Eighth Century 17oo-1800

General view of the 18th Century

I POLITICAL EVENTS

Chronologically, the 18th century of France begins under a regime of Absolute

Monarchy (Louis XIV) and ends on the advent of another absolute regime, the Empire
(Napoleon 1). But in the meantime the Revolution of 1789 ended the royalty and
introduced in France the Democratic regime. In fact, the 18th French century almost
ended with the revolution, which marks a profound break in the French civilization.
From now on, we call Old Regime, the whole period from the Renaissance to the
Revolution, and Modern Times, the period from the Revolution to our days (or at
least to the 2nd World War).

Some dates ;

1715---Death of Louis XIV. The absolute monarchy continues with its successors:
Louis XV and Louis XVI. The reign of Louis XV, still brilliant, is darkened by
unhappy wars and defeats for France. Writers attack the Monarchy, which is corrupt.

1750---Beginning of the publication of the "Encyclopedia", a huge philosophical and

scientific dictionary which spreads the new ideas throughout France and Europe.
1789---REVOLUTION FRAN�AISE. It is the end of the royalty and the absolute power
that lasted in France for three centuries (Louis XVI was guillotined in front of
the people, in Paris, in 1793).
It is the triumph of the people and the slogan: freedom, Equality, Fraternity.
1796---Appearance on the national scene of the general Napoleon Bonaparte who,
using his victories, will restore to his profit, for fifteen years, the absolute
power and found the First Empire (1804-1815).

II NEW IDEAS

They already appear towards the end of the reign of Louis XIV, thanks to F�nelon
and La Bruy�re. But their critics of society, though significant, are timid and
isolated. Then, until about 1750, these new ideas spread more and more in the
cultivated society thanks to the Salons'' baster. And from 1750, these ideas will
appear in great light in the works of the philosophers of the Encyclopedia, of
Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau.

What are these new ideas ?

They are many and varied, and translate the mind of the 18th century to be:
Love of science. Indeed, the sciences (mathematics, physics, astronomy, natural
sciences) are developing and passionate about the people cultivated in the 18th
century, as poetry and psychology had fascinated those of the 17th century. From
where a spirit of rationalism (one believes only at reason and science) and
unbelief (fight against religion).
The love of philosophy is �dire: discussions on politics, laws, the organization
of society. Hence the criticism of the present institutions (Monarchy, Aristocracy,
Church).
Love of travel and foreign countries. All French writers go to England and admire
the parliamentary system and institutions. They also travel to Holland and Prussia,
such as Voltaire.
Thus the influence of foreign ideas, especially English, is very strong on the
18th century French. From where a cosmopolitan spirit. All of Europe is feeding the
same ideas in the 18th century. The 18th century Frenchis above all a century of
scientific regionalism, and of fighting the established powers (royalty, Church,
aristocracy).
III THE PHILOSOPHES

It is not a man who seeks the solution of metaphysical problems (existence of God--
origin of the world etc....) as, for example, Plato, Socrates, St. Thomas or even
Descartes. On the contrary, the philosopher of the 18th century is a man who is
very active in the social life that surrounds him: he wants to be useful to his
fellow citizens; he wants to make them better and happier on this earth, thanks to
a more satisfying reorganisation of society. And, as every society is founded on
political principles, the philosopher of the 18th century will essentially be a
policy writer of political writers, who criticizes what seems bad and proposes
reforms that seem to him to be good. The French writers of the 18th century were
not Revolutionaries. In general, they were aristocrats and led an affluent life.
But their ideas will provoke the Revolution.

