt, J. J. & Mays, D. A. (1975). Effect of municipal wastes
on crop yields and uptake of heavy metals. J. Environ. Qual., 4, 394-9.
Gogue, G. J. & Sanderson, K. C. (1975). Municipal compost as a medium
amendment for chrysanthemum culture. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., 100(3), 213-16.
Gonzalez-Vila, F. J., Saiz-Jimenez, C. & Martin, F. (1982). Identification of free
organic chemicals found in composted municipal refuse. J. Environ Qual.,
11(2), 251-4.
Gotaas, H. B. (1956). Composting. Sanitary disposal and reclamation of organic
wastes. World Health Organization. Monograph series No. 31, Geneve, 205
PP.
Gray, K. R. & Biddlestone, A. J. (1974). Decomposition of urban wastes. In:
Biology of plant litter decomposition. Vol. 2. (Dickinson, C. H. & Pugh,
G. F. J. (Eds)), Academic Press, London.
Gray, K. R. & Biddlestone, A. J. (1980). Agricultural use of composted town
refuse. In: Inorganic pollution and agriculture. Proceedings of a Cot(erence
organised by the Agricultural Development and Advisoo" Service. Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London, 279-305.
Gray, K. R., Biddlestone, A. J. & Clark, R. (1973). Review of composting. Part
III. Process and products, Process Biochemisto', October, 6 pp.
56 F. Gallardo-Lara. R. No eales

Grubben. G. J. H. (1976). The cultivation of amaranth as a tropical leaf vegetable.

Department of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical Institute. Amsterdam.
Communication 67. 207 pp.
Guidi, G., Plagliai. M. & Giachetti. M. (1982). Modifications of some physical
and chemical soil properties following sludge and compost applications. In:
The ip~uence of sewage sludge application on physical amt biological properties
of soils. (Catroux, G., L'Hermite, P. & Suess, E. (Eds)), Dordrasht, The
Netherlands, 122-30.
Guidi, G., Levi-Minzi, R., Riffaldi, R. & Giachetti, M. (1983). Field trials in Italy
evaluate compost and fertilizers. Biocycle, 24(1/2), 44-6.
Guns, M. F. (1982). Recherche sur les teneurs en metaux lourds dans les composts
urbains belges. Revue de l'Agriculture, 35(4), 2837-48.
Gupta, U. C., Sterling, J. D. E. & Nass, H. G. (1973). Influence of various rates
of compost and nitrogen on the boron toxicity symptoms in barley and
wheat. Can. J. Plant. Sci., 53, 45 I-6.
Gupta, S. K., Akmal, M. & Sinha, J. P. (1975). Study of the manurial value of
supercompost reinforced with single superphosphate. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
India., 45(A), IV, 281-6.
Hoecks, J. (1977). Mobility of pollutants in soil and groundwater near waste
disposal sites. In: Effects of Urbani, ation and Industriali-ation on the Hydrologi-
cal Regime and on Water Qualio'--Symposium. IAHS-AISH. Publ. No. 123,
Wageningen, 380-8.
Hoffmann, G. (1983). Recycling of municipal waste compost in vineyard soils. In:
Studies about humus. (Novak, B. (Ed)), Transactions of the VIH blternational
Symposium. Vol. I. (Abstracts), Prague, 69.
Hoffner, W., Konanci, I. & Hakerlerler, H. (1978). Influence of compost and Fe-
compounds on the uptake of Fe, Zn and Mn by sunflower and maize in pot
experiments. Zeitsch. Pflanzer. Bodenk., 141(5), 547-53.
Hornick, S. B. (1980). Crop production on waste amended gravel spoils. In:
Proceedings of a Symposium on Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge for Land Reclamation and Biomass, Pittsburgh, PA. The Penn. State
University, 207-18.
Hornick, S. B. (1982). Organic wastes for revegetating marginal lands. Biocycle,
23(4), 42-3.
Hortenstine, C. C. & Rothwell, D. F. (1968). Garbage compost as a source of
plant nutrients for oats and radishes. Compost Sci., 9(2), 23-5.
Hortenstine, C. C. & Rothwell, D. F. (1969). Evaluation of composted municipal
refuse as a plant nutrient source and soil amendment on Leon fine sand. Soil
Crop. Sci. Soc. Fla, Proc., 29, 312-19.
Hortenstine, C. C. & Rothwell, D. F. (1972). The use of municipal compost in
reclamation of phosphate-mining sand tailings. J. Environ. Qual., 1(4), 415-
18.
Hortenstine, C. C. & Rothwell, D. F. (1973). Pelletized municipal refuse compost
as a soil amendment and nutrients source for sorghum. J. Environ. Qual.,
2(3), 343-5.
Hunt, P. G., Hortenstine, C. C. & Smart, G. C. (1973a). Responses of plant
parasitic and saprophytic nematode populations to composted municipal
refuse. J. Environ. Qual., 2(2), 264-6.
Hunt, P. G., Smart, G. C. & Eno, F. (1973b). Sting nematode, Belonolaimus
 Application c~/ town rc/il.se compo.st on the sotl-plunr ,v~gem 57

