Class 10 English Language Set 2

Notice and Email Writing

Directives:
Sample copies of Notice and Email as per the format accepted by the ICSE has been
attached with this mail.
➢ Study the samples carefully.
➢ Choose one format that suits your style of writing.
➢ The marking scheme (Distribution of Marks) for both the Notice and Emails have
been displayed on the right-hand column.
➢ You are advised to be very precise with the Notice and the Email.
➢ Exaggeration and unnecessary explanation of details not encourage.
➢ Emails to an office holder is always a Formal letter.
➢ Be very selective with your choice of words.
➢ Notice and Emails must be COMPLETE with the required information.

Assignments:
1. You are the president of the English literary society of your school. Write a notice
inviting the students of classes 9 to 12 to participate in the ‘Story Telling Fest’
your club is organising.
2. As president of the literary society of your school, write an Email to an author of
your choice, inviting him to be the judge for the ‘Story Telling Fest’ your club is
organising.
Class 10 Work Sheet: Notice and Email Writing Set 2

Directives:

Sample copies of Notice and Email as per the format accepted by the ICSE has been

attached with this mail.

➢ Study the samples carefully.

➢ Choose one format that suits your style of writing.

➢ The marking scheme (Distribution of Marks) for both the Notice and Emails have

been displayed on the right hand column.

➢ You are adviced to be very precise with the Notice and the Email.

➢ Exaggeration and unnecessary explanation of details not encourage.

➢ Emails to an office holder is always a Formal letter.

➢ Be very selective with your choice of words.

➢ Notice and Emails must be COMPLETE with the required informations.

Assignments:

1. You are the president of the English literary society of your school. Write a notice

inviting the students of classes 9 to 12 to participate in the ‘Story Telling Fest’ your

club is organising.

2. As president of the literary society of your school, write an Email to an auther of your

choice, inviting him to be the judge for the ‘Story Telling Fest’ your club is organising.

1
 SPECIMEN FOR EMAIL AND NOTICE WRITING
[Specimens for Email and Notice Writing are given in Format 1 and Format 2.

Any one format may be followed, both are acceptable.]

FORMAT 1
Question

(a) Your school is hosting an interschool debate competition.

Write a notice for your school informing them of the event.

Specimen Answer:

War of Words [1]

Inter-school Debate Competition [1]

on 8th December 2017 from 9.00 [½]

a.m. to 12 noon at Centenary Hall, [½]

St. Hilda’s School [½ + ½]

[1]
All pupils from Classes IX & X who wish to participate are to give their names to
Mrs. T. Baker on or before 1st December 2017

(b) Write an e-mail to the principal of a neighbouring school informing her of the
event and requesting her to send a team to participate.

Specimen Answer:

principalbluebellschool@gmail.com [½]

Inter-school Debate Competition [½]

Dear Madam, [½]

Our school is celebrating its 50th anniversary this year. As part of the celebrations Opening
we are hosting a series of competitions and we are beginning with ‘War of Words’, Sentence
an inter-school debate competition. [½]

It will be held on 8th December 2017 from 9.00 a.m. till 12 noon in the Centenary
Hall of St. Hilda’s School.

2
Please do send your senior debate team to participate in the event. Body [2]

The topic will be given to the participants an hour before the start of the
competition. They may bring their laptops for use during the preparation time.

We look forward to your school’s participation in the competition. [½]

Thanking you,

Yours faithfully, [½]

Ashish Roy

Debating Secretary

Question

(a) You are the President of a children's club in your locality.

You and your team are planning to organise a programme to celebrate Teachers’
Day.
Write a notice, to be put up in the local Supermarket, giving details of the
programme to create an awareness of the event.

Answer

Thank you Teacher! [1]

A cultural programme to celebrate Teachers’ Day [1]

on 5th September from 5.00 [½]

p.m. to 7.00 p.m. [½]

[½ + ½]
at Community Centre, South City Mall
[1]
All teachers who are residents of the South City Complex are cordially invited

3
(b) Write an e-mail to the General Manager of the Supermarket seeking
permission to display the notice and requesting a sponsorship for the event.

Answer rmsouthcity@gmail.com

Teachers’ Day Celebration [½]

Dear Sir, [½]

Teachers’ Day is around the corner and we, the residents of the South City [½]

Complex, would like to express our gratitude to our teachers by hosting a brief Opening
cultural programme on the 5th September between 5.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. Sentence
[½]
There are about 25 teachers in our complex and we would be grateful if you allow
us the use of the foyer in the Supermarket for the celebration.

We also request you to please sponsor a cup of tea and light refreshments for the Body [2]

teachers and a few guests, about 40 in all.

We look forward to a favourable response.

[½]
Thanking you,

Yours faithfully,

Ashish Roy
[½]
Secretary, Youth Club, South City Society.

4
 SPECIMEN FOR EMAIL AND NOTICE WRITING
[Specimens for Email and Notice Writing are given in Format 1 and Format 2.
Any one format may be followed, both are acceptable.]

FORMAT 2

Question 3

(a) Your school is conducting an inter-class talent search. Write out a notice to be [5]
put up in your school informing students about the event and inviting them
to participate.

SPECIMEN ANSWER:

EVERYBODY’S GOT TALENT

Inter-class Talent Search

Date: Tuesday, 24 July, 2018

Time: 9 a.m. to 4 p.m.

Venue: The Auditorium of St. Agnes’ School

Interested students from classes 8, 9 and 10 may register with the Vice
Principal on or before 14 July, 2018.

5
(b) Write an e-mail to the Principal of a neighbouring school requesting him / her [5]
to send a team of teachers to judge the event.

SPECIMEN ANSWER:
To:principal@stflorence.org
Subject: Request to appoint judges for a talent search event.

Dear Madam,
I am Maya Gilani, the Cultural Secretary of the Student Council, St. Agnes’ School.
We are conducting a talent search contest for the students of classes 8, 9 and 10.
This is to be held on the 24th of July, 2018, from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. in Music, Art,
Dance, Magic, Acrobatics and Stand-up Comedy.
We request you to send a team of three teachers from your school to judge the
talent search, Everybody’s Got Talent.

Anticipating a positive response,

Yours faithfully,
Maya Gilani
Cultural Secretary, Student Council
St. Agnes’ School

6
Question 3 [5]
(a) You are the Games Captain at school. The school is organizing an interhouse
basketball competition. Write out a notice to be put up in your school
informing students about it.

SPECIMEN ANSWER:

DRIBBLE STARS

Inter- House Basketball Competition

Date: Wednesday 4th July, 2018

Time: 9 a.m. to 1 p.m.

Venue: The Main Basketball Court, Berkeley High Sports Complex

The Match schedule is as follows

• Ruby vs Emerald
• Sapphire vs Topaz
• The Battle- Match for third place
• The Grand Finale- The Final Match

All House Captains are requested to keep their respective House teams ready and
submit the names to the Games Captain before 25th June,2018.

7
(b) Write an e-mail to a prominent basketball coach of your city who has agreed [5]
to be the referee at the event, giving all relevant details.

SPECIMEN ANSWER:
To:coachformidable123@gmail.com
Subject: Invitation to Referee Dribble Stars – Inter House Basketball Competition.

Dear Sir,

I am Sam Sequeira of Berkeley High and I write with reference to my

telephone call to you earlier. We are conducting an inter- house basketball
competition on 4 July, 2018 from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. on the Main Basketball Court,
Berkeley High Sports Complex. Thank you for having accepted our request to
referee the event.

The schedule is as follows

• Ruby vs Emerald Match 1

• Sapphire vs Topaz Match 2
• The Battle – For third place – Match 3
• The Grand Finale – The Final Match
We will arrange to pick you up by 8.15 a.m. from your residence and you will be
dropped back after the Basketball Competition.

We look forward to seeing you at Berkeley High.

Thanking you,

Yours faithfully,

Sam Sequeira
Games Captain
Berkeley High

8
Question 3 [5]
(a) Your school is organizing a charity drive for the underprivileged children of the
nearby locality. Write out a notice to be put up in your school informing
students about the event and inviting them to participate in the charity drive.

SPECIMEN ANSWER:

GIVE TILL IT HURTS!

(Charity Drive for the Underprivileged Children of our locality)

Date: Friday, 3rd August, 2018

Time: 8 a.m to 11 a.m

Venue: The Assembly Area, SMJ School

All the students from class 5 to 10 kindly contribute to make the charity drive a
success. Used text books, unused notebooks, stationery, blazers, sweaters or
shoes that are in good condition may be handed over to your class Prefect.

Be as generous as possible. Give Till It Hurts!

9
(b) Write an e-mail to the Principal of a neighbouring school requesting him/her [5]
to allow the student of his / her school to participate in the event.

SPECIMEN ANSWER:

To:principal@stjoseph.org
Subject: Invitation to participate in the charity drive- ‘Give Till It Hurts!’.