IV SALONS

We saw the important role played by the books of the books in the first half of the
17th century (cf. the Preciosity). Writers and high-society people were talking
about poetry, of psychology, of the problems of literary problems. Then, under the
rule of Louis XIV, the Court of the King became the artistic and intellectual
against the French life. King Louis XIV directed literature as well as politics: it
was necessary to please the king. But in the 17th century, writers did not care
about politics. During the 18th century, the Salons' bash was once again playing a
very important role. It meets, as always, people of high society, artists, but also
foreign travelers and writers and above all the tips of the philosophers' to be
that expose their political and social ideas with spirit or audacity. In these
salons, there is no talk, or little, of poetry or literature; we discuss science,
philosophy and politics. These shows are held by rich and often intelligent women.
You need to know at least the famous Salons of:
Madame de Lambert (1647-1733) Madame de Geoffrin Madame de Deffand (1748-1789) Miss
of Lespinasse .
In addition to the Salons, there are also the cafes, which are a meeting place
between writers and the public. There are newspapers that royal censorship
continues in vain. It is in the Salons and Caf�s that new ideas are formed that
lead public opinion.

V Generals From The Literature Of The 18th Century

The French literature of the 18th century is distinguished by four main features:
it is a cosmopolitan literature, philosophical of scientific mind, and generally
prose.
Cosmopolitan Literature--- There is exchange of ideas, and reciprocal influence,
between the tips of the French philosophers and foreign writers, especially
English. Thus the literary horizon widened rather than centered, as in the 17th
century, on the royal court.
Philosophical and Political Literature--- The essential concern is to be the
happiness of the human race. The writers of the 18th century are optimistic; they
firmly believe that the whole humanity will soon know a golden age, a gear-roost of
Eldorado's (cf. Voltaire); but before we have to reorganize society. All literary
genres, poetry and even theater, become a platform of propaganda propaganda
platform for these ideas
Scientist Literature - The philosophers believe only in the scientific method
(verification of causes by experience (experiment)) and reject all principles and
all dogmas, whether political or religious. From where, a literature most often
irreligious (anticatholic, and sometimes materialistic). However, most of the IT
philosophers' books believe in the supreme being. Voltaire said: a tom If God
didn't exist, we'd have to invent it.
Literature in prose-To expose clear ideas on scientific subjects and to spread
these ideas through the people, prose is the ideal instrument. In the classical
century, prose was considered a vulgar thing, unworthy of a great spirit, suitable
only for ordinary men (cf. Mr. Jourdain, in the Bourgeois Gentilhomme). We only
loved the noble language of poetry.
In the 18th century, on the contrary, gold left poetry; (of course, there are still
many secondary writers who write verses, but there is not a single good poet,
except Andr� Ch�nier). Why did you say that? Because the writer wants to be useful
to be a useful and, for this reason, he must express himself accurately, in a clear
language, understood by everyone.

VI Quarelle OF ANCIentS AND MODERNS (1687-1716)

At the end of the 17th century, a literary "scuffle" broke out between the
supporters of the imitation of the old-cap (Boileau) and the fans of the Modernes'
(Perrault) that is to say writers who reject the principle of imitation of the
Greek and Latin authors, and who call for independence da thought and style. The
Modernes triumphed. This was the end of the classic ideal.

The French Writer From the 18th Century

Three great figures dominate the 18th century: Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau.
Although different from each other, they are the best representatives of those whom
we have called the philosophers' to be, and which have set the tone for the
literature of this time. But beside the philosophers exist many less important
writers who continue the tradition of the classical century. Some of them were even
influential and famous in their time, but nowdays, only read the writers of genius
or great talent. The schematic table below gives an overview of the main authors ;

I. First Period (17001740): The Precursors

The first scholars of philosophers, it is also a period of intense activity in the
salons where we discuss the scientific and political ideas. Some characters are
illustrated: Pierre Bayle, philosopher and critical mind who doubts all the truths
that Voltaire will develop. Fontenelle (1657-1757), elegant writer who propagates
scientific ideas and tries to make them understand the public. The Abbot of St.
Peter (1658-1743), author of a well-known project of perpetual peace between the
nations of the world.

II. Second Period (17401780): The Triumph of the Philosophs

---the authors of L'Encyclopedia's quilts are Philosophy's (Diderot-Buffon...)
---Montesquieu ---Voltaire----Rousseau
All die before the French Revolution.
---secondary writers- Theatre: --marivaux--Beaumarchais.
Roman --the sage-Bernardin of-St Pierre,
Moralists --vauvenargues--Chamfort
----Rivard .

