Concrete Aggregates – Geological

Considerations
Cement Rocks and minerals

Aggregates Aggregates are obtained from rocks, which, in turn, are composed of
minerals (either a single mineral, or a mixture of minerals). A mineral
is naturally occurring, inorganic, has an order internal arrangement of
Admixtures atoms, and has a definite composition (or range of compositions). For
example, quartz, halite, gypsum, opal, feldspar, biotite (mica), etc.
Mixture
Mineral properties:
Design
1. Colour
Fresh 2. Streak (on a porcelain plate)
3. Lustre (metallic or non-metallic)
Concrete 4. Hardness (typically represented on Moh’s scale, where talc has a
hardness of 1 and diamond a hardness of 10)
Hardened 5. Specific gravity
6. Cleavage
Concrete 7. Fracture
8. Crystal form
Dimension 9. Magnetism
10. Tenacity (brittle or ductile)
al Stability 11. Diaphaneity (or transparency)
12. Striations
Durability 13. Reaction to acid (typically, HCl is used for this test)

An ore is a natural mineral that can be mined for a profit. For example,
bauxite, iron ore etc.

Types of rocks

Rocks are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. 95% of

the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust is composed of igneous and
metamorphic rocks, but 75% of the rocks exposed on the surface of the
earth are sedimentary.

Igneous rocks are those which form as a result of cooling from the
molten state. These are further classified as:

1. Intrusive: when the molten matter cools slowly under the earth’s
surface, and results in the formation of large rocks with typically large
crystals, e.g., Granite, gabbro, pegmatite
2. Extrusive: when the molten matter cools rapidly on the earth’s surface,
resulting in the formation of rocks with smaller crystals, e.g., Basalt,
andesite, rhyolite.
 3. Pyroclastics: these are formed due to the cementation of extremely fine
ash deposits which cool very rapidly resulting in an amorphous rock,
e.g., volcanic tuff, pumice, breccia.

Sedimentary rocks are deposited in a fluid medium due to lithification

of weathered sediments. Lithification can occur as a result of
cementation (common cements being iron oxide, calcite, or quartz),
crystallization, or compaction (due to the application of high
temperature and pressure). Shale, sandstone, and limestone make up
46, 32, and 22 % of all sedimentary rocks, respectively.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks are subjected

to heat and pressure. Recrystallization often occurs, and the resulting
rocks have typically large crystals with a well-defined cleavage. For
example, marble, gneiss, schist, phyllite, slate, etc.

Engineering considerations of rocks

1. . Fine-grained siliceous materials in igneous and sedimentary rocks can

be susceptible to Alkali-silica reaction (see the link on Durability for
more details). For example, amongst igneous rocks, rhyolite, andesite as
well as the rocks containing volcanic glass are prone to ASR. The
principal active siliceous ingredients are opal (SiO2.nH2O) and
chalcedone, which is a fibrous variety of silica. Chert and greywacke
among sedimentary rocks are also highly prone to ASR. Among
metamorphic rocks, phyllite and argillite are susceptible to ASR because
of the presence of strained quartz.
2. Carbonate sedimentary rocks, limestone and dolomite, are susceptible
to Alkali-Carbonate reaction when the minerals have a specific texture.
3. . Very coarse grained rocks are undesirable because of poor abrasion
resistance.
4. Some igneous rocks may have soluble minerals like zeolite; also, in
foundations, weathered igneous rocks should not be used. In the case of
sedimentary rocks, the source of rock is important. Some rocks are less
durable (e.g. stream gravels) and some are extremely porous (e.g.
conglomerates are weak and porous), and not good for freezing
conditions. Careful attention should also be paid to the presence of
cavities and conduits within limestone and dolomite among
sedimentary rocks, and marble among metamorphic rocks.
5. Flat, flaky, and elongated pieces are obtained on crushing metamorphic
rocks. Such rocks will pose a problem if used as concrete aggregates.
Also, some metamorphic rocks show directional properties because of
their foliation.
6. As dimension stone, igneous rocks are the best because of their high
resistance to weathering. Sedimentary rocks for use in dimension stone
should be carefully chosen.

Properties of concrete aggregates

Cement A majority of the volume of concrete (60 – 80%) is occupied by
aggregate. In fact, for most conventional concretes, more than 75% of
the volume is aggregate. Aggregates are essential in concrete from the
Aggregate point of view of economy (since cement is expensive), dimensional
s stability (aggregates do not easily creep or shrink), stiffness, and
abrasion resistance.
Admixture
Classification of aggregates
s
Typically, coarse aggregate sizes are larger than 4.75 mm (5 mm in
Mixture British code), while fine aggregates form the portion below 4.75 mm. A
maximum size up to 40 mm is used for coarse aggregate in most
Design structural applications, while for mass concreting purposes such as
dams, sizes up to 150 mm may be used. Fine aggregates, on the other
Fresh hand, have particles up to a minimum size of 0.075 mm. Typical
particle size analyses of coarse and fine aggregates are shown in Figure
Concrete 1.