Dear Sir,

I am Prabha Mukund, Secretary of the Student Council, SJM School. We are

hosting a Charity Drive called ‘Give Till It Hurts!’ on Friday, 3rd August, 2018, for
the Underprivileged children of our locality. This will be conducted from 8 a.m. to
11 a.m. at the Assembly Area, in the Main Building of our school.

We request you to motivate the students of your school to donate their used text
books, unused notebooks, stationery, blazers, sweaters or shoes that are in good
condition.

Participation from your school will make a huge impact on our student community.
Please help us make a difference!

Anticipating a positive response from you in accepting our invitation,

Yours faithfully,
Prabha Mukund
Secretary, Student Council

10
 Class 10 Mathematics Set 2

Inequation
The mathematical statement in which the quantity on one side is not equal to the quantity on
the other side is called an inequation.
Representation of linear inequality in one variable
Let a, b and c be real numbers

ax + b > c ax + b is greater than c

ax + b < c ax + b is less than c

ax + b ≥ c ax + b is greater than or equal to c

ax + b ≤ c ax + b is less than or equal to c

The signs '>'; '<'; '≤'; '≥' are called signs of inequality

Solving a Linear Inequality Algebraically

When a positive term is moved from one

Rule 1 side of an inequality to another, the sign 2x + 3 > 7 = 2x > 7 – 3
of the term becomes negative

When a negative term is moved from one

Rule 2 side of an inequality to another, the sign 2x – 3 > 7 = 2x > 7 + 3
of the term becomes positive

When each term of an inequality is

x < y = px < py
Rule 3 multiplied or divided by the same
x < y = x/p < y/p
positive number (p), the sign of the

1
 inequality remains unchanged

When each term of an inequality is

multiplied or divided by the same x < y = px > py
Rule 4
negative number (p), the sign of the x < y = x/p > y/p
inequality reverses

If the sign of each term on both the sides

Rule 5 of an inequality is changed, the sign of –x>5=x<–5
inequality gets reversed

If both the sides of an inequality are

either positive or negative, then on taking
Rule 6 x ≥ y = 1/x ≤ 1/y
their reciprocals, the sign of inequality
reverses

Replacement Set and Solution Set

▪ The set, from which the value of the variable x is to be chosen, is called the replacement set
▪ The subset of the replacement set, whose elements satisfy the given inequality is called the solution set
Let the given inequality be x < 3 then:
1. If the replacement set = N, the set of natural numbers, then the solution set = {1, 2}
2. If the replacement set = Z or I, the set of integers, then the solution set = {2, 1, 0, −1, −2,……..}
3. If the replacement set = R, the set of real numbers, then the solution set is {x: x ϵ R and x < 3}
Representation of the solution on the number line

Convention

▪ A darkened circle on a number indicates that the number is also included in the solution set. (i.e. ≤ or ≥)
▪ A hollow circle on a number indicates that the number is not included in the solution set. (i.e. > or <)
Combining Inequalities

▪ Simplify the given inequality

▪ Plot the solution set of each inequality on the number line
▪ Study the solution sets and find out common points or regions of the given inequalities

2
 EXERCISE

Question 1
If x N, find the solution set of inequations.
(i) 5x + 3 2x + 18 (ii) 3x - 2 < 19 - 4x

Question 2
If the replacement set is the set of whole numbers, solve:
(i) x + 7 11
(ii) 3x - 1 > 8
(iii) 8 - x > 5
1
(iv) 7 - 3x −
2

Question 3
Solve the inequation:
3 -2x x - 12 given that x N.

Question 4
If the replacement set is the set of real numbers, solve:

Question 5
Find the largest value of x for which
2(x - 1) 9 - x and x W.

Question 6
List the elements of the solution set of the inequation
-3 < x - 2 9 - 2x; x N.

Question 7
Find the range of values of x which satisfies
2 1 1
-2 ≤ x+ < 3 ; x ϵ R
3 3 3
Graph these values of x on the number line.

Question 8
Solve and graph the solution set of:
2x - 9 ≤ 7 and 3x + 9 > 25, x ϵ I

Question 9
Given A = {x: -1 < x 5, x R} and B = {x: -4 x < 3, x R}
Represent on different number lines:
(i) A B
(ii) A' B
(iii) A – B

Question 10
Given that x ϵ I, solve the inequation and graph the solution on the number line:

𝑥−4 𝑥
3≥ + ≥2
2 3

3
 Class 10 Physics Set 2
MACHINES
A Machine makes our work easier, convenient and faster.

MACHINE

Effort(force applied by us

on machine ) Load to overcome

Eg. Car Jack, plier, scissors etc.

FUNCTIONS OF A MACHINE:

• It helps us to overcome a large resistive force i.e. it helps us in lifting a heavy load and hence acts as a
FORCE MULTIPLIER
EXAMPLE: Lifting a car by using a JACK.
• It is used to increase the speed of work done i.e.it acts as a SPEED MULTIPLIER.
EXAMPLE: SCISSORS
• It may change the point of application to a convenient point.
EXAMPLE: Rotating Rear gear of a bicycle by gear fitted just below the seat.
• It may change the direction of effort into a convenient direction.
• EXAMPLE: Lifting a load using a SINGLE FIXED PULLEY.

TERMS BELONGING TO A MACHINE:

LOAD (L): Resistive force which has to overcome by a machine.

EFFORT(E):Force applied by us on the machine.

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (MA):

It is the Ratio of load to the effort.

MA = LOAD/EFFORT

MA =L/E

Velocity ratio (VR):

It is the ratio of speed of effort to the speed of load

VR = Speed of effort/ speed of load

1
 VR=VE/VL

AS VE = (displacement of effort/time)

VL = (displacement of load/time)

VE = (dE/t)/(dL/t)

therefore,
VR = dE/dL

Efficiency of a Machine:

Eff.(η)=MA/VR

%Eff= (MA/VR)x100

Note:- If MA=VR

η =1 or 100%

Machine is called perfect/ideal machine.

If MA<VR:-

μ<1 or 100%

Machine is called practical machine.

Efficiency decreases because of the following reasons:-

1. Weight of machine parts itself.

2. Due to inelasticity.

Principle of a machine
For any machine its efficiency is the ratio of the output work to the input work.

work input machine work output

Eff.=work output/work input

η =(LxdL)/(ExdE)

If a machine is ideal:-

Output work=Input work

2
 Relation between MA,VR and Efficiency:-

As

Eff.=Wout./Winp.

=(LxdL)/(ExdE)

=(L/E)/(dE/dL)

Efficiency = MA/VR

Efficiency (η) = MA/VR

Types of Machines

LEVER

It is a straight uniform rod which is supported at one place.

Class-I Lever:-

Fulcrum will be somewhere in between Load and Effort.

FULCRUM (F)

LOAD(L) EFFORT(E)

Case i:-

If fulcrum is exactly in the middle:

A LOAD ARM O EFFORT ARM B

LOAD(L) FULCRUM(F) EFFORT(E)

3
Applying principle of moments,

(ACWM)L = (CWM)E

L X (OA) = E X (OB)

L/E = OB/OA

But,

MA = L/E

MA = EFFORT ARM/LOAD ARM

From Diagram,

EFFORT ARM = LOAD ARM

Therefore,

MA = 1

MA =1

NOTE:

LEVER (MACHINE) WHICH HAVE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE EQUAL TO ONE ARE USED
TO CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF EFFORT INTO A CONVENIENT DIRECTION.

EXAMPLES: SEA-SAW, PHYSICAL BALANCE etc.

Case ii:-

If fulcrum is closer to the load:

A LOAD ARM O EFFORT ARM B

LOAD(L) FULCRUM(F) EFFORT(E)

4
Applying principle of moments,

(ACWM)L = (CWM)E

L X (OA) = E X (OB)

L/E = OB/OA

But,

MA = L/E

MA = EFFORT ARM/LOAD ARM

From Diagram,

EFFORT ARM > LOAD ARM

Therefore,

MA > 1

MA > 1

NOTE:

LEVER (MACHINE) WHICH HAVE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE GREATER THAN ONE, ARE
USED AS FORCE MULTIPLIER.

EXAMPLE:

PLIER, SHEAR (metal cutter) etc.

Case iii:-

If fulcrum is closer to the effort:

A LOAD ARM O EFFORT ARM B

LOAD(L) FULCRUM(F) EFFORT(E)

5
Applying principle of moments,

(ACWM)L = (CWM)E

L X (OA) = E X (OB)

L/E = OB/OA

But,

MA = L/E

MA = EFFORT ARM/LOAD ARM

From Diagram,

EFFORT ARM< LOAD ARM

Therefore,

MA< 1

MA < 1
NOTE:

LEVER (MACHINE) WHICH HAVE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE LESS THAN ONE ARE USED
AS SPEED MULTIPLIER.

EXAMPLES:

SCISSORS, GRASS CUTTER etc.

NOTE: IN CLASS ONE LEVER FULCRUM WILL ALWAYS BE IN BETWEEN LOAD AND
EFFORT.

Class-II Lever:-

Load will be somewhere in between effort and load.

