Human Body (206)

Axial Skeleton (80) Appendicular Skeleton (126)

Upper Extremity (32 Lower Extremity (31 x
Skull (28) Torso (52)
x 2 = 64) 2 = 62)
Paired Bones (11 x 2 Paired Bones (12 x 2 = 1. Scapula 1. Hip (Ilium,
= 22) 24) 2. Clavicle Ischium, Pubis)
3. Humerus 2. Femur
1. Nasal 1. Rib 1 4. Radius 3. Patella
2. Lacrimal 2. Rib 2 5. Ulna 4. Tibia
3. Inferior Nasal 3. Rib 3 6. Scaphoid 5. Fibula
Concha 4. Rib 4 7. Lunate 6. Talus
4. Maxiallary 5. Rib 5 8. Triquetrum 7. Calcaneus
5. Zygomatic 6. Rib 6 9. Pisiform 8. Navicular
6. Temporal 7. Rib 7 10. Hamate 9. Medial
7. Palatine 8. Rib 8 (False) 11. Capitate Cuneiform
8. Parietal 9. Rib 9 (False) 12. Trapezoid 10. Middle
9. Malleus 10. Rib 10 (False) 13. Trapezium Cuneiform
10. Incus 11. Rib 11 14. Metacarpal 1 11. Lateral
11. Stapes (Floating) 15. Proximal Cuneiform
12. Rib 12 Phalange 1 12. Cuboid
(Floating) 16. Distal Phalange 13. Metatarsal 1
1 14. Proximal
1. Frontal 1. Hyoid 17. Metacarpal 2 Phalange 1
2. Ethmoid 2. Sternum 18. Proximal 15. Distal Phalange
3. Vomer 3. Cervical Phalange 2 1
4. Sphenoid Vertebrae 1 19. Middle 16. Metatarsal 2
5. Mandible (atlas) Phalange 2 17. Proximal
6. Occipital 4. C2 (axis) 20. Distal Phalange Phalange 2
5. C3 2 18. Middle Phalange
6. C4 21. Metacarpal 3 2
7. C5 22. Proximal 19. Distal Phalange
8. C6 Phalange 3 2
9. C7 23. Middle 20. Metatarsal 3
10. Thoracic Phalange 3 21. Proximal
Vertebrae 1 24. Distal Phalange Phalange 3
11. T2 3 22. Middle Phalange
12. T3 25. Metacarpal 4 3
13. T4 26. Proximal 23. Distal Phalange
14. T5 Phalange 4 3
15. T6 27. Middle 24. Metatarsal 4
16. T7 Phalange 4 25. Proximal
17. T8 28. Distal Phalange Phalange 4
18. T9 4 26. Middle Phalange
19. T10 29. Metacarpal 5 4
20. T11 30. Proximal 27. Distal Phalange
21. T12 Phalange 5 4
22. Lumbar 31. Middle 28. Metatarsal 5
Vertebrae 1 Phalange 5 29. Proximal
23. L2 32. Distal Phalange Phalange 5
24. L3 5 30. Middle Phalange
25. L4 5
26. L5 31. Distal Phalange
27. Sacrum 5
28. Coccyx
BONE TISSUE AND HOMEOSTASIS- Gabiano

*Bone tissues is continuously growing, remodeling and repairing itself. It contributes to homeostasis of
the body by providing support, protection, the production of blood cells and the storage of minerals and
triglycerides.

*A bone is composed of several different tissues working together, bone or osseous, tissue, cartilage,
dense connective tissues, epithelium, adipose tissue, and nervous tissue, for this reason each individual
bone in your body is considered organ.

*Bone tissue is a complex and dynamic living tissue continually engages in a process called remodeling,
the construction of new bone tissue and breaking down of old bone tissue. The entire framework of
bones and their cartilages, along with ligaments and tendons, constitutes the SKELETAL SYSTEM.

FUNCTIONS OF BONES AND SKELETAL SYSTEM

*Support- The skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues and
providing attachment points for the tendons of most skeletal muscle.

*Protection- The skeleton protects the most important internal organs form injury ,for example ,cranial,
bones protect the brain, vertebrae (backbones )protect the spinal cord and the rib cage protects the
lungs and heart.

*Assistance in movement – Most skeletal muscles attach to the bones; when they contracts they pull on
bones to produce movement.