Hardened
Concrete

Dimension
al Stability

Durability

Figure 1. Particle size distribution of aggregates by sieve analysis

The grading of the aggregate can be distinguished based on the sieve

analysis. Aggregates that predominantly show size fractions in a limited
range of sizes (such as the 20 mm and 10 mm aggregate in Figure 1) are
called ‘uniformly’ graded, while aggregates that show a continuous
gradation of size (sand in Figure 1) are called ‘well’ graded or
continuously graded. When an aggregate shows size fractions in two or
more well defined and well separated ranges, it is called ‘gap’ graded.
The overall objective is to use a combination of coarse and fine
aggregate in concrete in such as way as to get a continuous gradation of
sizes, to ascertain the best packing of the aggregate. This issue will be
addressed later in the Mixture Design link.

Based on the source, aggregates may be classified as natural and

manufactured. Natural aggregates may again be classified into those
that may be used as is (such as river gravel), and those which are
obtained from crushing of rock. On the other hand, manufactured
aggregates are those prepared artificially, such as slag, glass, fly ash
(see Figure 2 for lightweight palletized-sintered fly ash aggregate), etc.

Aggregates can also be classified based upon their density as:

lightweight, normal weight and heavyweight. Lightweight aggregates
such as pumice and tuff (natural pyroclastic igneous) or vermiculite
and perlite (synthetic) have densities in the range of 800 – 1000 kg/m3,
compared to normal weight aggregates such as limestone or granite
that range from 2500 – 2900 kg/m3 and heavyweight aggregates such as
hematite and barite, which have densities as high as 5400 kg/m3.

Figure 2. Pelletized and sintered fly ash makes a good lightweight

aggregate

Particle shape and texture

• Rounded Vs. Angular: The roundness of the aggregate will affect its
packing properties as well as the interlock obtained between
aggregates. Angular aggregates result in better packing and interlock.
On the other hand, rounder aggregates typically need less water for the
same workability. Roundness may be defined by the sphericity of
aggregate, or, from the other viewpoint, as the angularity of the
aggregate. Because of weathering, river gravel (or sand) gives rounded
aggregate, while angular aggregates are obtained using crushed stone.
• Flakiness or elongation of the aggregate can result in anisotropic
packing, poor compaction, and lowered concrete strengths. As discussed
earlier, flakiness and elongation could result from the geological nature
 of the aggregate (aggregates from rocks showing directional properties
would tend to be flaky and elongated).
• Texture of the aggregate is rough or smooth, and dictates the strength
of the paste-aggregate bond. Rougher aggregates show better bond
with paste, but also cause an increase in the water demand. Weathered
aggregates are smooth, while crushed aggregates are rough.

Aggregate strength, modulus, and toughness

The strength of aggregate tested independently is generally always

higher than that of concrete. However, aggregate in concrete is stronger
than the concrete for conventional concrete, while the aggregate
strength is lower than concrete strength for high strength concrete,
where the cementitious matrix is extremely strong. Aggregate strength
depends on its parent rock composition, texture and structure.

The modulus of elasticity is related to strength of the aggregate. It is

very important for a number of reasons:

• E values of aggregate very different from paste will cause a mismatch at

the interface, and this region can thus get prone to cracking. Figure 3
shows a typical pattern of crack development in concrete subjected to
compressive loading. The interface cracks form first, and then grow
outwards into the mortar. Thus the best concrete aggregates are those
with E values in the range of the paste.
• Stiffness of the aggregate will affect the deformation of concrete due to
creep and shrinkage. Stiffer the aggregate, lesser is the overall
deformation.

Figure 3. Crack development pattern of concrete in compression

Other aggregate qualities related to its strength are its hardness (which
will affect abrasion resistance), impact resistance (related to toughness),
and crushing value, or resistance to pulverization.

Specific gravity and bulking

Aggregates are porous, and posses a number of voids, some of which

are penetrable and some impenetrable. This nature of aggregate makes
it difficult to describe one value for its specific gravity. Based on the test
methods used, three types of specific gravity are calculated – Bulk,
Saturated surface dry, and Apparent. Determination of the true specific
gravity of the aggregate is not possible (unless it is crushed to the
smallest possible dimension) because the true volume of the aggregate
can never be determined (as some pores are totally inaccessible).

Fine aggregate is susceptible to increases in volume due to the presence

of moisture. This phenomenon is called bulking. Bulking can lead to
problems during volume batching of the aggregates and causes harsh
mixes with compaction problems. Crushed sand is more susceptible to
this problem compared to natural sand.

Deleterious substances in aggregate

• Impurities, such as organic matter, which may interfere with hydration

• Coatings, such as clay, which may affect the quality of the paste-
aggregate bond
• Weak and unsound particles, such as salt, and low density porous
aggregate which cause a high degree of water absorption and loss of
strength

Soundness

Soundness of the aggregate is its ability to resist excessive changes in

volume as a result of the change in physical conditions. The absorption
and porosity of the aggregate primarily dictates its soundness.
Aggregates for concrete are tested for soundness by subjecting them to
wetting and drying cycles (using sodium sulphate solution as wetting
fluid) and measuring the weight loss due to salt crystallization and
associated cracking.