FULCRUM(F)

LOAD(L) EFFORT(E)
6
Again,

MA = effort arm/ load arm

From diagram,

Effort arm>load arm

Therefore, MA > 1
NOTE:

Such levers (machines) are ALWAYSused as force multiplier.

EXAMPLE: Nut cracker, Wheel barrow, car jack , stapler etc.

Class-III Lever:-

EFFORT will be somewhere in between load and Fulcrum.

FULCRUM F)

EFFORT E) LOAD(L)

Again,

MA = effort arm/ load arm

From diagram,

Effort arm<load arm

Therefore,

NOTE: MA < 1

Such levers (machines) are ALWAYS used as speed multiplier.

EXAMPLE: Cricket Bat (while hitting a ball), Knife, Sugar Tongs etc.

Assignment
From Text Book:
To be done on Numerical Exercise book:
• Exercise-3A, From question No. 1 to 40 on page No. 57 and 58.
• Numericals From No. 1 to 12 on page No. 59 and 60.
7
PULLEY:

As shown in above picture,

It is a grooved rim made up of wood, plastic or metal.

SINGLE FIXED PULLEY:

While in function,

It remains fixed at a point or in its position.

M.A.:

As shown in the pic.

In equilibrium,

Load (downward) is balanced by tension in upward direction.

i.e.

L=T

Similarly,

Effort( downward) is balanced by tension in upward direction.

E=T

As MA = L/E

Subs. the value of load and effort in terms of tension T

MA = T/T

8
Therefore,

MA = 1

It changes the direction of effort into a convenient direction.

V.R.:

V.R. = dE / dl

Here,

If displacement of effort = d

Then, displacement of load will also be = d

Therefore,

V.R. = d/d

Hence, V.R. = 1

EFFICIENCY (η):

Efficiency

η = MA/VR

η = 1/1 η = 1 or 100%

(only if pulley is working in ideal conditions such as no frictional force, weight of parts is negligible and
perfectly elastic string)

Examples:

9
A SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY:

While in function,

It moves up and down along with the load.

M.A.:

As shown in the pic.

In equilibirium,

Load ( downward) is balanced by two tension in upward direction.

i.e.

L=T+T

L = 2T

Similarly,

Effort ( downward) is balanced by tension in upward direction.

E=T

As MA = L/E

Subs. the value of load and effort in terms of tension T

MA = 2T/T

Therefore,

MA = 2, i.e.(MA > 1)

It works as force multiplier.

10
V.R.:

V.R. = dE / dl

Here,

If displacement of effort = 2d

Then, displacement of load will be = d

Therefore,

V.R. = 2d/d

Hence,

V.R. = 2

EFFICIENCY (η):

Efficiency

η = MA/VR

η =2/2

η = 1 or 100%

(only if pulley is working in ideal conditions such as no frictional force, weight of parts is negligible and
perfectly elastic string)

Examples:

11
WAY TO CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF EFFORT USING A MOVABLE PULLEY:

It is inconvenient to apply effort in upward direction. Therefore, a single movable pulley is mostly used along with
a single fixed pulley. As shown in the fig. above.

Also you may understand the working of a S.M.P. with the help of the fig. below:

Combination of pulleys:

To increase mechanical advantage and hence to lift a heavy load more easier number of pulleys are used along with
a single fixed pulley, as shown in above fig.

Block and tackle system:

12
To combine many pulleys together this system (method) is used.

In this system, there are two blocks.

Upper Block, which remains fixed and

Lower Block, which is movable along with the load.

Tackles are the ropes which joins both the blocks.

Note: As the lower block has to be lifted along with the load so no of pulleys in the lower block will be either one
less than or equal to the no. of pulleys in the upper block .

(i) Three pulley System

MA:

Here,

In equilibrium,

Downward load is supported by three tensions in upward direction.

L=T+T+T

L = 3T

Also effort in downward direction is balanced by on tension in upward direction.

E=T

Therefore,

MA = L/E

MA = 3T/T => MA =3

V.R.:

V.R. = dE / dl

Here,

If displacement of effort = 3d

Then, displacement of load will be = d

13
Therefore,

V.R. = 3d/d

Hence, V.R. = 3

(ii) Four pulley System:

Similarly,

For four pulley system,

MA = 4 and VR =4

(iii) Five pulley System:

Similarly,

MA =5 and VA =5

14
Note:

In block and tackle system,

We observe that

L = nT ……..Here n = number of pulleys

E =T

Therefore,

MA = L/E

MA = nT /T

MA = n

MA = Number of pulleys used in the system

ASSIGNMENT:
From Text Book:

To be done on Numerical Exercise book:

• Exercise-3B, from question No. 1 to 20 on page No. 66 and 67.

• Numericals From No. 1 to 11 on page No. 68 and 69.

15
 Class 10: CHEMISTRY Set 2
Chemical Bonding
Chemical bond is a force of attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation
of chemical compounds.

Types of Chemical Bonds

There are 3 primary types of chemical bonds which are formed by atoms or molecules to yield
compounds.
• Ionic Bond
• Covalent Bond
• Co-ordinate Bond
These types of bonds are formed by the loss, gain, or sharing of electrons between two atoms.

Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which involves a transfer of electrons from one atom to
another. In this type of bonding one of the atoms develops a negative charge and is called the anion.
The other atom develops a positive charge and is called the cation. The greater the charge disparity
between the cation and the anion, the stronger is the ionic bond.

Some common examples of ionic compounds:

NaBr : sodium bromide
KBr : potassium bromide
NaCl : sodium chloride
NaF : sodium fluoride
KI : potassium iodide
KCl : potassium chloride
CaCl2 : calcium chloride
K2O : potassium oxide
MgO : magnesium oxide

1
Conditions for the formation of an Ionic Bond

• The low ionization energy of the atom forming the cation.

• High electron gain enthalpy of the atom forming the anion.
• High negative lattice enthalpy of the crystal formed.
Generally, the ionic bond is formed between a metal cation and non-metal anion.

Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond indicates the sharing of electrons
between atoms. Compounds that contain carbon
(also called organic compounds) commonly
exhibit this type of chemical bonding. The pair of
electrons which are shared by the two atoms now
extend around the nuclei of atoms, leading to the
creation of a molecule.
Some common examples of covalent compounds:
PCl3 - Phosphorus trichloride
CH3CH2OH - ethanol
H2 - hydrogen
CCl4- water
CH4 - methane
NH3 - ammonia
CO2 - carbon dioxide
Types of Covalent Bond

Covalent bonds are of following two types:

Polar Covalent Bonding
In Polar Covalent chemical bonding, electrons are shared unequally since the more electronegative
atom pulls the electron pair closer to itself and away from the less electronegative atom. Water is an
example of such a polar molecule.
A difference in charge arises in different areas of the atom due to the uneven spacing of the electrons
between the atoms. One end of the molecule tends to be partially positively charged and the other end
tends to be partially negatively charged.
Non-Polar in nature
A non-polar covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared equally between two atoms. Covalent
compounds in which there is no electronegativity difference are known as non-polar covalent
compounds. In these compounds the electronegativity difference is Zero or less.
Difference between Polar and Non-polar Covalent Bonds.
POLAR NONPOLAR
Asymmetrical Symmetrical
Has electrical poles Does not have electrical poles
One end of molecule has positive whereas the Does not have charges at opposite ends
other end has negative charge
H bonds occur in polar bonds Vander Waal interactions between non-polar bonds
Forms between different atoms Forms between different or same atoms
Charge separation No charge separation
Dipole moment No dipole moment
Example: Water Example: Oil
2
Conditions for the formation of a covalent bond:

1. A covalent bond is formed between two non-metals.

2. The difference in electronegativity between the combining atoms of the two non-metals
must be sufficiently low.
3. The two combining atoms should have high ionization energy.
4. The two combining atoms should have high electron affinity.

Electrovalent Bond vs Covalent Bond

Electrovalent bond is a chemical bond between
two atoms due to a transfer of electron(s) from
one atom to the other.
Metals vs Non-Metals
Electrovalent bonds can be observed
between metals and non-metals.
Difference in Electronegativity
The difference in electronegativity between two
atoms is higher in electrovalent bonding.
Solubility in Water and Electrical Conductivity
Solubility in water and electrical conductivity is
higher in compounds with electrovalent
bonding.
Boiling and Melting Points
Boiling and melting points are higher for
electrovalent bonding.
Covalent bond is a type of chemical bond
which occurs due to sharing of electron pairs
between atoms.
Covalent bonds can be typically observed
between two non-metals.
The difference in electronegativity between
two atoms is comparatively lower.
Solubility in water and electrical conductivity
is comparatively lower in compounds with
covalent bonding.
Boiling and melting points are comparatively
lower for covalent bonding.

Rules for writing Lewis Structures

The following steps are adopted for writing the Lewis dot structures or Lewis structures:

Step 1: Calculate the number of electrons required for drawing the structure by adding the valence
electrons of the combining atoms. For Example, in methane, CH4 molecule, there are 8 valence
electrons (in which 4 belongs to carbon while other 4 to H atoms).

