14 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 1879 − 18 𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑙 1955

Part 1: Einstein’s theory of special relativity

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2

1
Physics before special relativity

15 𝐹𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 1564 − 8 𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 1642

Galilean transformation

In Physics, the first step to understanding our world is to attempt to appropriately describe it quantitatively.
Specifically, we want to describe the motion of a particle in space and time. To this end, an observer with a
clock, sets up a coordinate system, perhaps with the observer at its origin, and assign numbers (coordinates) to
the position of the particle in space. As the clock ticks, the particle moves, and its coordinates change. …

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37, Section 1
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2, Section 3

2
Galilean transformation
𝑃 𝑧′

𝑧 𝑦′
𝑂′
𝑦 𝑥′
𝑂
𝑥

Consider two observers, 𝑂 and 𝑂′ , and a particle 𝑃, such that at time 𝑡,

෡ = 𝒓,
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝒊Ƹ + 𝑦𝒋Ƹ + 𝑧𝒌 ෡ = 𝒓′ ,
𝑂′ 𝑃 = 𝑥 ′ 𝒊Ƹ + 𝑦 ′ 𝒋Ƹ + 𝑧 ′ 𝒌 ෡ = 𝑹.
𝑂𝑂′ = 𝑋𝒊Ƹ + 𝑌𝒋Ƹ + 𝑍𝒌
It follows from
𝑂′ 𝑃 = 𝑂′ 𝑂 + 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝑂′ ,
that the position vector of 𝑃 according to 𝑂′ ,
𝒓′ = 𝒓 − 𝑹.
3
Galilean transformation (cont.)

And, the velocity of 𝑃 according to 𝑂′ ,

𝒗′ = 𝒗 − 𝑽,
where we have assumed time 𝑡 is the same for all observers:
𝑑𝒓 𝑑𝒓 ′ 𝑑𝑹
𝒗= , ′
𝒗 = , 𝑽= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Last, the acceleration of 𝑃 according to 𝑂′ ,
𝒂′ = 𝒂 − 𝑨,
where
𝑑𝒗 𝑑𝒗 ′ 𝑑𝑽
𝒂= , ′
𝒂 = , 𝑨= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If 𝑨 = 𝟎, then 𝑽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, i.e., 𝑂 and 𝑂′ are inertial observers, and 𝑹 = 𝑹0 + 𝑡𝑽
where 𝑹0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. Suppose 𝑹0 = 𝟎, then
𝒓′ = 𝒓 − 𝑽𝑡. 4
Galilean transformation (cont.)

𝒓′ = 𝒓 − 𝑽𝑡

If 𝑽 = 𝑢𝒊,Ƹ then
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦, 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧, 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡.
And,
𝑣𝑥′ = 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢, 𝑣𝑦′ = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧′ = 𝑣𝑧 .
Consequently, if 𝑃 is a photon moving at the speed of light 𝑐 according to 𝑂′ , i.e., 𝑣𝑥′ = 𝑐,
then according to 𝑂,
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥′ + 𝑢 = 𝑐 + 𝑢.
5
Light as electromagnetic wave (non-examinable)

Maxwell’s equations (1865)

1 𝑑
ර 𝑬 ⋅ 𝑑𝑨 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑉 , ර 𝑬 ⋅ 𝑑𝓵 = − න 𝑩 ⋅ 𝑑𝑨 ,
𝜕𝒱 𝜖0 𝒱 𝜕𝒮 𝑑𝑡 𝒮
𝑑
ර 𝑩 ⋅ 𝑑𝑨 = 0, ර 𝑩 ⋅ 𝑑𝓵 = 𝜇0 න 𝑱 ⋅ 𝑑𝑨 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 න 𝑬 ⋅ 𝑑𝑨 13 𝐽𝑢𝑛𝑒 1831
𝜕𝒱 𝜕𝒮 𝒮 𝑑𝑡 𝒮 −5 𝑁𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 1879
or
1 𝜕𝑩 𝜕𝑬
𝛻 ⋅ 𝑬 = 𝜌, 𝛻×𝑬=− , 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑩 = 0, 𝛻 × 𝑩 = 𝜇 0 𝑱 + 𝜇 0 𝜖0 .
𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Here, charge density 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝒓, 𝑡 , electric field 𝑬 = 𝑬 𝒓, 𝑡 , current density 𝑱 = 𝑱 𝒓, 𝑡 , and
magnetic field 𝑩 = 𝑩 𝒓, 𝑡 . Combination of these equations gives wave equations for the
electric and magnetic fields in vacuum:
𝜕2𝑬 𝜕 2𝑩
𝜇0 𝜖0 2 − 𝛻 2 𝑬 = 𝟎, 𝜇0 𝜖0 2 − 𝛻 2 𝑩 = 𝟎.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 6
Light as electromagnetic wave (cont.)