longicaudatus, immobility induced by extracts of composted municipal refuse.

J..Vematology, 5( 1), 60-3.
Hunt, P. G., Hortenstine, C. C. & Eno, C. F. (1973c). Direct and indirect effects
ofcomposted municipal refuse on plant seed germination. Soil Crop Sci. Soc.
Fla Proc., 32, 92-5.
Ishigami. T. (1979). Studies on the continued use of compost in the vegetable
garden. Saitama-keu. Eng. Shik. Keuk. Hok., 8. 25-36.
Jones. W. W.. Embleton. T. W., Bosv,'ell, S. B., Steinacker. M. L.. Lee. B. W. &
Barnhart, E. L. (1963). Nitrogen control program for oranges and high
sulfate a n d o r high boron. Calif. Citrogr., 48, 107, 128-9.
Juste, C. (1980). Advantages et inconvenients de t'utilisation des composts
d'ordures m+nag~res comme amendment organique des sols on supports de
cuhures. Jornadas bTternacionales sobre et compost. Madrid. 15 pp.
Keller, L. & Brunner, P. H. (1983). Waste-related cadmium cycle in Switzerland.
Ecotoxicolog.v and Ent'ironmental Safety, 7, 141-50.
Keonoh. W. (1978). Effects of organic materials on soil chemical properties. J.
Lorean Soc. Soil Sci. Fert., 2(3), 161-74.
Kick, H. (1960). The utilization of town refuse for improving soils and increasing
yields. Trans. 7th b~tern. Congr. Soil Sci., 3, 321-8.
Kick, H. (1976). Bewertung der Anwendung von siedlungsabj'atlen in der Landwirt-
schaft. Proceedings 4th bztern. Coll. Cont. Plant Nutr., II, 121-34.
King, L. D., Rudgers, L. A. & Webber, L. R. (1974). Application of municipal
refuse and liquid sewage sludge to agricultural land. I. Field study. J. Environ.
Qual., 3(4), 361-6.
King, L. D., Leyshon, A. J. & Webber, L. R. (1977). Application of municipal
refuse and liquid sewage sludge to agricultural land. II. Lysimeter study. J.
Era'iron. Qual., 6(1), 67-7 I.
Korea Alumi, F. X., Soe Angnie, I. E. & Janssen, B. H. ~1977). Evaluation of
municipal refuse from Dahomey (Benin) as an organic manure. In: Proceedings
qf a Symposium on Soil Organic Matter Studies. Vol. II, International Atomic
Energy Agency, Vienna, 291-300.
Kropisz, A. & Russel, S. (1978). Effect of fertilization of light loamy soil with the
Dano compost on microflora as well as on yields and chemical composition
of lettuce and spinach. Rocz. Nauk. Rol. Ser., 103(1), 2(~37.
Kropisz, A. & Wojciechowsky, J. (1978a). Mutual effect of mineral fertilizers and
composts made from municipal wastes on yields and chemical composition
of cabbage. Rocz. Nauk. Rol,, Ser., 103(2), 164-80.
Kropisz, A. & Wojciechowsky, J. (1978b). Joint effects produced by mineral
fertilization and compost of municipal refuse on the yields and chemical
composition of carrot roots. Bi,d. Warzyw., 21, 127-42.
Lahv, E. (1976). Effect of farmyard manure, poultry manure and town refuse
compost on the mineral content of the soil and leaves in banana plantation.
Fruits, 31(12), 733-8.
Liebhardt, W. C. & Koske, T. J. (1974). The lead content of various plant species
as affected by Cycle-lite humus. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant Anal., 5(2), 85-92.
Lindford, M. B., Yap, F. & Oliveira, J. M. (1938). Reduction of soil population
of the root nematode during decomposition of organic matter. Soil Sci., 45.
127-41.
Loewen-Rudgers, L. A., King, L. D. & Webber. L. R. (1981). Incubation of
58 F. Gallardo-Lara, R. .Vogales