Step 2: Each negative charge i.e. for anions, we add an electron to the valence electrons and for each
positive charge i.e. for cation we subtract one electron from the valence electrons.

Step 3: Using the chemical symbols of the combining atoms and constructing a skeletal structure of
the compound, divide the total number of electrons as bonding shared pairs between the atoms in
proportion to the total bonds.

Step 4: The central position in the molecule is occupied by the least electronegative atom. Hydrogen
and fluorine generally occupy the terminal positions.

3
Step 5: After distributing the shared pairs of electrons for single bonds, the remaining electron pairs
are used for multiple bonds or they constitute lone pairs.

The basic requirement is that each bonded atom gets an octet of electrons.

Co-ordinate Bond
Co-ordinate bond is a type of an alternate covalent bond that is formed by sharing of electron pair
from a single atom. Both shared electrons are donated by the same atom. It is also called dative bond
or dipolar bond.

Coordinate covalent bonds are usually formed in reactions that involve two non-metals such as a
hydrogen atom.

Characteristics of Coordinate Covalent Bond

1. In this type of bonding, the atom that shares an electron pair from itself is termed as the donor.
2. The other atom which accepts these shared pair of electrons is known as a receptor or
acceptor.
3. The bond is represented with an arrow →, pointing towards acceptor from the donor atom.
4. After sharing of electron pair each atom gets stability.
5. This type of bonding is central to the Lewis theory.
6. Getting a good understanding of coordinate covalent bonds can help in properly designing
complex organic molecules.

Octet Rule

Atoms form chemical bonds in order to complete their octet i.e. eight electrons in their valence shell.

4
 ASSIGNMENT
Q1. Element X has (2, 8, 6) electronic configuration. It combines with atom Y with 2 electrons
in its outermost shell.
a. What type of bond will be formed?
b. What is the formula of the compound formed by atom X and Y?
Q2. Draw the electron dot diagram of CCI4, H3O+, NH3, NH+4
Q3. Explain Polar and Non-Polar covalent bonds with suitable examples
Q4. Name the charged particles which attracted one another to from electrovalent compound.
Q5. In the formation of the electrovalent compound, electron are transferred from one
element to another. How are electrons involved in the formation of a covalent bond?
Q6. Name the compounds and type of Bonding in each of the following:
a. Polar covalent compound which, on dissolving in water produces ions
b. The type of bonding present in metallic chlorides
c. The type of bonding present in non-metallic chlorides
d. The bond formed by the mutual sharing of electrons.
e. The formed by the transference of electrons.

Q7. With the help of given table predict the type of bond is formed between:
Element A B C D
Electronic Configuration 2,8,1 2,8,7 2,5 1
a. A and B
b. C and D
c. B and D
d. Molecule of D
e. Molecule of C
Q8. Fill the correct option in the blanks:
(i) In covalent compounds, the bond is formed due to the ………..(Sharing /transfer)
(ii) Electrovalent compounds have a ……………….(low/high) boiling point.
(iii) A molecule of …………. contains a triple bond.(Hydrogen, Ammonium, Nitrogen)
Q9. Two non-metals combine with each other by the sharing of electrons to form a
compound X.
(a) What type of chemical bonding is present in X?
(b) State whether X will have high melting point or low.
(c) Will it good conductor of electricity or not?
(d) Will it dissolve in water or not.

5
Q10. Name a neutral covalent molecule which contains one lone pair of electrons
Q11. Predict the type of bonding in the following molecules:
(i) Oxygen (ii) ammonium ion (iii) Water.
(iv) Methane (v) Calcium Oxide

Q12. How many electrons are involved in the formation of methane?

Q13. Name an element which is capable of forming multiple bonds with its own atom.
Q14. Two non-metals combine with each other by the sharing of electrons to
form a compound X.
a. What type of chemical bonding is present in X?
b. State whether X will have high melting point or low.
c. Will it be a good conductor of electricity or not?
d. Will it dissolve in water in water or not?

Q15. Match the column A with Column B

SNo Column A Column B
1 Sodium Chloride Covalent Bond
2 Ammonium Chloride Ionic Bond
3 Carbon tetrachloride Polar Covalent Bond
4 Hydrogen Chloride Co-ordinate Bond

6
 Class 10: BIOLOGY Set - 2
CHAPTER-GENETICS

1. Allele. It is one of a number of alternative forms of the same gene responsible for
determining contrasting characters, For example A or a.
2. Character-Any feature which is transmitted from parent to the offspring. (Hereditary
characters)
3. Chromosomes - are the carriers of heredity.
4. Dominating characters – It is the one out of a pair of contrasting characters (alleles)
which is fully expressed in an offspring, either in homozygous or heterozygous form.
Recessive character is the suppressed feature.
5. Dihybrid cross-It is the cross which is carried out by taking two pairs of contrasting
characters at a time. The ratio obtained in a dihybrid cross is called the dihybrid ratio.
Its phenotypic ratio is 3:1 and the genotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1.
6. F1 generation –First filial generation that is produced by crossing two parents
(homozygous and heterozygous).
7. F2 generation; Second filial generation that is produced by crossing two Individuals of
F1 generations.
8. 8-Genetics-It is the branch of biology that deals with the transmission of character
from the parent to the offspring.
9. Genes-Genes are the basic unit of heredity and these are found on chromosomes.
Genes are the DNA segments that carry genetic information. Every gene has
alternative form for a character producing effects.
10. Genome-It is the whole complement of DNA of an organism.
11. Genotype -The characters which are not visible from outside in organism.
12. Homozygous-It is the condition in which both alleles are different for a particular
character.
13. Heterozygous-It is the condition in which both the alleles are different for a particular
character.
14. Law of Dominance-Out of a pair of contrasting characters present together in an
offspring.
15. Law of Segregations –The Contrasting factors separates during the gametes formation.
At the time of zygote formation, the gametes combine randomly but the characters do
not blend and separate during gamete formation.
16. Law of independent assortment –The inheritance of each contrasting character is
independent of other contrasting character present together.
17. Mutation –It is the sudden change in one or more genes, which change the heredity
materials of an organism and ultimately change the characters of an organism.
18. Sex linked inheritance-It is the appearance of trait by an allele on x chromosomes or y
chromosomes.
19. Traits -A quality or character that can belong to only one person.
20. Variations - The difference shown amongst individuals of a species or offspring of the
same parent due to their different genetic makeup.

ASSIGNMENT
Answer the following questions.

1. Explain Mendel’s laws of inheritance.

2. Differentiate between the following.

a. Genotype and phenotype

b. Dihybrid and monohybrid

c. Autosomes and sex chromosomes

3. What do you understand by sex linked inheritance? Give examples also.

4. Why did Mendel select garden pea for his experiments?

5. What are mutations and explain its types?

6. A pure tall plant bearing red colored flowers was crossed with pure dwarf plant with

white flowers. What would be the nature of offspring in the F1 generations?

 Class 10 Geography Set 2
Chapter II: Contours
Introduction to Contours
Contours are imaginary lines joining places having the same elevation above mean sea level. A map showing the
landform of an area by contours is called a contour map. The method of showing relief features through contour is very
useful and versatile. The contour lines on a map provide a useful insight into the topography of an area.

Contours are drawn at different vertical intervals (V.I.), like 20, 50, 100 meters above the mean sea level. It is
known as contour interval. It is usually constant on a given map. It is generally expressed in meters.

Contours are imaginary lines that join places having the same height above sea level in meters. They are shown in
brown colour at intervals of 100 meters and are shown in bold, for example, 100-, 200, 300-meter contours. Contour
interval is the difference in height between two successive contours and it remains constant. The contour interval of
45D/10 and 45D/7 is 20 meters.

While the vertical interval between the two successive

contour lines remains constant, the horizontal distance varies
from place to place depending upon the nature of slope. The
horizontal distance, also known as the horizontal equivalent
(HE), is large when the slope is gentler and decreases with
increasing slope gradient.
Fig 1. Brown lines showing contours
Calculation of Gradient

The degree of slope is Gradient and is expressed as a

ratio.
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
Gradient =𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡

For example, find out the gradient:

The vertical interval will be the difference (the difference between two contours line) in height 1800-1200= 600
meters.

The horizontal equivalent will be the distance between the two points, which is 3.6 cm ÷ 2 or 1.8 km.

To find out the ratio, both vertical interval (VI) and horizontal equivalent (HE) must be in the same unit.
600𝑚
Gradient =
1800𝑚

1
Gradient = That is, 1:3. This means for every 3 meters of horizontal distance covered, the height of the slope
3
will increase by 1 meter.

Some basic features of contour lines are

▪ A contour line is drawn to show places of equal heights.

▪ Contour lines and their shapes represent the height and slope or gradient of the landform.
▪ Closely spaced contours represent steep slopes while widely spaced contours represent gentle slope.
1
 ▪ When two or more contour lines merge with each other, they represent features of vertical slopes such as cliffs or
waterfalls.
▪ Two contours of different elevation usually do not cross each other.

