Chapter 5

MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS

OF CONTROL VOLUMES

Introduction

The transfer of energy across the boundary into or out of the system can take place in
three ways:
• Heat interactions (called heat transfer)
• Work interactions
• Mass flow (carrying energy with the mass).
These may be called energy interactions and these bring about changes in the properties
of the system. The main concerns of thermodynamics studies are these energy transfers
and the associated property changes of the system. These are usually done with the
application of the various laws of thermodynamics.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to
 organise the ideas on the transfer of energy into and out of a system
 be familiar with the notion that energy can be converted from one form to another and
transferred between systems
 recognise that the total amount of energy is conserved in all conversions and
transfers.
 Solve energy balance problems for steady flow systems and common steady-flow
devices such as nozzles, compressors, turbines and heat exchangers

5.1 FIRST LAW APPLIED TO PROCESSES

It is important to understand the ways in which energy may be transported across the
boundary of a general thermodynamic system. For closed systems (fixed mass systems)
energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system only in the form of heat or work. For

1
open systems or control volumes energy can cross the control surface in the form of heat,
work and energy transported by the mass streams crossing the control surface.
Energy transfer across a system boundary due solely to the temperature difference
between a system and its surroundings is called heat. Work energy can be thought of as
the energy expended to lift a weight. A sign convention is required for heat and work
energy transfers and the classical sign convention is useful in defining the direction of
heat and work flow. According to the classical sign convention, heat transfer to a system
and work done by a system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a
system are negative. The system shown below has heat supplied to it and work done by it

Figure 5.1: Heat and work transfers in a system

It is also useful to mention about the concept of net heat and net work. Recalling that heat
is energy in transition across the system boundary solely due to the temperature
difference between the system and its surroundings. The net heat transferred to a system
is defined as:
Qnet   Qin   Qout
Here Qin and Qout are the magnitudes of the heat transfer values. The quantity ‘Q’ is
meant to be net heat transferred to the system, Qnet. Since heat transfer is process
dependent, the differential heat transfer δQ is called inexact. The heat transfer per unit
mass of the system (q) is given as:

Q
q
m

2
Heat transfer has the units of energy in joules of kilojoules (kJ) or the units of energy per
unit mass, kJ/kg.

According to classical thermodynamics, we consider the energy added to be net heat

transfer to the closed system and the energy leaving the closed system to be net work
done by the closed system. So

Qnet Wnet  Esystem

Normally the stored energy, or total energy, of a system is expressed as the sum of three
separate energies. The total energy of the system, Esystem, is given as:

E  int ernal energy  kinetic energy  potential energy

E  U  KE  PE

Recalling that the ‘U’ the sum of the energy contained within the molecules of the system
other than the kinetic and potential energies of the system as a whole and is called the
internal energy. The internal energy U is dependent on the state of the system an dmass of
the system.

For a system moving relative to a reference plane, the kinetic energy and potential energy
are given by:

 
V   mV 2
KE   m V dV 
V 0 2
z
PE   m g dz  mgz
z 0

The change in stored energy for the system is:

E  U  KE  PE

3
Now the conservation of energy principle or the first law of thermodynamics for closed
systems, is written as

Qnet  Wnet  U  KE  PE

If the system does not move with a velocity and has no change in elevation, the
conservation of energy equation reduces to

Qnet  Wnet  U
This is the most commonly used form of the first law

Since the thermodynamic cycle is composed of processes that cause the working fluid to
undergo a series of state changes through a series of processes such that the final and initial
states are identical, the change in internal energy of the working fluid is zero for whole
numbers of cycles. The first law for a closed system operating in a thermodynamic cycle
becomes

Qnet  Wnet  U 0

Qnet  Wnet

Figure 4.2: P-V diagram of a cyclic

process

4
Example 1
The radiator of a steam heating system has a volume of 20 L (0.02 m3) and it is filled
with super heated vapour at 300 kPa and 250 °C. Both inlet and exit valves to the radiator
are closed.

Determine (i) the amount of heat that will be transferred to the room when the steam
pressure drops to 100 kPa.

(ii) Show the process on a P-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.
Solution:
Assumptions 1 The tank is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential energy changes
are zero. 2 There are no work interactions.

Analysis We take the radiator as the system. This is a closed system since no mass enters
or leaves. Noting that the volume of the system is constant and thus there is no
displacement work, the energy balance for this stationary closed system can be expressed
as

E E  E system
inout
  
Net energy transfer Changein internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential,etc. energies
STEAM
 Qout  U  m(u 2  u1 ) (since W  KE = PE = 0)
Qout  m(u1  u 2 ) V= Q
const.