pulverized household refuse with soil and sewage sludge, poultry manure or
(NH02SO. ~. Can. J. Soil Sci., 61, 109-21.
Lumis. P. G. & Johnson, A. G. (1982). Boron toxicity and growth suppression
of Forsythya and Thuja grown in mixes amended with municipal wastes
compost. Hortscience, 17(5), 821-2.
Lutz, W. (1981). The use of compost with special consideration of heavy metal
content. Consert'ation & Recycling, 4(3), 167-76.
Lutz, W. (1984). Austria's quality requirements for solid waste compost. Biocvcle,
25(5), 42-4.
Mallouhi, N. (1978). Contribution a l'etude de l'evolution de composts urbains dans
les sols salOs carbonatOs. Thbse de Doct. Ing. Universit6 de Nancy. 112 pp.
Martin, F., Gonzalez-Vila, F. J., Saiz-Jimenez, C. & Verdejo, T. (1980). Problemas
que plantea la utilizacidn de residuos s61idos urbanos en Agricultura. In:
Proceedings of lH Congreso Nacional de Quimica Agricola y Alimentaria. Vol.
I, Sevilla, 125-33.
Mathias, E. L., Bennet, O. L. & Lundberg, P. E. (1979). Use of sewage sludge to
establish tall fescue on strip mine spoils in West Virginia. In: Utilization of
municipal sewage effluent and sludge on forest and disturbed land. (Sopper,
W. E. & Kerr, S. N. (Eds)), Penn. State Univ. Press. University Park,
Pennsylvania, 307-14.
Mays, D. A., Terman, G. L. & Duggan, J. C. (1973). Municipal compost: Effects
on crop yields and soil properties. J. Environ. Qual., 2(1), 89-92.
McCormick, A., Galiano, F. (1964). Effects of organic fertilizer from city trash
on phosphorus assimilation. Tecnologia, 6(27), 17-26.
Mehta, S. A. & Daftardar, S. Y. (1984). Effects of anaerobically prepared wheat
straw composts and city garbage composts on yield and N and P uptake by
wheat. Agricuhural Wastes, 10, 37M6.
Miyashita, K., Kato, T. & Tsuru, S. (1982). Actinomycetes occurring in soil
applied with compost. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 28(3), 33-313.
Mohr, H. D. (1979a). Effect of garbage sewage-sludge compost on the heavy
metal content of vineyard soils, grapevines organs and must, Webzberg Keller,
26(8), 333-44.
Mohr, H. D. (1979b). Which risks are connected with use of heavy metal
containing composted household refuse in viticulture? Kali-Briefe, 14(2),
781-9.
Mortvedt, J. J. & Giordano, P. M. (1975). Response of corn to zinc and chromium
in municipal wastes applied to soil. J. Environ. Qual., 4(2), 170-4.
Muller, A. (1973). The effect of composted refuse and farmyard manure on
permanent grassland in comparison with mineral fertilizers. Wirts. Futter..
19(3), 195-203.
Nogales, R., Gallardo-Lara, F. & Delgado, M. (1982). Aspectos fisicoquimicos y
microbiol6gicos del compostaje de basuras urbanas. Anal. Edaf. y Agrobiol.,
XLI(5-6), 1159-74.
Nogales, R., Zamora, M. A., Gomez, M. & Gallardo-Lara, F. (19834a). Evalua-
ci6n del potencial fertilizante de un compost de basura urbana. Efecto sobre
germinacidn y rendimientos secuenciales de cosecha. Anal. Edaf. Agrobiol.,
XLIII(1-2), 183-94.
Nogales, R., Gallardo-Lara, F. & Gomez, M. (1984b). Estudio de la asimilabilidad
de calcio por plantas de ryegrass en un suelo tratado con compost urbano.
Anal. Edaf Agrobiol., XLIII(5-6), 871-82.
 Application qf town rejiL.secompost on the soil-plant .systern 59