Types of slope

The slopes can broadly be classified into gentle, steep, concave, convex and irregular or undulating. The contours
of different types of slopes show a distinct spacing pattern.

Gentle Slope

When the degree or angle of slope of a feature is very low, the slope will be gentle. The contours representing this
type of slope are far apart.

Steep Slope

When the degree or angle of slope of a feature is high and the contours are closely spaced, they indicate steep
slope.

Fig 2. Gentle and Steep slope

2
Valley
A geomorphic feature lying between two hills or ridges and formed as a result of the lateral erosion by a river or a
glacier is called a valley.

‘V’-shaped Valley

It resembles the letter V. A V-shaped valley occurs in mountainous areas. The lowermost part of the V–shaped
valley is shown by the innermost contour line with very small gap between its two sides and the lowest value of the
contour is assigned to it. The contour value increases with uniform intervals for all other contour lines outward.

‘U’ – shaped Valley

A U–shaped valley is formed by strong lateral erosion of glaciers at high altitudes. The flat wide bottom and steep
sides makes it resemble the letter ‘U’. The lowermost part of the

U–shaped valley is shown by the innermost contour line with a wide gap between its two sides. The contour value
increases with uniform intervals for all other contour lines outward.

Fig 3. V and U shaped Valley

Gorge

In high altitudes, gorges form in the areas where the vertical erosion by river is more prominent than the lateral
erosion. They are deep and narrow river valleys with very steep sides. A gorge is represented by very closely-spaced
contour lines on a map with the innermost contour showing small gap between its two sides.

Spur

A tongue of land, projecting from higher ground into the lower is called a spur. It is also represented by V shaped
contours but in the reverse manner. The arms of the V point to the higher ground and the apex of ‘V’ to the lower ones.

3
Cliff

It is a very steep or almost perpendicular face of landform. On a map, a cliff may be identified by the way the
contours run very close to one another, ultimately merging into one.

Waterfall and Rapids

A sudden and more or less perpendicular descent of water from a considerable height in the bed of a river is called
a waterfall. Sometimes, a waterfall succeeds or proceeds with a cascading stream forming rapids upstream or downstream
of a waterfall. The contours representing a waterfall merge into one another while crossing a river stream and the rapids
are shown by relatively distant contour lines on a map.

Watershed

A watershed is a line running along the highest points of a ridge. The imaginary line separates the flow of
headwaters of streams originating near the ridge top. The watershed is also called the water divide. This line may not
coincide with the crest line of the ridge.

Fig 4. Watershed
Conical Hills
Conical hills are indicated when contours run nearly circular becoming smaller and smaller near the summit.

Knolls

Knolls are small hills more or less rounded in form. Contours are circular.

Escarpment

Escarpment is a landform with sides sloping in opposite directions with a steep scarp slope and a gentle dip slope.
These landforms are also called 'cuesta'.

Sheltered Valleys

Sheltered valleys are surrounded by ridges or hills and are protected from hot scorching sand laden winds.

4
 Fig 5. Landforms

Trigonometrical or Triangulation Stations

Trigonometrical stations, shown with a small triangle, mark the corners

of a triangle on the ground marked out for surveys. Distances are surveyed by
angular measurements and ground distance calculated by trigonometry. A
theodolite (Survey Instrument) is used for angular measurements, for example,
A317 in Figure 6.

Fig 6. Trigonometrical stations & Spot height

Spot Heights

Spot heights show the height of a point (shown with a black dot) above sea level in meters generally along roads,
between contours and near the sea level to study relief features between contours, for eg, 215 in Figure 6.

Benchmark

Benchmark (BM) indicates height above sea level in meters, determined by

leveling. The dumpy level is used for accurate measurements. BM is usually 'cut into
walls and sides of government buildings, for example, BM 224.6 in figure 7.

Fig 7. Benchmark

5
Relative Height and Depth

Relative height and depth is indicated by the letter symbol r next to

the point where measurements were taken. Relative height indicates the
height of a feature from its base to top in meters and not height above sea
level. Relative height of the following features can be seen in topographical
maps (See Fig 8)

Relative depth is indicated only for lined perennial wells and is Fig8. Relative Height, Sand Dunes and Ridge
printed in blue. For example 3r is depth of well is 3 meters from top to base.
(See Fig 9)

Sand dune: 9r indicates the relative height of the sand dune, which 9 meters
from base to top. (Fig 8)

Embankment: 3r indicates relative height of the embankment, which is 6 meters Fig 9. Relative Depth
from base to top. (See Figure 10)

Fig 10. Embankment

ASSIGNMENT
Questions are based on materials available in chapter 2.

All questions are compulsory.

1. Explain broken ground.

2. Define Contour Interval.

3. Explain V shaped and U shaped valley.

4. Calculate Gradient, if V.I. between two contours is 180 m H.E. is 2 900m.

5. Explain Relative height and Depth with example.

6. Briefly explain Perennial and non-perennial streams.

7. Draw different types of Drainage patterns and explain it briefly.

8. Write and draw 5(five) Hindi terms used in topographical maps as symbols.

6
 Class 10 History Set 2
Chapter II: The President and the Vice-President
The President of India
The President is the executive head of the Union of India. He/She is the Head of the State but
according to our Constitution, he/she is bound to follow the advice given by the Prime Minister and
the Council of Ministers. The Constitution makes it necessary on the part of the President to exercise
his/her functions in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers.

A person shall be eligible for election as a President, if he/she:-

is a citizen of India.
has completed an age of 35 years.
should be qualified for elections as member of the Lok Sabha.
should not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or Government of any State or any
other public authority.

Composition of the Electoral College

The President is elected indirectly by the members of an Electoral College consisting of:
the elected members of the both Houses of the Parliament.
the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States including National Capital Territory of
Delhi and the Union Territory of Puducherry.

Reasons for Indirect Election

The President is indirectly elected because;
if elected directly, he could become a rival center of power to the Council of Ministers.
an indirect election protects the President to become a nominee of the Ruling Party at the Centre.
the inclusion of members of State Legislative Assembly in the Electoral College makes the President
the elected representative of the whole nation. A clear voice would be given to the States as well, by
this process.

Oath of Office
Before entering upon his office, the President takes on oath in the presence of the Chief Justice of India
(or in his absence the senior-most Judge of the Supreme Court) to:
discharge the functions of the President of India,
preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law, and
devote himself to the service and well-being of the people of India.

Term of Office
The President holds the office for a term of 5 years from the date on which he enters the office. The
Chief Justice of India administers the oath of office to the President.
The President may resign before the completion of his/her term. In that case, he can submit his
resignation to the Vice-Present of India. The vacant seat of the President must be filled within 6
months.

1
Procedure for Impeachment
The President can be expelled from the office in case of the violation of the Constitution by the process
of impeachment. Either House can initiate the procedure by mentioning the charge for violation of the
Constitution. A 14 days’ notice should be given to the President in writing signed by at least 1/4th of
the total members of the House that framed the charges.
After the lapse of 14 days, a resolution is moved which is to be passed by a majority of not less than
2/3rd of the total strength of the House.
The resolution then moves to the other House, which should investigate the charges. During the
process, the President has the right to appear and to represent himself in such investigation. If the
resolution, after investigation is passed the second House by a majority of not less than 2/3rd of the
total Membership of the House (investigating), the President will stand impeached.

Powers of the President of India

Executive Powers
He/She is the head of Union Administration and all executive orders are issued in his/her name.
He/She makes appointments to key posts to run the Government’s administration. He/She appoints
the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers (CoM) on Prime Minister’s advice. He/She also
appoints the Chief Justice and the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, the Governors of
the States, Lt-Governors and various other constitutional heads.
He/She can appoint an inter-state council to promote center-state and inter-state cooperation. Union
Territories and the Border Areas Administration is the responsibility of the President.

Legislative Powers
He/She can address the Parliament at the beginning of the first session of the year and after each
general election to the Lok Sabha.
The President can send message to either House of the Parliament, at any point with regard to any
matter of importance.
The President has the power to summon, and prorogue the Houses and to dissolve the Lok Sabha. The
President nominates 14 members to the Parliament (12 to the Rajya Sabha and 2 to the Lok Sabha), on
the advice of the Prime Minster and the council of Ministers.
Any Bill cannot become an act until it is approved by the President. He/She may send it back with
some recommendations, but the second time he/she has to give his/her assent.

The President can promulgate on ordinance under Article 123.

When an ordinary bill is sent to the President after it has been passed by the Parliament, he can:
give his assent to the bill, or
withhold his assent to the bill, or
return the bill. However, if the bill is passed again by the Parliament; with or without amendments,
the President has to give his assent to the bill.

The ordinance is subject to conditions like:

The President must feel the urge to take immediate action in the given circumstances.
The ordinances can only be promulgated when both Houses of the Parliament are not in session.
It has to be laid before both the Houses when they reassemble.
It lapses, if it is replaced by an Act of Parliament.
2
Financial Powers
It is the responsibility of the President to introduce the Annual Budget every year in the Parliament.
Under constitutional provision, it is the duty of the President to appoint a Finance Commission after
every 5 years to recommend the distribution of revenues between the Centre and the States.
He/She is authorized to withdraw money from Contingency Fund in India to meet certain emergency
requirement.
A Money Bill can only be introduced after the President’s recommendation.
No demand for grant, can be made except on is recommendation.