III. The Third Period (1780-1796): The Revolution, Literature Poor

Poetry: Andre Ch�nier
Political Speakers: --mirabeau---Robespierre ---- Danton .

PHILOSOPHES

Philosophy is fashionable in the 18th century or could say that all the writers of
this century are more or less philosophers. This call, however, is reserved for the
employees of the Encyclopedia who are all of rationalism and eager to reform the
society. Some of them eclipse their companions by the vigor and richness of their
minds.

"What is the Encyclopedia?

 It is a huge dictionary that gives, in alphabetical order, the definition and
explanation of all the sciences, all the arts and all the trades known in the 18th
century. The subtitle of the Encyclopedia is in effect to be a rational Dictionary
of Science, Arts and Trades.
What is the purpose of the Encyclopedia? Spread the knowledge of the scientific
theories and, above all, spread in the public the philosophical and political ideas
of those that are called the "philosophers". In this vast compilation one finds
definitions and just ideas, but also wrong theories and serious errors.
Who made up the Encyclopedia? All the great writers of the century have made their
contribution to this dictionary; so Condillac, d'Alembert, Helvetius, Diderot,
Buffon, Voltaire, Rousseau... But the two directors and officials of this
publication were from Alembert, a philosopher and mathematician and philosophical
rationalist and philosopher, and Diderot, ardent propagator of philosophical ideas.
Diderot (1713-1784) is the perfect example of the total of the philosopher's and
the writer's type of the 13th century: thinker, playwright, novelist, critic of art
and poet, it touches on all kinds. He believes in the happiness of humanity, in
progress; he proposes reforms; his rationalist and materialistic philosophy pushes
him to seek pleasure in life: there is also a lot of sentimentalism and also
naivet�. Spirit always inflated with ideas. Diderot expresses himself in an
abundant and eventful, often complex language. In addition to its essentially
philosophical content, it left a few novels, such as an all-in-kind of the Rameau
Neveu's, and a few novels.employees of the Encyclopedia, it is necessary to mention
a scientist who dedicated his life to studying animals. It's Buffon, author of an
all-in-one Natural History's history. it appears as a forerunner of Darwin's
theories His style, a bit cold, is elegant and accurate.
In which year was the Encyclopedia published? This dictionary is the result of a
long and troubled work. It appeared in the space of 30 years: at the beginning
(1745-1757) the king authorizes publication, then withdraws it when he realizes
that this book attacks the political and social regime as well as religion; then,
for 20 years, the publication is being done in secret. The book was finished some
10 years before the Revolution broke out.
What is the importance of the Encyclopedia? It is the book that has had the most
influence on the French and even European society of that time: it is read
everywhere, and it launches ideas that will lead to the Revolution. The doctrines
exposed in this universal dictionary were fought, but unsuccessfully, by a few
writers. Nowadays, this book is chaotic and confused; but it is necessary to refer
to it if one wants to have an exact idea of the intellectual universe of the 18th
century.
The Encyclopedia contains in sum all the philosophy of the French Revolution.

MONTESQUIe (1689-1755)

Rich, aristocrat, balanced, Montesquieu is not a revolutionary. He likes reading,

traveling, and he's interested in commenting on politics. But Montesquieu is a man
of the 18th century: He is a philosopher, who has a taste for science, especially
for social and historical sciences. He is a writer who has a lot of mind and who
shows it. It is true that in the 18� century, everyone has the spirit (to be
witty).

WORKS of montesquieu;

His two important works are: the all-in-one Letters Persanes' books and the "Spirit
of Lois".