Nogales, R., Ortega, E., Gallardo-Lara, F. & Delgado, M. (1984c). lnfluencia de

la aplicacidn de un compost de basura urbana sobre la porosidad de un
suelo. Agrochirnica, 28(2-3), 192-201.
Nogales, R., Ortega, E. & Gallardo-Lara, F. (1984d). Efecto de la adicion de una
sal 5.cida nitrogenada sobre los procesos de mineralizacidn y humificacidn de
un sustrato orgfinico a base de compost de basura urbana..4grochimica.
28(5-6), 388-97.
Nogales, R., Gomez, M., Guzman, M., Romero, L. & Gallardo-Lara. F. (1984e).
Effect of applied refuse compost on sequential magnesium plant uptake. In:
Proceedings of the Second bTternational Symposium on Plant Nutrition.
(Kudrev, T., Georgieva, V. G., Kamenova-Youchimenko, S. & Pandev, S.
(Eds)), Vol. III, 381-7. Varna, Bulgaria.
Nogales, R., Azcon, M. & Gallardo-Lara, F. (1985a). Sequential sulphur availa-
bility affected by town refuse compost application. Biological Agriculture and
Horticulture, 2(4), 323-8.
Nogales, R., Gomez, M. & Gallardo-Lara, F. (1985b). Town refuse compost as
a potential source of zinc for plants. In: Proceedings of International Conference
of Heavy Metals in the Environment. (Lekkas, T. D. (Ed.)), Vol. 1, Athens,
487-9.
Olsen, S. R. & Barber, S. A. (1977). Effect ofwastes application on soil phosphorus
and potassium. In: Soils for management of organic wastes and waste waters.
ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, 197-217.
Oosthoek, J. (1980). Compost, possibilities, limitations and future. Jornadas
Internacionales sobre el Compost, Madrid, 8 pp.
Ortega, E., Nogales, R. & Delgado, M. (1981). Modificaci6n de la porosidad de
un suelo por la adicion de un compost de basura urbana. Anal. Edaf
Agrobiol., XL(9-10), 1735-47.
Ortega, E., Gallardo-Lara, F. & Nogales, R. (1985). Repercusi6n de un compost
de basura urbana sobre la disponsibilidad de P, Na, K, Ca y Mg en suelos.
Ars. Pharmaceutica, XXVI(2), 89-99.
Pagliai, M., Guidi, G., LaMarca, M., Giachetti, M. & Lucamante, G. (1981).
Effects of sewage sludges and composts on soil porosity and aggregation. J.
Environ. Qual., 10(4), 556-61.
Pagliai, M., LaMarca, M. & Lucamante, G. (1983). Micromorphological investiga-
tion of the effect of sewage sludges applied to soil. In: Soil micromorphology.
Vol. I, Techniques and applications (Bullock, P. & Murphy, C. P. (Eds)), AB
Academics Publishers, Berkhamsted, Herts, 219-25.
Parsa, A. A. & Lindsay, W. L. (1972). Plant value of zinc in organic wastes. Iran
J. Agric. Res., 1(2), 60-71.
Patrick, Z. A., Sayre, R. M. & Thorpe, H. J. (1965). Nematicidal substances
selective for plant-parasitic nematodes in extracts of decomposing rye.
Phytopathology, 55, 702-4.
Pera, A., Vallini, G., Sireno, I., Bianchin, M. L. & De Bertoldi, M. (1983). Effect
of organic matter on rhizosphere microorganisms and root development of
sorghum plants in two different soils. Plant Soil, 74, 3-18.
Purves, D. (1973). Composting--No way to reuse refuse. Reclamation Industrial
International, 1.
Purves, D. (1977). Trace element contamination of the environment, Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 216 pp.
Purves, D. & McKenzie, E. J. (1973). Effects of applications of municipal compost
60 F. Gallardo-Lara. R. Nogales