Judicial Powers
He/She appoints the Chief Justice and the Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.
He/She has the power to grant pardon, respites, reprieves or remissions to remit or commute the
sentence of any person convicted of an offence.
No criminal suit can be initiated against the President during his/her tenure of office and he/she is not
answerable before any Court of Law for exercising his/her powers and the duties of his/her office.

Military Powers
He/She is the Supreme Commander of the Defense Forces of India and appoints the Chiefs of the
Army, Navy and the Air Force.
The President can declare War or conclude Peace on the approval of the Parliament.

Diplomatic Powers
He/She appoints as well as receives the ambassadors, high commissioners and diplomats to and from
foreign nations.
The President represents India in International Conferences. All treaties and international agreements
are concluded in his/her name. However, they are subject to the approval of the Parliament.

Discretionary Powers
When no party gains majority of the Lok Sabha, the President using his/her discretionary power,
appoints the Prime Minister.
After the vote of no confidence is passed against the prevailing Government, the President may
dissolve the Parliament or ask leader of another party to prove its majority on the floor of the House.
He/She can also dismiss ministers in case; the Council of Ministers loses the confidence of the House
but refuses to resign.

Emergency Powers
National Emergency (Article 352)
The President, if satisfied that the security of the nation is threatened by war or external aggression or
an armed rebellion, he/she can issue the proclamation of National Emergency.
Every such proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within 1 month by a special majority.
Once passed, it remains operational for 6 months. Beyond that it has to be passed again by the
Parliament.
During the proclamation, Fundamental Rights are suspended (Except those under Article 20 and 21).
The Constitution assumes unitary role and grants Parliament the power to make laws on 66 subjects
of state list. And many of the powers of the state are curtailed.

3
President’s Rule (Article 356)
On receipt of a report from the Governor, if the President is satisfied that there is a breakdown of
constitutional machinery in the state, he may declare an emergency in the state assuming all or any
functions of the state, to himself.
Once proclaimed, it must be ratified from the Parliament within 2 months after which, it remains
operational for 6 months.
To extent it beyond a year, it must fulfill two conditions:
If the proclamation of National Emergency is in operation in the nation or in any part of the country,
the Election Commission must certify that holding elections to the Legislative Assembly of the State
(concerned) is difficult.

Effects of such state emergencies include:

State administration is directly placed under the President with the Governor acting in accordance
with the instructions issued by the Union Government.
The President may either dissolve the Vidhan Sabha and dismiss the Council of Ministers or keep them
in suspended animation.
The President may authorize expenditure from the State Consolidated Fund, when the Lok Sabha is
not in session. He may also suspend the provision of the Constitution relating to the authority of the
state.

Financial Emergency (Article 360)

If a situation has arisen whereby the financial stability or credit of the nation is threatened, the
President can declare Financial Emergency.
The President may appoint a Finance Commission to suggest methods to get out of the financial crisis;
he may reduce salaries and allowances of all or any class of persona including those of the Supreme
Court or High Court Judges.
He can also issue instructions to the states in regard to the utilization of funds in the manner he may
deem fit and may order the state to submit Money Bills to him for his/her assent.

Vice-President of India
The Vice-President of India is elected by the member of the Electoral College, according to a system of
proportional representation by a single transferable vote.

Qualifications for Election

A person shall be eligible for the election of the Vice-President, if he/she
is a citizen of India.
has completed the age of 35 years.
is qualified for election as a member of the Rajya Sabha.
should not hold any office of profit under the Union Government or any State Government or any local
or other authority or any public authority.

Composition of the Electoral College

An Electoral College for the election of the Vice-President consists of members of both Houses of the
Parliament. The nomination should be proposed by at least 20 electors and another 20 electors as
seconders. The President of India administers the oath of office of Vice-President.

4
Term of Office and Power
The Vice-President shall hold office for a term of 5 years from the date he/she enters his/her office.
He/She may resign from his/her post by writing to the President or he/she may be removed from
his/her office for the violation of the Constitution by the Parliament.
The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He/She mainly performs his/her
duties with regard to the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. His/Her Salary is also paid in this capacity.
The Vice-President takes over the office of the President, if the President is unable to discharge
his/her duties or the office of the President becomes vacant.
In the above event, the Vice-President draws all the emoluments and salary of the President.

Short Answer Questions

1. How is the Executive of the Indian Union constituted?

2. Who is the chief executive authority of the Indian Union?
3. What is the procedure for the election of the Indian President?
4. Who settles the disputes arising in connection with the election of the President?
5. Who administers the oath of Office to the President of India?
6. What is an Ordinance? Who is empowered to issue them?
7. What does the term ‘impeachment’ mean?
8. When does the President address both the Houses of Parliament together?
9. State one limitation imposed on the powers of the President by the Council of Ministers.
10. Mention two financial powers of Indian President.
11. State two legislative powers of the Indian President.
12. Mention two executive powers of the Indian President.
13. Under what conditions can the President declare an emergency?
14. How long can a state of emergency remain in operation without Parliaments approval?
15. What is the distinction between the electors of the President and the Vice President of India?
16. Who takes charge if the Office of both the President and the Vice President falls vacant?
17. Mention two military and two judicial powers of the Indian President.
18. Explain two discretionary powers of the Indian President.
19. Why is the Indian President referred to as the nominal head of the State?
20. How is the Vice President of India elected and what are his functions?

Structured Question

21. With reference to the Emergency Powers of the Indian President answer the following questions:
(i) Mention four effects of the Proclamation of a General Emergency by the President.
(ii) What is the Constitutional Machinery of a State? When can an Emergency due to the failure of
the Constitutional Machinery be declared? Mention three effects of the Proclamation of such
an Emergency.
(iii) When does the President declare a Financial Emergency? State one of its effects.

5
Meaning of Supply

Supply refers to the amount of a good or service that the producers/providers are willing and
able to offer to the market at various prices during a period of time. There are two important
aspects of supply:

Supply refers to what is offered for sale and not what is finally sold.

Supply is a flow. Hence, it is a certain quantity per day or week or month, etc.

Determinants of Supply

While the price is an important aspect for determining the willingness and desire to part with
goods/services, many other factors determine the supply of a product or service as discussed
below:

Price of the Good/ Service

The most obvious one of the determinants of supply is the price of the product/service. With
all other parameters being equal, the supply of a product increases if its relative price is higher.
The reason is simple. A firm provides goods or services to earn profits and if the prices rise, the
profit rises too.

Price of Related Goods

Let’s say that the price of wheat rises. Hence, it becomes more profitable for firms to supply
wheat as compared to corn or soya bean. Hence, the supply of wheat will rise, whereas the
supply of corn and soya bean will experience a fall.

Hence, we can say that if the price of related goods rises, then the firm increases the supply of
the goods having a higher price. This leads to a drop in the supply of the goods having a lower
price.

Price of the Factors of Production

Production of a good involves many costs. If there is a rise in the price of a particular factor of
production, then the cost of making goods that use a great deal of that factors experiences a
huge increase. The cost of production of goods that use relatively smaller amounts of the said
factor increases marginally.

For example, a rise in the cost of land will have a large effect on the cost of producing wheat and
a small effect on the cost of producing automobiles.

Therefore, the change in the price of one factor of production causes changes in the relative
profitability of different lines of production. This causes producers to shift from one line to
another, leading to a change in the supply of goods.
State of Technology

Technological innovations and inventions tend to make it possible to produce better quality and/
or quantity of goods using the same resources. Therefore, the state of technology can increase
or decrease the supply of certain goods.

Government Policy

Commodity taxes like excise duty, import duties, GST, etc. have a huge impact on the cost of
production. These taxes can raise overall costs. Hence, the supply of goods that are impacted
by these taxes increases only when the price increases. On the other hand, subsidies reduce the
cost of production and usually lead to an increase in supply.

Other Factors

There are many other factors affecting the supply of goods or services like the government’s
industrial and foreign policies, the goals of the firm, infrastructural facilities, market structure,
natural factors etc.

The Law of Supply

As mentioned in the introduction, a man of normal intellect always prefers to increase his profit.
Talking about the suppliers, when a supplier gets more price for his supply, the normal behavior
would be to increase the supply, in order to extract greater profits. This is the law of supply.

Technically, the law of supply states that other factors remaining constant, the quantity of a
good produced and offered for sale would increase with an increase in its price and decrease as
the price falls.

Thus the law of supply acts as a bridge between the supply of a commodity and its price.
Further, we can say that there is a direct relationship between the supply of a commodity and its
price.

Again, this law is a result of common sense, as at higher prices a supplier would be looking at
greater profit margins and hence it acts as an incentive for increasing the supply.

This law is true for a majority of day-to-day occurrences of supply. However, there are some
exceptions to the law of supply. The supply of labor at high wages, for example, decreases
instead of increasing.

