Candidate No:

3083

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 A2 Physics: Research and Report Coursework
Afzal Hussain

Page Number: Description:

1 Cover Page
2 Contents Page
3 Abstract,
Aim,
Introduction
4 The Big Bang,
The Big Bang Model Of The Universe
5 Recessional Velocity,
The Doppler Effect,
Cosmological Redshift
6 Cosmological Redshift cont’d,
Emission Spectra
7 Redshift diagram,
Social Context,
Conclusion

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Afzal Hussain

Abstract: The Big Bang model of the universe is the most widely accepted model for the origin of the
universe. The Big Bang theory is the strongest of the scientific explanations for the origin of the
universe. The model has significant evidence and data for the existence of the universe including
cosmological redshift, recessional velocity of galaxies, cosmic microwave background radiation and
the large abundance of helium in the universe. There are alternative views, such as the “cyclic
model” which says there could be a timeless cycle of expansion and contraction. It’s an idea which
dates back to the origins of Hinduism, updated for the 21 st century. The other explanations for the
origin of the universe are based on religion. There are many different religious ideas, however they
are all unified in believing the creator of the universe was a god, or their respective gods.

The big bang, will be the most accepted model for some time to come, however even the physics
behind this theory breaks the laws of physics.

Aim: The purpose of this report is to attempt to gain an understanding of the origin of the universe,
analysing the different views on the subject, and concluding which of the many explanations is the
most reliable as an explanation of how the universe originated.

Introduction: The universe and how it originated is a subject which has many possible theories to,
both in a religious nature, and a purely scientific nature. Scientists for many years have been trying
to travel further back in time through the discovery of new particles; this would allow them to
explain to us in more detail, how, why and what exactly happened in the lead up to and during the
big bang.

There are three main approaches and views as to how the universe came about, which are different
because of people’s beliefs, and therefore when discussing these views, generalisations have to be
made about the various groups of people.

In general, theists attribute the origin of the universe to an inspirational creationist, which they
believe is their god. And they believe that god made the universe and created the world that we live
in today. Atheists envision a natural, undirected process by which the universes spring into existence
spontaneously. Prior to the 20th century most atheists believed that the universe was eternal,
however this changed as discoveries throughout the 20 th century meant that view was flawed.
Einstein’s theory of gravity (which has been thoroughly validated by extensive experimental
confirmation) and Hubble’s astronomical observations disqualify the idea of an eternal universe. [1]

That leaves only two legitimate options at present time to explain the origin of the universe:

1) Someone made the universe (A creator), or

2) The universe made itself (Random Chance)

The implications of various 20th century discoveries have put atheists in an awkward position. Logic
now requires that they identify an uncontrolled mechanism by which the universe could have
initiated, designed, created and developed itself without an intelligent director (i.e. God). Otherwise,
the only honest view that can be proposed is a God creator. [1]

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Afzal Hussain

The Big Bang

The Big Bang is the most popular scientific proposal for the creation of our universe. This theory was
born on the observation that other galaxies are moving away from our own galaxy at great speed, in
all directions, as if they had been propelled by an ancient explosive force. [2]

Before the big bang, scientist believe, the entire vastness of the observable universe, including all of
its matter and radiation, was compressed into a hot dense mass just a few millimetres across. This
state is theorised to have existed for just a fraction of the first second of time.[11]

Big bang theorists suggest that between 13 and 14 billion years ago, a massive blast allowed all the
universe’s know matter and energy – even space and time themselves – to spring from some
unknown type of energy. [4]

The theory maintains that, in the instant – a trillion-trillionth of a second – after the big bang, the
universe expanded with incomprehensible speed from its pebble size origin to astronomical scope.
Expansion of the universe after the initial expansion has continued, but it has done so at a much
slower rate over the ensuing billions of years. [10]

Scientists can’t be sure exactly how the universe evolved after the big bang. Many believe that as
time passed and matter cooled, more diverse kinds of atoms began to form, and they eventually
condensed into the stars and galaxies of our present universe. Scientists at CERN are currently trying
to determine whether the Higgs boson, another type of sub-atomic particle exists. To look for the
particle, other particles must be smashed together at very high speeds. And if the energy from that
collision is high enough, it is converted into small bits of matter – particles – one of which could be a
Higgs boson. If they do find the Higgs boson, scientists could go further back in time, and find out
more about the exact nature of the big bang. Higgs, they believe, is a particle, or set of particles that
might give others mass. [12]

Big Bang Model Of The Universe

Edwin Hubble realised in the 1920’s that when we look at the motions of all the galaxies, measured
using the Doppler shift, there is a definite trend: the galaxies speeding away from each other,
consistent with a general expansion of the universe. When Hubble plotted the recessional velocity
(the rate at which an object is moving away) of galaxies against their distance from Earth, found
using Cepheid variables, he found that they were proportional. This gave rise to Hubble’s law:

v=H0d

Where:

v=recessional velocity in kms-1

d=distance in Mpc
H0=Hubble’s constant in kms-1Mpc-1

[13]