*Mineral homeostasis (storage and release)-Bone tissue stores several minerals ,especially calcium and
phosphorus ,which contribute to the strength of bone, Bone tissue stores about 99%of body's calcium.
On demand bone releases minerals into the blood to maintain critical mineral balances(homeostasis)and
distribute to minerals to other parts of the body.
*Blood cell production- Within certain bones, a connective tissues called red bone marrow produces red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets a process called hemopoiesis ,Red bone marrow consists of
developing blood cells ,adipocytes , fibroblasts and macrophages within a network of reticular fibers. It
is present in developing bones of fetus and in some adult bones, such as the hip bones, ribs,
breastbone, vertebrae ( backbones), skull, ends the bone of the arm and thigh.

*Triglyceride storage Yellow bone marrow- Consist mainly of adipose cells which store triglycerides. The
stored triglyceride are potential chemical energy reserved. In newborn all bone marrow is red and is
involved in hemopoiesis .With increasing age, much of the bone marrow changes from red to yellow.

THE STUCTURE OF BONE

*Diaphysis – is the bone’s shaft or body the long ,cylindrical , main portion of the bones.

*The epiphysis- growing over; singular is the proximal and distal ends of the bone .

*The metaphysis- between the singular are the regions between diaphysis and epiphysis ,In a growing
bone, each metaphysis contains an epiphyseal (growth)plate a layer of hyaline cartilage that allows the
diaphysis of the bone to grow in length .When a bone ceases to grow in length at about ages 18-21, the
cartilage in epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone, the resulting bony structure is known as the
epiphyseal.

*The articular cartilage-is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of epiphysis where the bone
forms an articulation (joint) with another bone. Articular cartilage reduces friction and absorbs shock at
freely movable joints.

*The periosteum-surrounds the external bone surface wherever it is not covered by articular cartilage.
It is composed of an outer fibrous layer that consists of cells. Some of the cells of the periosteum enable
the bone to grow in thickness but not in length . The periosteum also protects the bone ,assists in
fracture repair, helps nourish bone tissues and serves as an attachment point for ligaments and tendons.
It attached to the underlying bone through perforators fibers, thick bundles of collagen fibers that
extended from the periosteum into the extracellular bone matrix.

*The medullary cavity or marrow cavity- a hollow ,cylindrical space within diaphysis that contains fatty
yellow bone marrow in adults.

*The endosteum – is a membrane that lines the internal bone surface facing medullary cavity. It
contains a single layer of cells and as same amount of connective tissue.
Classification of the BONES- Legaspi

4 types of cell are present in Bone Tissue

*Osteogenic

*Osteoblasts

*Osteocytes

*Osteoclasts

*Osteogenic-are unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchyme, the tissue from which almost all
connective tissue are formed.

-these are cells found along the inner portion of periosteum, in the endosteum, and in the canals
within bone and that contain blood vessels.

*Osteoblasts

- Are bone building-building cells.

-They synthesize and secrete collagen fibers and other organic components needed to build the
extracellular matrix of bone tissue.

*Osteocytes -cell that lies within the substance of fully formed bone. It occupies a small chamber
called a lacuna, which is contained in the calcified matrix of bone.

-Osteocytes derive from osteoblasts, or bone-forming cells, and are essentially osteoblasts
surrounded by the products they secreted.
*Osteoclasts- are large cells that dissolve the bone.

-They come from the bone marrow and are related to white blood cells.

-They are formed from two or more cells that fuse together, so the osteoclasts usually have more than
one nucleus.

*Compact Bone Tissue

*Compact bone tissue

- is the strongest form of bone tissue.

- It provides protection and support and resist the stresses produced weight and movement.

*VOLKMANN'S CANALS-are channels that assist with blood and nerve supply from the periosteum to
the
-Haversian canal.

*Compact bone consists of closely PACKED OSTEONS OR HAVERSIAN SYSTEMS. The osteon consists of
a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings
(lamellae) of matrix.
*The CONCENTRIC LAMELLAE are like tubes of different size fitting inside each other to make an
osteon. Running through the core of an osteons and along its axis is the central canal that contains
blood vessels and nerves.

*a LACUNAE is a small space containing an osteocyte in

bone or chondrocyte in
cartilage.