This is because an employer pays more only when you possess a skill which is not so common.
Thus, the supply depends upon the phenomenon under consideration and the extent to which
supply can be altered.

Further, the behavior of supply is also the slave of time, for obvious reasons. When talking about
short-run, we can play with supply only up to a certain extent, permissible under the short time
frame.
On the contrary, in the long run, changes on a large scale become a part of the equation allowing
us to alter the supply to a greater extent.

Last modified: 18:50

 Class 10: Computer Applications Set 2
Methods in Java
A method is a collection of statements that perform some specific task and return the result to the
caller. A method can perform some specific task without returning anything. Methods allow us to
reuse the code without retyping the code. In Java, every method must be part of some class which is
different from languages like C, C++, and Python.

Methods are time savers and help us to reuse the code without retyping the code.

Method Declaration
In general, method declarations hassix components:

1. Modifier-: Defines access type of the method i.e. from where it can be accessed in your
application. In Java, there 4 type of the access specifiers.

public: accessible in all class in your application.

protected: accessible within the class in which it is defined and in its subclass(es)

private: accessible only within the class in which it is defined.

default (declared/defined without using any modifier) : accessible within same class
and package within which its class is defined.

2. The return type : The data type of the value returned by the method or void if does not return
a value.
3. Method Name : the rules for field names apply to method names as well, but the convention is
a little different.
4. Parameter list : Comma separated list of the input parameters are defined, preceded with
their data type, within the enclosed parenthesis. If there are no parameters, you must use
empty parentheses ().
5. Exception list : The exceptions you expect by the method can throw, you can specify these
exception(s).
6. Method body : it is enclosed between braces. The code you need to be executed to perform
your intended operations.

How to name a Method?

A method name is typically a single word that should be a verb in lowercase or multi-word, that
begins with a verb in lowercase followed by adjective, noun….. After the first word, first letter of each
word should be capitalized. For example, findSum, computeMax, setX and getX

Generally, a method has a unique name within the class in which it is defined but sometime a method
might have the same name as other method names within the same class when you have to perform
method overloading in Java.

1
Calling a Method
The method needs to be called for using its functionality. There can be three situations when a method
is called:

A method returns to the code that invoked it when:

1. It completes all the statements in the method

2. It reaches a return statement
3. Throws an exception

// Program to illustrate methodsin java

import java.io.*;

class Addition {

int sum = 0;

publicintaddTwoInt(int a, int b) // adding two integer value.

sum = a + b;

return sum; //returning summation of two values.

public static void main (String[] args)

Addition obj = new Addition(); // creating an instance

int s = obj.addTwoInt(1,2); // calling addTwoInt() method

System.out.println("Sum of two integer values :"+ s);

2
Memory Allocation for Methods Calls

Methods calls are implemented through stack. Whenever a method is called a stack frame is created

within the stack area and after that the arguments passed to and the local variables and value to be

returned by this called method are stored in this stack frame and when execution of the called method

is finished, the allocated stack frame would be deleted. There is a stack pointer register that tracks the

top of the stack which is adjusted accordingly.

Different ways of Method Overloading in Java

Java can distinguish the methods with different method signatures. i.e. the methods can have same

name but with different parameters list (i.e. number of the parameters, order of the parameters, and

data types of the parameters) within the same class.

Method signature: It consists of the method name and a parameter list (number of parameters, type

of the parameters and order of the parameters). The return type and exceptions are not considered as

part of it.

Overloaded methods are differentiated based on the number and type of the parameters passed as an

argument to the methods.

You can not define more than one method with the same name, Order and the type of the arguments.

It would be compiler error.

The compiler does not consider the return type while differentiating the overloaded method. But you

cannot declare two methods with the same signature and different return type. It will throw a compile

time error.

3
 Assignment
Answer the following…
1. Write 10 different types of method headers and their call statement
Method Header Method Call
Sno

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

2. Write the flow of control and execution of statements of the program given [class addition]

along with the output if any. What is the use of variable called sum.

3. Write a program in java to show the price of different types of ‘Ice cream’, using methods. The
program should display at least 6 names of Ice creams in a menu and depending on the option

chosen your program has to show the desired result.

4
CLASS 10: COMMERCIAL STUDIES SET 2
Marketing and Sales
 Assignment
Question 1. Define Marketing.
Question 2. What are the objectives of marketing?
Question 3. What is the difference between marketing and sales? (Any 5).
Question 4. What is the difference between product and service?
Study Notes on Elasticity of Demand: Concept, Types and Importance

Let us make an in-depth study of Elasticity of Demand. After reading this article you will learn
about: 1. Concept of Elasticity of Demand 2. Types of Elasticity of Demand 3. Measurement 4.
Factors Determining 5. Importance.

Concept of Elasticity of Demand:

The law of demand indicates the direction of change in quantity demanded to a change in price.

It states that when price falls, demand rises. But how much the quantity demanded rises (or
falls) following a certain fall (or rise) in prices cannot be known from the law of demand. That is
to say, how much quantity demanded changes following a change in the price of a commodity
can be known from the concept of elasticity of demand.

By elasticity of demand, we normally mean price elasticity of demand. (Price) elasticity of

demand measures the degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded following a change in
own price of the commodity, holding money income and prices of related goods constant.

(Price) elasticity of demand is the relative difference in the dependent variable (here, quantity)
divided by the relative difference in independent variable (here, price). Alternatively, it is defined
as the absolute value of the ratio of percentage change in price. Thus, the elasticity of demand is
a relative concept.

The formula for calculating elasticity of demand is:

EP = proportional changes in quantity demanded/proportional changes in price

= % changes in quantity demanded/changes in price

EP = |ΔQ/Q/ΔP/P|= |ΔQ/ΔP.P/Q|

Or absolute value, denoted by ||, turns the negative number into a positive one. Thus, EP = |-
5%/2%| = 2.51 = 2.5. Price elasticity is a pure number, independent of units of measure. The
percentage will be the same whether we measure quantity demanded in numbers or kilograms
or liters.
Types of Own (Price) Elasticity of Demand:

For all types of commodities, the rate of change of quantity demanded to a change in own price
is not uniform. For some commodities, demand is said to be more responsive to price changes
compared to other commodities. That is why there are various types of elasticities of demand.

They are of the following five types:

(1) Elastic Demand (EP > 1):

Demand is said to be elastic if the change in price causes a more than proportionate change
in quantity demanded. A 10 p.c. change in price causes quantity demanded to change by more
than 10 p.c. In other words, if E is greater than one, demand is said to be elastic

Normally, demand is elastic for luxury goods. Let the price of gold per gm decline from Rs. 160
to Rs. 140. As a result, demand for gold rises from 1,000 kilograms to 2,000 kilograms. Thus,

EP = 1,000/1,000 ÷ 20/160 = 1,000/20 .160/1,000 = 8

Since elasticity of demand for gold is greater than one, gold is a luxury item.

(2) Inelastic Demand (EP < 1):

When the change in price causes a less than proportionate change in quantity demanded,
demand is inelastic. A 10 p.c. cut in price may cause quantity demanded to fall by, say, 1 p.c.
Thus, demand is said to be inelastic (Ep< 1), Usually, demand is inelastic for necessary goods.

Suppose that following a drop in the price of wheat from paisa 40 per kilogram to paisa 20 per
kilogram, demand for wheat rises from 1,600 kilograms to 2,000 kilograms. This means

EP = 400/160 ÷ 20/40 = 400/20. 40/1,600 = 0.5

Thus, wheat has an inelastic demand since EP < 1 and wheat is a necessary article.

(3) Unit elasticity of Demand (EP = 1):

When the change in price causes the same proportionate change in quantity demanded, demand
has unit elasticity. A 10 p.c. decline in price will lead to an exactly 10 p.c. increase in quantity
demanded. Then EP = 1

Suppose that the price of a commodity declines from Rs. 200 to Rs. 100 per kilogram. As a
result, demand for that commodity rises from 400 kilograms to 800 kilograms. Thus,

EP = 400/400 ÷ 100/100 = 400/100. 100/400 = 1

(4) Perfectly Elastic Demand (EP = ∞)

When a slight change in price causes a great change in quantity demanded, the value of elasticity
of demand tends to be infinity and demand is said to be infinite or perfectly elastic. In this case,
the demand curve (DD,) becomes parallel to the horizontal axis. Under perfectly competitive
market, the demand curve for a product of an individual firm becomes perfectly elastic.

(5) Perfectly Inelastic Demand (EP = 0):

If quantity demanded becomes completely unresponsive to price changes, the coefficient tends
to be zero. In this case, whatever the price, even if it is zero, quantity demanded will remain fixed
at a particular level. The demand curve, thus, becomes parallel to the vertical axis and demand is
said to be completely (perfectly) inelastic.

Thus, elasticity of demand varies from zero to infinity.