on uptake of copper, zinc and boron by garden vegetables. Plant Soil, 39,
361-71.
Purves, D. & McKenzie, E. J. (1974). Phytotoxicity due to boron in municipal
compost. Plant Soil, 40. 231-5.
Riffaldi, R.. Levi-Minzi, R. & Saviozzi, A. (1983). Humic fractions of organic
wastes. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Ent'ironment. 10. 353-9.
Rothwell, D. F. & Hortenstine, C. C. (1969). Composted municipal refuse: Its
effects on carbon dioxide, nitrate, fungi and bacteria in Aredondo fine sand.
Agron. J., 61, 837--40.
Rowaan. P. A. (1949). City garbage compost as fertilizer. Haandbl. Landhlouwcool-
ichtingsdienst, 6(5), 190-4.
Ryan, J., Hank, S. N. & Shwayri, R. (1985). A short-term greenhouse evaluation
of non-conventional organic wastes, Agricultural Wastes, 12, 241-9.
Sanderson, K. C. (1971). Utilization of processed garbage in the production on
florist crops 1967-71. Horticultural series, No. 16, Unix. Auburne, 1-24.
Sanderson, K. C., Orr, H. P. & Martin, W. C., Jr (1969). Utilization of processed
garbage in the production of selected ornamentals. Proceedh~gs 65th. Ann.
Cony. of the Assoc. South. Agric. Work. Inc.
Sanderson, K. C., Orr, H. P. & Martin, W. C., Jr (1971). Utilization ot'processed
garbage as a mulch for ornamentals 1967-71. Horticultural series No. 17,
Univ. Auburne, 1-12.
Scanlon, D. H., Duggan, C. & Bean, S. D. (1973). Evaluation of municipal
compost for strip mine reclamation. Compost Sci., 14(3). 4-8.
Schmid, G., Rosopulo, A. & Weigelt, H. (1974). Grund satzfagen zur Erzeugeng
einer gesunder Ern/ihrung. III. Einfluss von Mfillklarchlamkompost und
kl/irchlam auf den scbwermetallgehalt von Nahrunspfanzer. Landw. Forsch.
Sonderh. 31 / 11, 191-205.
Schneider, F. (1974). Wirkung unter schiedlich gerotteter Stadtkomposte auf die
Pflanzenertr/ige bei periodischer anwendung als organischer Diinger. Arch.
Acker Pflanzenbau Bodenk., 18(10), 747-58.
Schrader, T. (1967). Composted town refuse and sewage sludge in viticulture,
Weiberg Keller, 12, 531-7.
Seiberth, W. (1960). Einfluss der Dfingung mit kompostierten stS,dttischer abf~illen
auf den Ertrag und auf einige Wichtige kein werte des bodenzutandes. Z.
Pflanzerniihr. Diing., 91, 53-62.
Seigel, O. & Rasp, H. (1972). Results of a 12-year fertilizer experiment with town
wastes. Landw. Forsch. Soonderh., 27(1), 73-85.
Shelhaas, R. M. (1978). Les sols /t vocation horticole du Sud-Est Benin et leur
fumure ~ la gadeau, Department of Agricultural Research, Royal Tropical
Institute, Amsterdam, 77 pp.
Shisler, L. C. & Grable, M. (1976). Utilization of cornposted municipal refilsefor
mushroom production. Progress Report Press. State Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta.
352, 16 pp.
Snell, J. R. (1957). Some engineering aspects of high-rate composting. J. Am. Soc.
Civil Eng., 83, Paper 1178.
Stephen, R. C. & Lin, Y. C. (1970). The value of Bangkok compost addition to
Hong Kong soils on the yield and quality of chinese white cabbage. Agric.
Sci. Hong Kong, 1(4), 161-74.
Sugahara, K. & Inoko, A. (1981). Composition analysis of humus and characteriza-
 .4?plicaticm c~ltown re/hse compost on the soil-phlnt ~vstern 61