*Bone CANALICULUS, a small channel found in ossified bone for nutrition for example in the
Haversian canal.
*OSTEONS are cylindrical structures that contain a mineral matrix and living osteocytes connected by
canaliculi, which transport blood. They are aligned parallel to the long axis of the bone

*The space between osteons is occupied by INTERSTITIAL LAMELLAE, which are the remnants of osteons
that were partially resorbed during the process of bone remodeling

*Near the surface of the compact bone, the lamellae are arranged parallel to the surface; these are
called CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE.
BONE CELLS- HERRERA

*Osteogenic Cells-“-genic ” means producing

-Are unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchyme, the tissue from which almost all connective
tissues are formed.

- Are the only bone cells to undergo cell division:

the resulting cells develop into osteoblast

- Osteogenic cells are found along the inner portion of

the periosteum, in the endosteum, and in the canals within

the cone that contains blood vessels.

*Osteoblasts- “ –blasts ” means buds or sprouts

Are bone-building cells.

-They synthesize and secrete collagen fibers and other organic components needed to build the
extracellular matrix of bone tissue, and they initiate calcification.

- As osteoblasts surround themselves with extracellular matrix, they become trapped in their secretions
and become osteocytes.

- The ending –blast in the name of a bone cell or any other connective tissue cell means that the cell
secretes extracellular matrix.

*Osteoclasts-“ – clast ” means break

-Are the huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes

(a type of white blood cell) and are concentrated in the endosteum.

- On the side of the cells that faces the bone surface, the osteoclast’s plasma membrane is deeply folded
into a ruffled border.

-Here the cell releases powerful lysosomal enzymes and acids that digest the protein and mineral
components of the underlying bone matrix. This breakdown of bone extracellular matrix is called
resorption, is part of the normal development, maintenance, and repair of bone.

- The ending -clast in a bone cell means that the cell breaks down extracellular matrix
FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH AND REPAIR- ANTIQUERA

*Normal bone metabolism-growth in the young and bone remodeling in the adult-depends on several
factors.

*These include adequate dietary intake of minerals and vitamins, as well as sufficient levels of several
hormones.

*Minerals -Large amounts of calcium and phosphorus are needed while bones are growing, as are
smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride, and manganese. These minerals are also necessary during
bone remodeling.

*Vitamins- A stimulates activity of osteoblasts. Vitamins C is needed for synthesis of collagen, the
main bone protein. Also vitamin D helps build bone by increasing the absorption of calcium from
foods in the gastrointestinal tract into the blood. Vitamins K and B12 are also needed for synthesis of
bone proteins.

*Hormones- During childhood, the hormones most important to bone growth are the insulinlike
growth factors ( IGFs ), which are produced by the liver and bone tissue (see page 652 ). IGFs
stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell division at the epiphyseal plate and in the periosteum, and
enhance synthesis of the proteins needed to build new bone.

*IGFs are produced in response to the secretion of human growth hormone

( hGH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland ( see page 653).Thyroid hormones (T3 and
T4) from the thyroid gland also promote bone growth by stimulating osteoblasts. In addition, the
hormone insulin from the pancreas promotes bone growth by increasing the synthesis of bone
proteins.

*At puberty, the section of hornstones known as sex hormones causes a dramatic effect on bone
growth. The sex hormones include estrogens (produced by the ovaries) and androgens such as
testosterone (produced by testes). Although females have much higher levels of estrogens. The
adrenal glands of both sexes produce androgens, and other tissues, such as adipose tissues, can
convert androgens to estrogens.

*These hormones are responsible for increased osteoblast activity and synthesis of bone extracellular
matrix and the sudden “growth spurt “ that occurs during the teenage years. Estrogens also promote
changes in the skeleton that are typical of females, such as widening of pelvis. Ultimately sex
hormones, especially estrogens in both sexes, shut down growth at epiphyseal (growth) plates,
causing elongation of the bones to cease.

*Lengthwise growth of bones typically ends earlier in females than in males due to their higher level
of estrogens. During adulthood, sex hormones contribute to bone remodeling by slowing of old bone
and promoting deposition of new bone. One way that estrogens slow resorption is by promoting
apoptosis (programmed death) of osteoclasts. As you will see shortly, parathyroid hormone, calcitriol
(the active form of vitamin D), and calcitonin are other hormones that can affect bone remodeling.

*Hormonal Abnormalities That Affect Height

  -Excessive or deficient section of hormones that normally control bone growth can cause a
person to be abnormally tall or short . Over secretion of HGH during childhood produces gigantism, in
which a person becomes much taller and heavier than normal. Under secretion of HGH produces
pituitary dwarfism, in which a person has short stature. (A dwarf has normal-sized head and torso but
small limbs; a midget has a proportioned head, torso, and limbs). Because estrogens terminate growth
at the epiphyseal (growth) plates, both men and women who lack estrogens or receptors for
estrogens grow taller than normal.