Measurement of Elasticity of Demand:

(a) Total outlay (revenue) method

(b) Point elasticity method

All these methods are described below:

1. Elasticity and Total Revenue or Outlay Method:

Marshall offered the method of total revenue or total outlay for estimating elasticity of demand.
What the sellers receive from the sale of commodities is called total expenditure or outlay of
buyers. There is no difference between total revenue and total outlay since what is spent by the
buyers is received as income by the sellers.

Thus, total outlay/revenue is the price multiplied by the quantity purchases, i.e., TR = P × Q. Here
we want to measure how much total outlay changes following a change in price. It depends
upon the elasticity of demand.

(a) Elastic Demand:

Suppose price declines (rises). As a result, total expenditure rises (falls). Under the
circumstance, the value of elasticity of demand becomes greater than one.

Remember: When price and total outlay move in opposite direction, demand for the product
becomes elastic.

(b) Inelastic Demand:

If the total outlay falls when price falls, or if total outlay rises when price rises, then demand is
said to be inelastic (i.e., Ep< 1). , Hence, demand is inelastic.

(c) Unit Elasticity:

Irrespective of variations in demand and price, if the total outlay does not change, then demand
is unit elastic (i.e., Ep = 1).

(d) Perfectly Elastic Demand:

In this case, at a particular price, any amount is demanded.

(e) Perfectly Inelastic Demand:

as price rises, revenue rises. The vertical straight line demand curve says that, whatever the
price, quantity demanded remains the same.

2. Point Elasticity Method of Measurement:

When the change in price is infinitesimally small, Marshallian method may not provide accurate
estimate of elasticity of demand. In that case, a geometrical method may be employed. This
method aims at measuring elasticity of demand at a particular point on a demand curve.

So long, we tried to calculate the elasticity over certain area or segment of a demand curve
and the terms elastic, inelastic and unit elastic had been applied to the whole demand curve.
However, such is not true. It may happen that the demand for a product can be elastic in one
price range and inelastic in another.

The formula for elasticity of demand is:

EP = ΔQ/Q ÷ ΔP/P

The second component of the elasticity formula is:

P/Q = M1E /OM1

EF/EC = lower segment of the demand curve/upper segment of the demand curve.

Factors Determining Elasticity of Demand:

There are various factors on which elasticity of demand depends:

(a) Nature of the Commodity:

In the first place, it depends on the nature of the commodity. Commodities which are supposed
to be essential or critical to our daily lives must have an inelastic demand, since price change of
these items does not bring about a greater change in quantity demanded.

But, luxury goods have an elastic demand. Demand for these good can be quickly reduced when
their prices rise. When their prices fall, consumers demand these goods in larger quantities.
However, whether a particular commodity is a necessary or a luxury depends on income, tastes
and preferences of the consumer.

A particular good may be necessary to someone having an inelastic demand. Same commodity
may be elastic to another consumer. For instance, owning a TV may be a luxury item to a low
income person. But the same may be bought as an essential item by a rich person.

(b) Availability of Substitutes:

Secondly, commodities having large number of substitutes must have an elastic demand. Some
products, such as Horlicks, Complan, Viva, Maltova, Milo, etc., have quite a large number of close
substitutes. A change in the price of, say, Horlicks—the prices of other substitutes remaining
constant—will lead a consumer to substitute one beverage for another.

If the price of Horlicks goes down, buyers will demand more of it and less of its substitutes.
Conversely, demand is fairly inelastic in the case of those commodities which do not have a
large number of substitutes.
(c) Extent of Uses:

Thirdly, there are some commodities which can be used for a variety of purposes. For example,
electricity. If price per unit of electricity consumed falls, people will reduce their consumption of
its substitutes (e.g., coal, gas, etc.) and increase the consumption of electricity.

Coefficient of price elasticity of demand in this case must be greater than one. On the other
hand, when a commodity is used only for one or two purposes, a price change will have less
effect on its quantity demanded and, therefore, demand will be inelastic.

(d) Habit Good:

Fourthly, there are some commodities consumed out of habits and conventions— they have an
elastic demand. Even in the face of rising prices of those commodities or falling income, people
will consume those (such as, cigarette).

For this reason, price elasticity as well as income elasticity of demand for this type of
commodity is inelastic. Further, gold ornaments are used in the marriage ceremony rather out
of convention, though gold prices are rising. When gold is used in this way, its demand becomes
inelastic.

(e) Time Dimension:

Fifthly, shorter the time, lower will be the elasticity of demand. This is because in the short run
satisfactory substitutes of a product may not be available. Thus, demand for a product in the
short run usually becomes inelastic. Such a commodity will be elastic in the long run when close
substitutes may be produced.

Thus, the response of quantity demanded to a change in price will tend to be greater (smaller),
the longer (shorter) the time-span considered. In the long run, there is enough time for
adjustments to be made following a change in price.

(f) The Importance of being Unimportant:

Sixthly, people often pay little attention to the price of a product if it constitutes a relatively small
part in their budget. For example, if the fire of railway ticket of a tourist who travels by rail once
in a year is increased form Rs. 125 to Rs. 135, then he may not postpone his journey. This means
he is unresponsive to such price hike and his demand is inelastic. This is called ‘the importance
of being unimportant’.

(g) Durability:

Finally, durable commodities have an elastic demand. If the price of these goods rises, people
will spend less on these goods. On the other hand, following a fall in the price of durable
commodities (e.g., refrigerator), people demand more of them. In the case of non-durable
commodities, demand is elastic.

Importance of the Concept of Elasticity of Demand:

The concept of elasticity of demand has both theoretical and practical value.

The concept may be used in understanding as well as tackling various economic problems:

(a) Price Determination:

Use of the concept of elasticity of demand is required in the price determination of a commodity
under different market conditions. Under perfect competition, in the short run in which supply is
absolutely inelastic price depends upon the elasticity of demand.

If demand suddenly falls—supply remaining fixed—prices will fall, and, if demand suddenly rises,
prices will rise as output cannot be increased. Again, the stability of prices also depends on
the elasticity of demand and elasticity of supply. If either the demand or the supply is elastic,
fluctuations in prices will be within narrow limits.

Further, if the demand for an agricultural commodity is inelastic, increased production may spell
disaster to the economic condition of farmers. So the government can adopt measures to save
the plight of the farmers.

A monopoly seller must have a knowledge relating to the elasticity of demand for his product
while determining the price of his commodity.

A monopolist will produce a commodity in the range of his demand curve where demand is said
to be elastic. He will never produce in the range of the demand curve where demand is inelastic.
Obviously, price determination of the monopoly product will be governed by the elasticity of
demand.

(b) Wage Determination:

The concept of elasticity of demand is employed in wage determination. Wages, in modern days,
are determined through the process of collective bargaining. Trade union will be successful in
raising the wage rate provided labour demand is deemed to be inelastic. This is because of the
fact that the degree of substitution between labour and other labour substituting inputs is less.

Trade union becomes cautious in demanding higher wage rates when the demand for labour
is said to be elastic. Under the circumstance, the employer may be forced to employ more
machines (assumed to be a cheaper input) than labour.

Anyway, this concept may be employed in analysing the problems connected with changes in
the conditions of supply. Economists are interested in knowing the effect on employment in the
software industry following a rise in the wages of workers engaged in this industry.

“The general rule is that where demand is elastic, a change in supply will cause the quantity sold
to change rather than price; where demand is inelastic, price changes rather than the quantity
sold. Thus, trade union will find it more difficult to obtain a wage increase for its members
without creating unemployment where the elasticity of demand for the product made is high.” 
(c) Policy Determination:

The concept of elasticity of demand is of great importance to a finance minister. While imposing
tax or raising the existing tax rates, the finance minister must have sufficient knowledge of the
elasticity of demand for the taxed commodity.

If the demand for the product is inelastic, the purpose of the tax—say revenue-earning—will
be served. That is why taxes are mostly imposed or rates of taxes are raised in the case of
commodities having inelastic demand.

Again, the concept may be used in the determination of incidence of a tax. It is easier to shift the
burden of taxes on to the consumers if the product demand is assumed to be inelastic. Further,
whether exportable or importable be taxed or not, the concept of elasticity may be of great use.

(d) Exchange Rate Determination:

In international trade too, the concept may be employed. For instance, as far as exchange
rate (i.e., the rate at which one currency is exchanged for another currency) determination is
concerned, the concept of elasticity of demand is of great importance.

The concept of elasticity of demand is used to justify whether devaluation of a currency is a right
step in curbing balance of payment problems of a country. Devaluation is expected to correct
the balance of payments disequilibrium if the sum of the elasticities of demand for export and
import exceeds unity.

In international trade theory, within the limits set by the comparative costs, the terms of trade
also depends on the elasticity of demand of each country for the goods of other countries.

In fine, elasticity of demand is a concept which has much applicability as far as business
decision-making is concerned and is, therefore, of much importance in modern economics. In
fact, most businessmen should try to form as precise an idea of elasticity as possible.

The concept of elasticity of demand is useful in business decision-making because “it is

a convenient shorthand way of expressing the effects of price change on demand for a
commodity and as such it is relevant to price fixing.”

Last modified: 19:03