tion of humic acid obtained from cit~ refuse compost. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.,
27(2), 213-24.
Tarjan, B. A. C. (1977). Use of municipal refuse compost on nematode-infected
citrus. Citrus and Vegetable. 40(6), 44-9.
Terman, G. L. & Mays, D. A. (1973). Utilization or" municipal solid waste
compost: Research results at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Compost Sci., 14(1),
t8-21.
Terman, G. L.. Soileau, J. M. & Allen. S. E. (1973). Municipal wastes compost:
Effects on crop yields and nutrient content in greenhouse pot experiments.
J. Era,iron. Qual.. 2(I), 84-9.
Thompson, L. M. & Troeh, F. R. (1978). SoiLs and soil.fertility. McGraw-Hill,
New York, 516 pp.
Tietjen, C. {1976). Principales problemas que plantea la utilizacion de los
desperdicios urbanos para la producci6n agricola y la conservaci6n de los
suelos. In: Boletin sobre suelo. Materia Orggmica. Fertili-antes. Organizacion
de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y Alimentaci6n Ed. Roma, 76-92.
Tietjen. C. (1977). Qualit~itsanforderungen der Landwirtschaft an Mfillkompost.
Informationen f/.ir die Wirtschaftsberatung. WB 26. Jahrgang No. 4, 1-13.
Tietjen, C. & Hart, S. A. (1969). Compost for agricultural land? J. San. EHg. Diz'.
,4.S.C.E., 9,'5 (SA2), Proc. Paper 6506, 269-87.
Trenel, M. (1961). Zur Bodenverbesserung durch Torf. verrateten M~ill und
Klfirschlamm. Albrecht-Thaer-Arch., 5, 199-255.
Van Assche, C. & Uyttebroeck, P. (1980). Heavy metals in soils and their
neutralisation. Agricultural Wastes, 2, 277-91.
Van Assche, C. & Uyttebroeck, P. (1982). Demand supply and application
possibilities of domestic waste compost in agriculture and horticulture.
Agricultural IVastes, 4, 203-12.
Vlamis, J. & Williams, D. E. (1971). Utilization of municipal wastes as agricultural
fertilizers. California Agric., 2,5, 7-9.
Volk, V. V. (1976). Application of trash and garbage to agricultural lands. In:
Land application of wastes materials, Soil Conservation Society of America
Ed. Ankeny, Iowa, 154-64.
Volk, B. G., Snyder, G. M., Gasho, G. J. & Henderson, P. H. (1973). Cropland
disposal of hydropulped municipal refuse. I. A greenhouse and growth
chamber evaluation. Soil Crop. Szi. Soc. Fla, 32, 95-9.
Walter, B. (1977). Untersuchungen fiber die wirkung yon Mfillkl'arschlammkom-
post auf Boden und Robenertrag Landw. Forsch.. 30(2), 119-24.
Wang, S. T. (1977). Comparison of the effect of NH.,-Nitrohumate, garbage
compost and waste mushroom compost on corn yield. Proc. lnt. Syrup. Soil
Era'. Fert. Man. in hirer. Agric. Tokyo, 725-30.
Watanabe, M. & Kurihara, K. (1982). Physicochemical characteristics of municipal
refuse compost for agricultural use. The Bulletin of the National blstitute for
Agricultural Sciences, Series B, No. 33, 95-164.
Webber, L. R. (1978). Incorporation of nonsegregated, noncomposted solid waste
and soil physical properties. J. Environ. Qual., 7(3), 397-400.
Wong, M. H. (1985). Phytotoxicity of refuse compost during the process of
maturation. Environ. Pollut., Ser. A., 37, 159-74.
Wong, M. H. & Chu, L. M. (1985). The response of edible crops treated with
extracts of refuse compost of different ages. Agricultural Wastes, 14, 63-74.
62 F. Gallardo-Lara. R. No,¢ales

Wong, M. H., Mok, C. M. & Chu, L. M. (1983). Comparison of refuse compost

and activated sludge for growing vegetables, Agricultural Wastes, 6, 65-76.
Yousef, A. N. & AI-Zubar, A. M. (1974). Studies of fermented garbage in Iraq.
I. Preliminary study of the effect of fermented garbage on soil microbiological
and chemical properties and on yield of wheat. Techn. Bull. Inst. Appl. Res.
Nat. Res. Iraq, 64, 20 pp.
Zobac, J. & Vana, J. (1974). The agronomical effectiveness of industrially produced
compost in dependence of the technology of production. Rostl#ma Vyroba,
20(9), 931-9.
Zvara, J. & Herger, P. (1982). Der einfluss yon Mfillklarschlammkompost auf
ertrag und n~ihrstoffentzug von Salat und Raps. Bodenkultur, 32(4), 283-92.