*Oversecretion of hGH during adulthood is called “acromegaly”. Although hGH cannot produce
further lengthening of the long bones because of the ephypiseal (growth) plates are already closed,
the bones of the hands, feet and jaws thicken and other tissues and enlarge. In addition, the eyelids,
lips, tongue, and nose enlarge, and the skin thickens and develops furrows, especially on the forehead
and soles, hGH has been used to induce growth in short statured children.

AGING AND BONE TISSUE- SOBREDILLA

*What is Aging?
-Aging refers to the physiological changes that occur in the human body from the attainment of
adulthood, and ending in death. These changes involve a decline of biological functions, and are
accompanied by psychological, behavioral, and other changes. Some of these changes are quite
obvious, while others are subtle.

*The Aging Bone-Bones undergo a lifelong process of remodeling – mature bone tissue is removed
and new bone tissue is formed. Bone remodeling is a highly regulated process that maintains a
balance between bone resorption and formation, thus maintaining skeletal integrity.

-This balance changes with increasing age, resulting in loss of bone tissue. The ageing bone has
reduced mineral content, and is prone to osteoporosis – a condition in which bones are less dense,
more fragile, and prone to fractures.

-As people age the rate of bone resorption by osteoclast cells (multinucleated cells which contain
mitochondria and lysosomes that is responsible for bone resorption) exceeds the rate of bone
formation so bone weaken.

And this all happens due to:

*Inactive life style

*Hormonal changes

*Loss of calcium and other minerals in bone

*Effects of Changes in Aging Bone

-Osteoporosis is a common problem among older people, especially post-menopausal women, and is
a major cause of hip fractures in the elderly.

-Reduced bone density of the vertebrae, combined with the loss of fluid in intervertebral discs, result
in a curved and shortened trunk.

-This reduced bone density, and resulting poor posture, leads to pain, reduced mobility, and other
musculoskeletal problems.

-The risk of injury increases because gait changes, instability, and loss of balance may lead to falls.

*Prevention

-Exercise is important for preserving bone density, however care must be taken to avoid high-impact
exercises and exercises that present the risk of falling. Useful exercises include:

-Weight-bearing exercises e.g. walking

-Strengthening exercises using free weights, elastic bands

-Balance exercises

” A healthy diet, including adequate dosage of Vitamin D and Calcium, is also useful for preserving
bone mass.”

SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE AXIAL SKELETON (JONALYN DINGCONG , JENHEL GRACE MALELANG,
ALEXANDRA MARIE LUMOGDANG)
*The AXIAL SKELETON- Consist of bones in the head and trunk

*80 Bones and 6 parts

*Skull

*Cranium

*Facial

*Hyoid bone

*Auditory ossicles

*Vertebral column

*Thorax

*Sternum

*Ribs

*The skull- Bony structure

-Supports the face and acts as

protective cavity for the brain

*Composed of

*Cranium

*Facial

*Cranial bones

*Frontal

*Occipital

*Parietal

*Temporal

*Sphenoid

*Ethmoid

*Facial Bones

*Nasal bone

*Maxillae

*Zygomatic bone

*Lacrimal bone

*Palatine bones
*Inferior nasal conchae

*Vomer

*Mandible

Palatine Bones Inferior nasal conchae

Disorders of the Skull

*Cleft Palate

*TMJ Syndrome

*Deviated Nasal Septum

Cleft Palate TMJ Syndrome

Deviated Nasal Septum

Sutures

*Coronal Suture- Between the frontal bone and parietal bones

*Sagittal Suture- Between the two parietal bones

*Lambdoid Suture- between the parietal bones and occipital bone

*Squamous Suture- between the parietal bones and temporal bones

*Hyoid Bone
-Does not articulate with or attach to any other bone

-Suspended from the styloid processes by ligaments and muscles

-Located in the neck between the mandible and larynx

*Auditory ossicles

*Malleus- The malleus is made up of the head, neck, lateral (short) process, anterior process and
handle (manubrium).

-The malleus articulates with the larger body of the incus at the synovial diarthrodial malleoincudal
joint within the attic and is best visualized on axial or sagittal oblique image.