Using data from the steam tables, some properties are determined to be
P1  300kPa  v1  0.7964m 3 /kg

T1  250 C  u1  2728.7kJ/kg
v f  0.001043, v g  1.6940m 3 /kg
P2  100kPa 
u f  417.36, u fg  2088.7kJ/kg

Noting that v1 = v2 and vf < v2 < vg , the mass and the final internal energy becomes

5
 V 0.020 m 3 P
m 1   0.0251 kg 1
v1 0.7964 m 3 /kg
v2  v f 0.7964  0.001043
x2    0.470
v fg 1.6940  0.001043
2
0.7964
if we neglect v f then x 2  v
1.6940
x 2  0.47
u 2  u f  x 2 u fg  417.36  (0.470  2088.7)  1399.0 kJ/kg

Substituting,

Qout  m( u1  u 2 )
 ( 0.0251 kg)( 2728.7  1399.0 ) kJ/kg
= - 33.4 kJ

5.2 Steady Flow Process

As a fluid flows through a certain control volume, its thermodynamic properties may
vary along the space coordinates as well as with time. If the rates of flow of mass and
energy through the control surface change with time, the mass and energy within the
control volume also would change with time. `Steady flow' means that the rates of flow
of mass and energy across the control surface are constant. In most engineering devices,
there is a constant rate of flow of mass and energy through the control surface, and the
control volume in course of time attains a steady state. At the steady state of a system, any
thermodynamic property will have a fixed value at a particular location, and will not alter
with time. Thermodynamic properties may vary along space coordinates, but do not vary
with time. 'Steady state' means that the state is steady or invariant with time.

Some Examples of Steady Flow Processes

The following examples illustrate the applications of the steady flow energy equation in
some of the common engineering systems.

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5.2.1 Nozzle and Diffuser

A nozzle is a device which increases the velocity or K.E. of a fluid at the expense of its
pressure drop, whereas a diffuser increases the pressure of a fluid at the expense of its K.E.
Figure 4.3 shows a nozzle which is insulated.

A1 A2
V1 V2
ρ1 ρ2

1
1 2 2

Figure 4.3: Flow process through a nozzle and diffuser

Where A, V and ρ represents the area, velocity and density at the inlet and outlet sections
1 and 2.

Applying conservation of mass assuming steady flow:

dM CV
  1 A1V1   2 A2V2
dt

 1 A1V1   2 A2V  m

The steady flow equation of the control surface gives the energy equation (assuming
steady, no heat loss, PE=0):
V 2 V2 
Q  W x  ( h2  h1 )   2  1   g ( z 2  z 1 )
 2 2 
 

As Q = 0 (insulated)
Wx = 0 (no external work)
ΔPE = negligible

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 h1  V12 / 2  h2  V22 / 2

V22  V12  2( h1  h2 )

Example 2:
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 300 kPa, 200 °C, and 30 m/s and leaves at 100
kPa and 180 m/s. The inlet area of the nozzle is 80 cm2.
Determine (a) the mass flow rate through the nozzle, (b) the exit temperature of the air,
and (c) the exit area of the nozzle.

Solution:
Assumptions 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no change with time. 2 Air is
an ideal gas with constant specific heats. 3 Potential energy changes are negligible. 4 The
device is adiabatic and thus heat transfer is negligible. 5 There is no external work .

Properties The gas constant of air is 0.287 kPa.m3/kg.K. The specific heat of air at the
anticipated average temperature of 450 K is Cp = 1.02 kJ/kg.C.
Analysis (a) For ideal gas Cp and Cv are constant. Using the ideal gas relation, the
specific volume and the mass flow rate of air are determined to be
RT1 (0.287 kPa  m 3 /kg  K)(473 K)
v1    0.4525 m 3 /kg
P1 300 kPa
1 1
m  A1 V1  3
(0.008m 2 )(30m/s)  0.5304kg/s
v1 0.4525m /kg
(b) We take nozzle as the system, which is a control volume since mass crosses the
boundary. The energy balance for this steady-flow system can be expressed in the rate
form as
V2
Q Wx  h   gz
2
m (h1  V12 / 2)  m (h2 + V22 /2) (since Q  W
  pe  0)
V22  V12 V22  V12
0  h2  h1   0  C p ,ave T2  T1  