Remark – wave equations.

1 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
2 2
− 2 = 0, 𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 .
𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

while the magnetic permeability of free space

For −7 N A−2 .
2 2𝑩
𝜇 0 = 4𝜋 × 10
𝜕 𝑬 𝜕
𝜇0 𝜖0 2 − 𝛻 2 𝑬 = 𝟎, 𝜇0 𝜖0 2 − 𝛻 2 𝑩 = 𝟎 So,
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 1
the electric permittivity of free space = 2.99792458 × 108 m s−1 2 = 𝑐 2 .
−12 2 −1 −2
𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜖0 = 8.85418782 × 10 C N m , 7
Light as electromagnetic wave (cont.)

In the 1880s, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz first

conclusively proved the existence of the
electromagnetic waves predicted by James
Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of
light. 22 𝐹𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 1857 − 1 𝐽𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 1894

But in which medium do the electromagnetic

waves propagate ???

8
Paradox
• The Maxwell’s equations predict that speed of light is c and do not refer to any particular
reference frame

• Lorentz transformation predict that if the speed of light for the stationary observer is s c ,
it must be
c+v

for the other observer, who is moving with the velocity v with respect to the source of light.

If we assume that both theories are valid, there should be some preferred reference frame
where Maxwell’s equations are valid. In other words, the light should propagate in ether:
medium that carries the vibrations of light

We should find ether!!!

The Michelson-Morley experiment (1887)

Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO)

(modern version of the Michelson-Morley experiment)

Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 2, Section 2

10
Young’s double-slit experiment (1800s)

Monochromatic light passing through two slits:

Photograph
of fringes
𝑆1 produced on
a screen in
Young’s
𝑆2 double-slit
experiment.

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 35

11
Young’s double-slit experiment (cont.)

𝑆1
𝜆

𝑆2

𝑙1 1
𝑙2 − 𝑙1 = 𝑚𝜆, 𝑚 ∈ ℤ 𝑙1 𝑙2 − 𝑙1 = 𝑚 + 𝜆
2
𝑙2
𝑙2 12
The Michelson interferometer
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
o Light, of a wavelength 𝜆 is partially 𝑢
reflected (ℓ2 ) and partially transmitted
(ℓ1 ) by the glass at 𝐴.
o The light is subsequently reflected by
mirrors at 𝐷 and 𝐶, and after
transmission (ℓ2 ) or reflection (ℓ1 ) again
at 𝐴, enters the telescope at 𝐸.
o The compensator is added at 𝐵 to make
sure both light paths pass through equal
thickness of glass.
o Interference fringes are visible to the
Interference pattern consisting of
observer at 𝐸. alternating bright and dark bands,
corresponding to constructive and
destructive interference,
respectively. 13
The Michelson interferometer (cont.)
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
o The time for the light to pass to mirror 𝑀2 𝑢
and back is
2ℓ2 2ℓ2 1
𝑡2 = = .
2
𝑐 −𝑢 2 𝑐 1 − 𝑢 Τ𝑐 2 2

This follows from:

𝑡2 2 2
𝑡2 2
𝑐 = ℓ2 + 𝑢 .
2 2

≈ ≈

14
The Michelson interferometer (cont.)
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
o Assuming Galilean transformation, the 𝑢
velocity of light is 𝑐 + 𝑢 when it travels
from A to C.
o And, its velocity is 𝑐 − 𝑢 on the return
journey from C to A.
o So, the total time for the round-trip
journey to mirror 𝑀1 is
ℓ1 ℓ1
𝑡1 = +
𝑐+𝑢 𝑐−𝑢
2𝑐ℓ1 2ℓ1 1
= 2 2
= 2 2
.
𝑐 −𝑢 𝑐 1 − 𝑢 Τ𝑐
o The time difference between the two 2 ℓ2 ℓ1
journeys is Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = − 2 2
.
𝑐 2
1 − 𝑢 Τ𝑐 2 1−𝑢 𝑐Τ
15
The Michelson interferometer (cont.)

o Now the apparatus is rotated through 90° such that arm 𝐴𝐷 becomes parallel to the
motion of the Earth and arm 𝐴𝐶 is perpendicular to the motion, the new time difference
between the two journeys is
2 ℓ2 ℓ1
Δ𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 2 2
− .
𝑐 1 − 𝑢 Τ𝑐 1 − 𝑢 2 Τ𝑐 2
And, since 𝑢 ≈ 10−4 𝑐 ≪ 𝑐,
2 1 1
Δ𝑡 ′ − Δ𝑡 = ℓ1 + ℓ2 2 2
−
𝑐 1 − 𝑢 Τ𝑐 1 − 𝑢 2 Τ𝑐 2
2 𝑢2 𝑢2 𝑢2 ℓ1 + ℓ2
≈ ℓ1 + ℓ2 1+ 2 − 1+ 2 = 3
.
𝑐 𝑐 2𝑐 𝑐
Consequently, there would be a shift in the fringe pattern corresponding to Δ𝑡 ′ − Δ𝑡.
16
The Michelson interferometer (cont.)

o The Earth orbits around the sun at a high orbital speed,

𝑢 ≈ 3 × 104 m s −1 ≈ 10−4 𝑐.
If ℓ1 ≈ ℓ2 ≈ ℓ = 11 m, then
𝑢 2 ℓ +ℓ 2.2 × 10 −7
1 2
Δ𝑡 ′ − Δ𝑡 ≈ ≈ = 7 × 10−16 s.
𝑐3 3 × 108
For a visible wavelength 𝜆 of say 6 × 10−7 m or frequency
𝑐 3 × 108 14 s −1 ,
𝑓= ≈ = 5 × 10
𝜆 6 × 10−7
Δ𝑡 ′ − Δ𝑡 corresponds to a shift in the fringe pattern by
7 × 10−16 s × 5 × 1014 s −1 ≃ 0.4 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒

according to Galilean transformation.

17
 Michelson Morley experiment (1887):
One of most famous failed experiments

The expected deviation : 0.40 of a fringe

• the maximum displacement was 0.02
• the average much less than 0.01

Michelson and Morley's interferometric

setup, mounted on a stone slab that floats
Original experiment used white light
(no lasers existed in 1887 )
in an annular trough of mercury.

American Journal of Science, 1887, 34 (203): 333–345 Source: Wikipedia

https://history.aip.org/history/exhibits/gap/PDF/pdf.html
Experiment showed that either Galilean transformation or Maxwell’s equations are wrong.

To resolve it Einstein in his theory of special relativity introduced 2 postulates.

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2

19
Einstein’s theory of special relativity is based on 2 postulates

o The principle of relativity:

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.

Remark: If the laws differed, that difference could distinguish one inertial frame from
the others or make one frame more “correct” than another.

o The principle of the constancy of the speed of light:

The speed of light in free space has the same value 𝑐 in all inertial reference frames and
is independent of the motion of the source.

Remark: If Maxwell’s equations are valid in all inertial frames, then the speed of
light in vacuum should also be the same in all inertial frames.