THE LETTERS PERSANES (1721)

Montesquieu imagines that Rica and Usbeck, two Persians (the East is very
fashionable in the 18th century), visit Europe. Installed in Paris, they write to
their friends in Persia and tell them what they see. What is the purpose of these
letters? Montesquieu wants to make a satire of the European society of the 18th
century. He criticizes the manners (i.e. fashion) men (i. e. magistrates,
financiers), institutions (i.e. the Church, the Monarchy, Parliament). It's a bold
satire, made in a light and fun tone. Montesquieu is not a pessimist. He is an
intelligent, sensible observer, and is a clever observer of all that is
exaggerated, bad or ridiculous. But in France the ridiculous fool kills it (the
Frenchman is always afraid to be ridiculous). The style of the Persian letters is
vivid. This is the style of the writers of the 18th century, who like to enjoy and
have fun with spiritual remarks, word games or pun (puns).

THE SPIRIT OF THE LOIS(1748)

It's a very different, serious, scientific look. In this book, Montesquieu seeks
out what the nature of the law is. And he finds that the principles of Law, of
Justice are absolute, but that the laws are necessarily different according to
countries, climates, religions, governments etc. .. It distinguishes three kinds of
governments: tyranny (whose principle is fear), the monarchy (whose principle is
virtue. Montesquieu had studied and admired the English parliamentary system. It
was he who made it known in France; it will be applied to the Revolution. The
Spirit of the Laws is an important book. There are many excellent reflections and
remarks, interesting for the lawyer and for the political science student. Above
all, Montesquieu presents very liberal political ideas that directly attacked the
rule of rule imposed by royalty.

VOLTAIRE (1694-1778)

Voltaire's name is Fran�ois Arouet. From his first literary success (in 1718), he
took the name of Voltaire.
LIFE
he's been very agitated. Voltaire, born in Paris, does serious classical studies,
and then, for some time, he studies Law. But from an early age he was interested in
poetry: he wrote satires and the government locked him up in the Bastille. Upon his
release from prison, he fights with a character of the Court, and he is locked a
second time in the Bastille. Voltaire is now dedicated to literature. He will most
often live away from Paris, in exile, because his writings against the government
and the Church draw upon him the anger of the Court.
his main places of stay are:
England (1726-1728)
Voltaire spends three years there. He is enthusiastic about this country of which
he admires the political institutions, the morals, the Shakespeare theater and
above all the spirit of freedom.
Cirey (in Lorraine) (1734-1749)
Upon his return from England, Voltaire returned to Paris; but soon he is forced to
leave this city for publishing the all-round English Letters' letters where he
criticizes French institutions strongly. He moved to Lorraine with a Lady of the
High Society (Mrs. of the Ch�telet) who protects him and encourages him to write.
He's 15 years old.Pg No. 90
Berlin (in Prussia) 1749-1759
A return from Lorraine, Voltaire lived for 5 years in Paris, then went to the Court
of the King of Prussia who invited him. He will remain there for 10 years; he
admires this king very much, but eventually he quarrels with him, and returns to
France.
Ferney---
Voltaire moved to a small village near the Swiss border. He will spend the last 20
years of his life, developing agriculture and industry in this region and writing a
large number of political and religious books and pamphlets. It is the main
intellectual center of Europe's intellect. In 1778, he returned to Paris to witness
the triumph of his tragedy, the Irene's.
All Europe admires him. He died in Paris, in full glory, at the age of 84.
his Character
Voltaire is a very complex man. Good and sensitive by nature (he fights slavery ---
and defends innocent people in famous trials), he despises the people: the people,
he says, is an animal to which to give hay. Deist (he believes in God), he will
continue to fight the Church and the Catholic religion; it has to be, he repeats,
to be able to crush the infamous.
Extremely intelligent, he lacks the moral sense: the search for pleasure, the lie,
the flattery and also the vulgarity make up his moral philosophy. Voltaire's very
personality is not recommended; But Voltaire is a genius.