2 2
Substituting,
(180 m/s) 2  (30 m/s) 2  1 kJ/kg 
0  (1.02 kJ/kg  K)(T2  200 C)   
 1000 m 2 /s 2 
2  
It yields T2 = 184.6C

(c) The specific volume of air at the nozzle exit is

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 RT2 (0.287 kPa  m 3 /kg  K)(184.6  273 K)
v2    1.313 m 3 /kg P1 = 300 kPa
T1 = 200C
P2 100 kPa AIR P2 = 100 kPa
V1 = 30 m/s V2 = 180 m/s
A2 180m/s
1 1 A1 = 80 cm2
 
m A2 V2 
 0.5304kg/s 
v2 1.313m 3 /kg

A2 = 0.00387 m2 = 38.7 cm2

5.2.2 Turbine

A device in which shaft work is generated as a result of gas passing through a set of
blades attached to a freely rotating shaft.

The overall energy balance applying First Law (steady-state, only if adiabatic)

V 2 V2 
Q  Wx  ( h2  h1 )   2  1 
 2 2 


Often the change in KE is small compared to change in enthalpy, h

i.e., h1  h 2  V12 2  V22 2

Wx  h1  h2 Note: work output ( Wx  0 )  h1  h2

Example 3:
Steam flows steadily through an adiabatic turbine. The inlet conditions of the steam are
10 Mpa, 450 °C, and 80 m/s, and the exit conditions are 10 kPa, 92 percent quality, and
50 m/s. The mass flow rate of the steam is 12 kg/s.
Determine (a) the change in kinetic energy, (b) the power output, and (c) the turbine inlet
area.

Solution:
Assumptions 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no change with time. 2
Potential energy changes are negligible. 3 The device is adiabatic and thus heat transfer is
negligible.
Properties From the steam tables

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 P1  10MPa   v1  0.02975m /kg
3

T1  450  C 
 h1  3240.9kJ/kg

And

P1 = 10 MPa
T1 = 450C
V1 = 80 m/s

STEAM
·m = 12 kg/s
·
W

P2 = 10 kPa
x2 = 0.92
V2 = 50 m/s

P2  10 kPa 
 h2  h f  x 2 h fg  191.83 0.92 2392.8 2393.2kJ/kg
x 2  0.92 

Analysis (a) The change in kinetic energy is determined from

V22  V12 50m/s2  (80m/s)2  1kJ/kg


  1.95kJ/kg
ke  
2 2  1000m 2 /s 2 
 

(b) We take the turbine as the system, which is a control volume

since mass crosses the boundary. The energy balance for this
steady-flow system can be expressed in the rate form as
V 2 V 2 
Q  Wx  h2  h1    2  1 
 2 2 

m ( h1  V12 / 2 )  wx  ( h2 + V22 /2) (since Q  pe  0)
 V 2  V12 
wx  m  h2  h1  2
 2 
 
Then the power output of the turbine is determined by substitution to be
W out  (12 kg/s)(2393.2 3240.9 1.95)kJ/kg  10.2 MW
(c) The inlet area of the turbine is determined from the mass flow rate relation,
1 m v (12 kg/s)(0.02975m 3 /kg)
m  A1 V1 
 A1  1   0.00446 m 2
v1 V1 80 m/s

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Compressor/pump
A device in which shaft work input is used to raise the pressure of a fluid (liquid or
vapor). Again we are not interested in the details of the flow through each blade or row of
blades. We are interested in the overall energy balance. Applying First Law (steady-state,
neglect heat transfer and PE)

 V22 V12 
Q - W x  (h2 - h1 )    
 2 2 
 

Wx  ( h1  h2 )  ( V12 2  V22 2 )

Often the change in KE is small compared to change in enthalpy, h

i.e., h1  h 2  V12 2  V22 2

Wx  h1  h2 Note: work input ( Wx  0 )  h2  h1

Example 4:
Refrigerant – 134a enters an adiabatic compressor as saturated vapour at -20 °C and
leaves at 0.7 MPa and 70 °C. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 1.2 kg/s. Determine
(a) the power input to the compressor and (b) the volume flow rate of the refrigerant at
the compressor inlet.