*Incus

-The incus consist of a body and short, long and lenticular processes.

-It is shaped like an anvil, and has a long short crus extending from the body, which articulates
withthe malleus.

*Stapes- The stapes articulates with the incus through the incudostapedial joint.

-These components together are described as the stapes superstructure.

- the smallest bone in the human body

*Vertebral Column

Regions of the Vertebrae

-7 cervical vertebrae in the neck

-12 thoracic vertebrae

-5 lumbar vertebrae supporting the lower back

-1 sacrum (consists of 5 fused sacral vertebrae)

-1 coccyx (consists of 4 fused coccygeal vertebrae)

*Intervertebral Discs- Lie in between the vertebrae from the 2nd cervical
vertebrae to the sacrum

-Form strong joints, permit movement, and absorb vertical shock

*Vertebrae- Vertebrae typically consist of a body, a vertebral arch, and several

processes.

*Body

-Thick, disc-shaped front portion

-The weight-bearing part of a vertebra

*Vertebral Arch

-Extends backwards from the body of the vertebra

-Formed by two short, thick processes (pedicles) that unite with the
flat parts of the arch (laminae), ending with a single sharp, slender
projection (spinous process)

*Transverse Processes- Extend laterally on each side where the lamina and pedicle join
*Spinous Process-Projects from the junction of the laminae

-Combined with the two transverse processes, these three are points of
attachment for muscles to the vertebral column

*Articular Processes

- Superior Articular Processes join with the vertebra right above them

-Inferior Articular Processes join with the vertebra right below them

-The articulating surfaces are called facets and are lined with hyaline cartilage

*Vertebrae- Numbered in sequence from top to bottom in each region

*Cervical Vertebrae- All have three foramina: one vertebral foramen and two transverse foramina.
*Atlas (C1 Vertebra)- Supports the head

-Does not have a body or spinous process

-Upper surface contains the superior articular facets that articulate

with the occipital bone (allows you to nod “yes”)

*Axis (C2 Vertebra)- Does have a body and spinous process

-The dens, a tooth-shaped process, projects up through the vertebral foramen of the atlas and serves
as a pivot to allow you to shake your head “no”

*Remaining Cervical Vertebrae

-C3 - C6 all follow the normal anatomy of the typical vertebra

-C7 is also called the vertebra prominens; it has a single, large spinous process that can be felt at the
base of the neck

*Thoracic Vertebrae (T1 - T12)

-Much larger and stronger than cervical vertebrae

-Have facets for articulating with the ribs, which limits movement of the vertebrae
*Lumbar Vertebrae- Largest and strongest of the column

-Projections are short and thick

-Spinous processes are well adapted for the attachment of large back muscles

*Sacrum- Triangular bone formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae that occurs between 16-30 years
old

-Serves as strong foundation for the pelvic girdle

*Four sacral foramina on the anterior and posterior sides where nerves and blood vessels pass

*Sacral canal is a continuation of the vertebral canal

*The lower entrance of the canal is the sacral hiatus

*The sacral promontory is a projection on the top border

*Coccyx

- Triangular shape formed by the fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebrae

- The top articulates with the sacrum

*Thorax- Thoracic Cage

-Bony cage formed by the sternum, costal cartilages, ribs, and bodies of the thoracic vertebrae

-Encloses and protects the organs of the thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity

-Provides support for the bones of the shoulder and upper limbs
*Sternum- Flat, narrow bone located in the center of the anterior thoracic wall

-Also known as the breastbone

-Consists of three parts

*The manubrium is the upper part, articulating with the clavicles and first and second ribs.

*The body is the largest and middle part, articulating directly or indirectly with the 2nd-10th ribs.

*The xiphoid process is the lowest and smallest part that has some abdominal muscles attached to it.

*Ribs- Twelve pairs make up the sides of the thoracic cavity

-Each rib articulates posteriorly with its corresponding thoracic vertebra

*True Ribs- 1st through 7th pairs of ribs

-Have a direct anterior attachment to the sternum by costal cartilage

*False Ribs-8th through 12th pairs of ribs

-Costal cartilages either attach indirectly to the sternum or not at all

-Cartilages of ribs pairs 8-10 attach to each other and the cartilages of the 7th pair of ribs
*Floating Ribs- 11th and 12th pair of ribs are also called
floating ribs