VOLTAIRE WORKS

Voltaire has written in all literary genres, and on a variety of subjects. In

total, it has composed more than one hundred volumes.
Poetry--
Voltaire has made up a large number of satirical, philosophical or educational
poetry. It also tried to epic poetry (the bee of the Henriade). But volaire is not
a great poet: it has little imagination and little sensitivity. His field is the
fantasy, the joke, the games of the spirit. Voltaire, poet, is a nice mind (Wit).
Theatre--
As a Shakespeare, Voltaire wants to renew the classical theatre; he introduced new
elements (scenery and melodrama) in order to emerge from the strict rules of the
17th century tragedy. Despite their great success at the time, the tragedies of
Voltaire are not very interesting: they lack real emotion and true emotion. Its
best part is the "Zaire".
History---
Again, Voltaire wants to reform the design of history; in particular it states
that a historian has to: -----draw from the exact sources: you have to tell the
events in all their truth. -----make a full narrative: not only the narrative of
military events (as we did so far), but still the description of the social,
economic, political environment. ----search for the true causes: until the 18th
century historians mainly explained history by the intervention of Divine
Providence. -----write with art: that is to put in relief, by style or by
anecdotes, the psychology of the characters. For Voltaire, history is both a
science and an art. By this he is one of the creators of this literary genre, which
consists in bringing back the whole past of a man or a nation. Among the many
historical works of Voltaire, it is necessary to quote: the books of the history of
Charles XII's (1731) andabove all, the work of the Century of Louis XIV's (1768),
serious and rich work .
Romans, Tales, Pamphlets --
There are a lot of them. It is by this means essentially that Voltaire teaches her
to be a philosophy. For him, the man is neither good nor bad; and on this earth,
man can avoid the misfortune (suffering) if he agrees to stay in his place and not
want too much happiness: it is necessary to cultivate his garden.
This world where we are is to be the best of the worlds possible. it is therefore
up to us, men, to make our happiness by accommodating us. To do so, you have to be
beneficent and tolerant. The best tales of Voltaire are: the Zedig's (1748), and
the Bet (1759). The characters of these tales are imaginary: they travel around the
world see many shows, good ones, others bad, and they draw the moral conclusion.
Correspondence--
We have more than twelve thousand letters of Voltaire, addressed to very diverse
correspondents, kings and strangers. In these letters, Voltaire reveals in all
sincerity his character, his qualities and his faults. On the other hand, these
letters tell us about the ideas and events that he witnessed during his long and
hectic life.

IMPORTANCE OF VOLTAIRE
In the 18th century, Voltaire was considered a kind of god in Europe. He dared to
attack men and institutions, he dared even criticize France and praise Prussia for
beating her. His audacity, his side and his literary genius gave him�they quickly
took the first place among European writers.

What are the ideas of Voltaire

In short, they are quite simple. In all things, Voltaire is intolerant:

Religious intolerance; from where his violent writings against the Catholic Church,
which, at that time, is very influential politically, socially and spiritually.
According to him, all religions are worth.
Political intolerance; he admires the English political regime and desires for
France a lighted-on-the-go-on, which ensures the protection of philosophers and a
certain well-being to the people. But Voltaire, who is fighting slavery, is not a
democrat. For him, the mass of the people is stupid and must work.
The moral intolerance; For Voltaire, there is only one morality, it is to be
beneficent and tolerant; it must be avoid unnecessary cruelty and settle for his
condition. But Voltaire is not a supporter of equality. He is an intelligent
aristocrat who intends to retain his privileges; and also, like all of the
philosophers' intellectuals of the 18th century, an optimist who believes in the
progress and happiness of the human race.
By its continuous struggle against tyrannies of all kinds, by its care to encourage
the development of science, agriculture and industry, Voltaire has exercised a
predominant influence on the society of the 18th century. But his bassesses, his
lies, his immoralism, and the evolution of ideas, have greatly diminisled the scope
of his work. Today Voltaire remains one of the very great French writers because:
His role and his social and literary influence in the 18th century were extremely
important. His quality as a writer is immense. The style of Voltaire is the very
perfection: clear, precise, concise, fast, spiritual. Each sentence expresses
exactly the author's idea; each word is carefully chosen, and the rhythm of the
sentence always corresponds to the feelings that animate it. Voltaire's style is
truly clarity and the French spirit.