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Afzal Hussain

And since distance is very difficult to measure, astronomers disagree on the value of H 0. The most
recent observation of the proportionality constant obtained in 2009; by using the Hubble Space
Telescope gave a value of 74.2 ± 3.6 kms -1Mpc-1

By showing that objects in the Universe are moving away from each other, Hubble’s work is strong
evidence that the Universe is expanding. The rate of expansion depends on Hubble’s constant, H 0. If
the universe has been expanding at the same rate for its entire existence the age of the universe is
t=1/H0. However this is only an estimate as the universe hasn’t always been expanding at the same
rate.

Since no one knows the exact value of H 0, we can only guess the Universe’s age:

If H 0=74.2 km s−1

The age of the universe ≈ 1 ÷ ( 2.4 ×1 0−18 s−1 )=4.2× 10 17 seconds

The Doppler Effect

The Doppler Effect means radiation emitted by distant objects is “shifted”. The speed of distant
objects relative to the Earth by measuring how their movement affects the radiation they emit. It is
based on the principle that an atom will emit and absorb radiation with the same characteristic
spectrum wherever it is, be it on Earth or a distant star. How the radiation is shifted is dependent on
the movement of the object:

1) When an object is moving away from Earth, the wavelengths of its radiation get longer and
the frequencies get lower – i.e. it shifts towards the red end of the spectrum, so there is
cosmological redshift.
2) When an object is moving towards Earth, the opposite happens and the radiation undergoes
blueshift.

[13]

The redshift of galaxies is strong evidence for the Big Bang model of the universe, and the model has
more evidence, because of cosmic microwave background radiation. The model predicts that lots of
electromagnetic radiation was produced in the very early Universe. This radiation should still be
observed today, and because the universe has expanded, the wavelengths of this cosmic background
radiation have been stretched and are now in the microwave region. The microwaves were
accidentally picked up by Penzias and Wilson in the 1960’s when studying an antenna which was
part of a signal sender. [4]

Another piece of evidence for the big bang model is the amount of helium that is currently present
in the universe –The early universe has been very hot, and at some point it must have been hot
enough for hydrogen fusion to happen. This means that, together with the theory of the synthesis of
the heavier elements in stars, the relative abundances of all of the elements can be accounted for.
[9]

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[14]

Above is a diagrammatical representation of the origin and expansion of the universe. It started off
with the big bang, and the diagram shows the expansion of the universe through time. The
representative galaxies all move away from each other through time in the diagram; this shows how
space itself is expanding, and not the universe, and therefore we have cosmological redshift.

The stars in the universe produce absorption spectra from the photosphere in a continuous
spectrum. Atoms in the atmosphere of the star absorb certain wavelengths of the radiation,
producing dark absorption lines within the spectrum. [15]

The various different atoms absorb different parts of the spectrum, resulting in a characteristic
pattern for each atom. The spectrum from the star is compared with known spectra in the lab to see
how much the spectrum has been shifted by the movement of the star:

Stellar spectrum
(containing H, He and Na)

Hydrogen

Helium

Sodium

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Afzal Hussain

The spectrum from this star is

shifted towards the red end of
the spectrum, showing that it
is moving away from Earth.

[9]

The origin of the universe will always be a divided subject all dependant on opinion. However this
report has highlighted the significant level of scientific evidence for the big bang theory/model of the
universe and how its existence began. Expanding space is a large part of the evidence for the model,
and this is confirmed by experiments which show cosmological redshift. Edwin Hubble’s discovery of
the constant of proportionality is another vital piece of evidence which is strongly linked to the
expansion of space. In terms of social context, confirmation of the origin of the universe through the
big bang model would still be opposed by many. There are strong opinions about the theist views on
the origin of the universe and so there will no doubt be social divide. The accuracy of the data which
is observed is also based on theories, and so despite numerous estimates of the age of the universe,
the estimates could be a long way off the true age. Discoveries of new particles like the Higgs boson
will help us go closer to the start of the big bang, and this will also help to develop and gain a better
understanding for other areas of physics. However, the accuracy of the data will always be
questioned, and there will always be opposition to the proposed ideas.

After analysing the evidence, the strongest scientific model for the origin of the universe is the big
bang theory. I very much agree with the theory, and I also personally feel that the events occurring
today in the universe can still be referenced to the big bang model. I do however, still question how
the intricacies of the whole universe, including life and planet earth, could come about and have
such specific functions. Although the model is backed by some of the worlds greatest ever physicists,
the theories are all made on assumptions based on the laws of physics. And even then, the law of
physics breaks downs when a singularity is observed with infinite energy and zero volume. [8]