-The costal cartilage at their anterior ends does not

attach to the sternum at all

-Attach only posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae

*Disorders of the Spine and Thorax

Herniated (Slipped) Disc Spinal Bifida

*Vertebral Column Fractures

-Thoracic fractures usually result from a compression injury

-Cervical fractures can be fractured or dislocated by extreme whiplash

-Spinal nerve damage may occur

*Rib Fractures-Most common chest injuries

-Break at the point where the greatest force is applied or at the weakest point on the rib

-Middle ribs are most commonly broken

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON (PITCHELLER, NAVARRA,GOLE)

*The primary function is movement

*It includes bones of the upper and lower limbs

*Girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton

*The Appendicular Skeleton*

*Pectoral girdle- Attaches the upper limbs to the trunk

*Pelvic girdle- Attaches the lower limbs to the trunk

*Upper and lower limbs differ in function- Share the same structural plan

*The Pectoral Girdle*

-Consists of the clavicle and the scapula

-Pectoral girdles do not quite encircle the body completely

-Medial end of each clavicle articulates with the manubrium and first rib

-Laterally – the ends of the clavicles join the scapulae

-Scapulae do not join each other or the axial skeleton

-Provides attachment for many muscles that move the upper limb

-Girdle is very light and upper limbs are mobile

-Only clavicle articulates with the axial skeleton

-Socket of the shoulder joint (glenoid cavity) is shallow

-Good for flexibility – bad for stability

*Articulated Pectoral Girdle*

*Clavicles- Extend horizontally across the superior thorax

-Sternal end articulates with the manubrium

-Acromial end articulates with scapula

-Provide attachment for muscles

-Hold the scapulae and arms laterally

-Transmit compression forces from the upper limbs to the axial skeleton

*Scapulae- Lie on the dorsal surface of the rib cage

-Located between ribs 2 – 7

-Have three borders

-Superior

-Medial (vertebral)

-Lateral (axillary)

-Have three angles

-Lateral, superior, and inferior

*Structures of the Scapula

*Structures of the Scapula

*The Upper Limb-30 bones form each upper limb

-Grouped into bones of the

-Arm

-Forearm

-Hand

*Arm

-Region of the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow

-Humerus

-The only bone of the arm

-Longest and strongest bone of the upper limb

-Articulates with the scapula at the shoulder

-Articulates with the radius and ulna at the elbow

*Humerus-Many structures of the humerus provide sites for muscle attachment

-Other structures of the humerus provide articulation sites for other bones

*Structures of the Humerus of the Right Arm

*Forearm- formed from the radius and ulna

-Proximal ends articulate with the humerus

-Distal ends articulate with carpals

-Radius and ulna articulate with each other

-At the proximal and distal radioulnar joints

-The interosseous membrane

-Interconnects radius and ulna

-In anatomical position

-The radius is lateral and the ulna is medial

*Details of Arm and Forearm

*Ulna- Main bone responsible for forming the elbow joint with the humerus

-Hinge joint allows forearm to bend on arm

-Distal end is separated from carpals by fibrocartilage

-Plays little to no role in hand movement

*Proximal Part of the Ulna

*Radius and Ulna

*Radius- Superior surface of the head of the radius articulates with the capitulum

*Medially – the head of the radius articulates with the radial notch of the ulna

*Contributes heavily to the wrist joint

-Distal radius articulates with carpal bones

-When radius moves, the hand moves with it

*Distal Ends of the Radius and Ulna

*Hand- Includes the following bones

*Carpus – wrist

*Metacarpals – palm

*Phalanges – fingers

*Carpus-Forms the true wrist – the proximal region of the hand

-Gliding movements occur between carpals

-Composed of eight marble-sized bones

*Carpal bones- Are arranged in two irregular rows

-Proximal row from lateral to medial

-Scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform

-Distal row from lateral to medial

-Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate

-A mnemonic to help remember carpals

-Sally left the party to take Carmen home

*Bones of the Hand

*Metacarpus

-Five metacarpals radiate distally from the wrist

-Metacarpals form the palm

-Numbered 1–5, beginning with the pollex (thumb)

-Articulate proximally with the distal row of carpals

-Articulate distally with the proximal phalanges

*Phalanges

-Numbered 1–5, beginning with the pollex (thumb)

-Except for the thumb, each finger has three phalanges

-Proximal, middle, and distal

*Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

*Pelvic Girdle- Attaches lower limbs to the spine

-Supports visceral organs

-Attaches to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments

-Acetabulum is a deep cup that holds the head of the femur

-Lower limbs have less freedom of movement

-Are more stable than the arm

-Consists of paired hip bones (coxal bones)