Solution:
Assumptions 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no change with time. 2 Kinetic
and potential energy changes are negligible. 3 The device is adiabatic and thus heat
transfer is negligible.
Properties From the refrigerant tables for refrigerant R -134 a
T1  20  C 
 v1  0.1464m /kg
3

sat.vapor   h1  235.31kJ/kg
P2  0.7MPa  2

 h2  307.01kJ/kg
T2  70  C 


Analysis (a) There is only one inlet and one exit, and thus R-134a
1  m
m 2  m
 . We take the compressor as the system, which is a
control volume since mass crosses the boundary. The energy
balance for this steady-flow system can be expressed in the rate
form as 1

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 E in  E out  E sy stem0 (steady ) 0
 
Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change in internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc.energies

E in  E out

Win  m h1  m h2 (since Q  ke  pe  0)

Win   m ( h2  h1 )
Substituting,
Win   1.2kg/s307.01  235.31kJ/kg
  86.04kJ/s
(b) The volume flow rate of the refrigerant at the compressor inlet is
 v1  1.2kg/s(0.1464m 3 /kg)  0.176m 3 /s
V1  m

5.2.3 Heat Exchanger

A heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. These
are devices that transfer energy between fluid streams at different temperatures, to cool or
heat one of the fluids. The following is a tube-in-tube heat exchanger.

Applying First law to above cross flow heat exchanger assuming steady flow, no heat
loss to the environment and KE and PE is negligible

 W
0Q  m
 1 (h1  V12 2  gZ 1 )  m
 3 (h 3  V32 2  gZ 3 )  m
 2 (h 2  V22 2  gZ 2 )  m
 4 (h 4  V42 2  gZ 4 )

1 m
Steady flow so m 3 m
 2 and m 4

So for the heat gained which is equal to heat loss

0m
 1 ( h1  h 2 )  m
 3 (h 3  h 4 )

Solving we get

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  1 h4  h3
m

 3 h1  h 2
m

To get the rate of heat transfer from one stream to the other perform control volume
analysis on only the inner-tube (assume inner-stream is hotter than outer-stream).
Again Applying First Law with same
assumptions

 )m
0  ( Q  1 (h1  h 2 )
i


Q i
 (h1  h 2 )
1
m

  0  h  h , so T1 > T2 (fluid cools down)

Since Q i 1 2

A CV analysis of the outer-stream would give

 )m
0  (Q  3 (h 3  h 4 )
o


Q o
 (h 4  h 3 )
3
m

Since Q o  0  h4  h3 , so T4 > T3 (fluid heats up)

Note, the magnitude of the energy transfer rate from the inner stream Q i equals the
magnitude of the energy transfer rate into the outer-stream Q o
 Q
Q 
i o
 1 h 1  h 2   m
m  3 h 4  h 3 

 1 h4  h3
m

 3 h1  h 2
m

Note we recover the same relationship obtained using the global energy balance

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Example 5:
Steam is to be condensed in the condenser of a steam power plant at a temperature of 50 °C
with cooling water from a nearby lake, which enters the tubes of the condenser at 18 °C
at a rate of 101 kg/s and leaves at 27 °C. Determine the rate of condensation of the steam
in the condenser.
Solution:
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The heat exchanger is well-insulated
so that heat loss to the surroundings is negligible and thus heat transfer from the hot fluid
is equal to the heat transfer to the cold fluid. 3 Changes in the kinetic and potential
energies of fluid streams are negligible. 4 Fluid properties are constant.

Properties The heat of vaporization of water at 50C is hfg = 2382.7 kJ/kg and specific
heat of cold water is Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.C.
Analysis We take the cold water tubes as the system, which is a control volume. The
energy balance for this steady-flow system can be expressed in the rate form as
Steam
50C
E  E out  E system 0 (steady)
0 27C
in  

Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change in internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc. energies
E in  E out
Q in  m h1  m h2 (since ke  pe  0) 18C

Q in  m C p ( T2  T1 )  Heat lost Water

Then the heat transfer rate to the cooling water in the condenser becomes 50C
Q  [ m C ( T  T )]
p out in  Heat gained
cooling water
 (101 kg/s)(4.18 kJ/kg.C)(27C  18C) = 3800 kJ/s
The rate of condensation of steam is determined to be

Q 3800 kJ/s
  (m
Q  h fg ) steam 
 m
 steam    1.59 kg/s
h fg 2382.7kJ/kg

14
 Summary

The first law of thermodynamics is essentially an expression of the conservation of

energy principle, also called the energy balance. Thermodynamic processes involving
control volumes can be considered in two groups: steady-flow processes and unsteady-
flow processes. During a steady-flow process, the fluid flows through the control volume
steadily, experiencing no change with time at a fixed position. The mass and energy
content of the control volume remain constant during a steady-flow process. For single-
stream (one-inlet--one-exit) systems such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors,
and pumps, the steady flow equations can be simplified using mass and energy balance.

15