-Hip bones unite anteriorly with each other

-Articulates posteriorly with the sacrum

*Bony Pelvis

-A deep, basin-like structure

-Formed by Coxal bones, sacrum, and coccyx

*Coxal Bones

-Consist of three separate bones in childhood

-Ilium, ischium, and pubis

*Bones fuse – retain separate names to regions of the coxal bones

*Acetabulum- A deep hemispherical socket on lateral pelvic surface

*Ilium- Large, flaring bone

-Forms the superior region of the coxal bone

-Site of attachment for many muscles

-Articulation with the sacrum forms sacroiliac joint

*Ischium- Forms posteroinferior region of the coxal bone

-Anteriorly – joins the pubis

*Ischial tuberosities- Are the strongest part of the hip bone

*Pubis- Forms the anterior region of the coxal bone

-Lies horizontally in anatomical position

*Pubic symphysis- The two pubic bones are joined by fibrocartilage at the midline

*Lateral and Medial Views of the Hip Bone

*True and False Pelves- Bony pelvis is divided into two regions

*False (greater) pelvis – bounded by alae of the iliac bones

*True (lesser) pelvis – inferior to pelvic brim

-Forms a bowl containing the pelvic organs

*Pelvic Structures and Childbearing

*Major differences between male and female pelves

*Female pelvis is adapted for childbearing

-Pelvis is lighter, wider, and shallower than in the male

-Provides more room in the true pelvis

*Female and Male Pelves

*The Lower Limb

-Carries the entire weight of the erect body

-Bones of lower limb are thicker and stronger than those of upper limb

-Divided into three segments

-Thigh, leg, and foot

*Thigh

-The region of the lower limb between the hip and the knee

-Femur – the single bone of the thigh

-Longest and strongest bone of the body

-Ball-shaped head articulates with the acetabulum

*Structures of the Femur

*Patella

-Triangular sesamoid bone

-Imbedded in the tendon that secures the quadriceps muscles

-Protects the knee anteriorly

-Improves leverage of the thigh muscles across the knee

*Leg

-Refers to the region of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle

-Composed of the tibia and fibula

-Tibia – more massive medial bone of the leg

-Receives weight of the body from the femur

-Fibula – stick-like lateral bone of the leg

-Interosseous membrane

-Connects the tibia and fibula

-Tibia articulates with femur at superior end

-Forms the knee joint

-Tibia articulates with talus at the inferior end

-Forms the ankle joint

-Fibula does not contribute to the knee joint

-Stabilizes the ankle joint

*Structures of the Tibia and Fibula

*The Foot

-Foot is composed of Tarsus, metatarsus, and the phalanges

*Important functions

-Supports body weight

-Acts as a lever to propel body forward when walking

-Segmentation makes foot pliable and adapted to uneven ground

*Tarsus- Makes up the posterior half of the foot

-Contains seven bones called tarsals

-Body weight is primarily borne by the talus and calcaneus

*Metatarsus- Consists of five small long bones called metatarsals

-Numbered 1–5 beginning with the hallux

(great toe)

-First metatarsal supports body weight

*Phalanges of the Toes

-14 phalanges of the toes

-Smaller and less nimble than those of the fingers

-Structure and arrangement are similar to phalanges of fingers

-Except for the great toe, each toe has three phalanges

-Proximal, middle, and distal

*Bones of the Foot

*Arches of the Foot

- Foot has three important arches

-Medial and lateral longitudinal arch

*Transverse arch

-Arches are maintained by

-Interlocking shapes of tarsals

-Ligaments and tendons

*Disorders of the Appendicular Skeleton

-Bone fractures

-Hip dysplasia -Head of the femur slips out of acetabulum

-Clubfoot-Soles of the feet turn medially

*The Appendicular Skeleton Throughout Life

*Growth of the appendicular skeleton

-Increases height

-Changes body proportions

*Upper-lower body ratio changes with age

-At birth head and trunk are 1.5 times as long as lower limbs

-Lower limbs grow faster than the trunk

-Upper-lower body ratio of 1 to 1 by age 10

*Changes in Body Proportions

*The Appendicular Skeleton Throughout Life

- Few changes occur in adult skeleton until middle age, when

-Skeleton loses mass

-Osteoporosis and limb fractures become more common