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37, Section 1
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2, Section 1 20
Clock synchronization

To synchronize a pair of clocks, flash a bulb

half way between the pair of clocks at rest and
make sure the pulses arrive simultaneously at
each clock

Reference frame requires a grid of

synchronized clocks at each point in space.
Consequences: Relativity of simultaneity
Example: Flashlights are places 1m on the left and right sides and go off simultaneously on
both sides when both Mary and Frank are at 0m mark.
Mary is
moving to the
right:
She sees flash
on the right
BEFORE flash
on the left

Frank is not
moving:
both flashes look
simultaneous to
him
Consequences: Relativity of simultaneity

Since travels with the speed c in Mary’s frame, she must conclude that two flushes are not
simultaneous.

Whether events are simultaneous or not depends on the observer

Two events that are simultaneous

in one reference frame (K) are not
necessarily simultaneous in
another reference frame (K’)
moving with respect to the first
frame
Relativity of time intervals

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2

24
Relativity of time intervals

For observer inside the For the stationary observer, the light travel distance is
train, light pulse round 2
trip time is 𝑢 Δ𝑡
𝑙= + 𝑑2
2
The pulse round trip time is then
2𝑑 2𝑙 2 𝑢 Δ𝑡 2
Δ𝑡0 = Δ𝑡 = = 𝑑2 +
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 2
 Δ𝑡0 : proper time between two events
Relativity of time intervals
(time in the rest frame of events)
From expression above we can get
Δ𝑡 : time between events in the moving
𝑐 Δ𝑡0 frame
𝑑=
2 1
𝛾= , Lorentz factor.
1−𝑢2 /𝑐 2
The pulse round trip time is then

2 𝑐 Δ𝑡0 2 𝑢 Δ𝑡 2 𝛾 is always greater than 1, therefore

Δ𝑡 = +
𝑐 2 2

If we solve for Δ𝑡, we get Δ𝑡 > Δ𝑡0

Δ𝑡0 Time dilation effect:
Δ𝑡 = = 𝛾 Δ𝑡0 Clock runs slow if it moves relative to
1−𝑢2 /𝑐 2
observer
Relativity of time intervals
Can we see this effect in everyday life??

Walking: u= 1 m/s
𝛾 = 1 + 5.6 ⋅ 10−18
(Precision of the best atomic clocks today is ∼ 10−18 )

Flying airplane: u=250 m/s

𝛾 = 1 + 3.5 ⋅ 10−13
(Precision of good commercial Rb frequency standard)

Low earth satellite orbit: u=8000 m/s

𝛾 = 1 + 3.5 ⋅ 10−10
(B𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑧 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ∼ 10−10 ,
Effect is essential for GPS satellites)

u=0.5 c, 𝛾 = 1.15 u=0.98 c, 𝛾 = 5

Muon decay

o When cosmic rays (high-energy particles) from outer space enter the Earth’s
atmosphere, they interact with particles in the upper atmosphere, creating additional
particles in a cosmic shower. Many of the particles in the shower are pions (𝜋-
mesons), which decay into muons.
o Muons are unstable and decay according to the radioactive decay law:
ln 2
𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁0 exp − 𝑡 ,
𝜏1Τ2
where 𝑁0 and 𝑁 are the number of muons at times 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = 𝑡 respectively, and the
half-life of the muons 𝜏1Τ2 ≈ 1.52 × 10−6 s, i.e., in the time period 𝜏1Τ2 half of the muons
will decay to other particles.
o Now perform an experiment by placing a muon detector on top of a mountain 2000 m
high and counting the number of muons travelling at a speed 𝑣 ≈ 0.98𝑐, i.e., 𝛾𝑣 ≈ 5.03.
Suppose we count 1000 muons during a given time period 𝑡0 .
Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 4th edition, by Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Chapter 2, Section 7 28
Muon decay (cont.)

It takes time
2000
𝑇≈ ≈ 6.81 × 10−6 s ≈ 4.48𝜏1Τ2 ≈ 0.89𝑡1Τ2
0.98𝑐
for the muons to reach sea level. Here,
𝑡1Τ2 = 𝛾𝑣 𝜏1Τ2 ≈ 7.6 × 10−6 s.
29
Muon decay (cont.)

Where 𝑡1Τ2 = 𝛾𝑣 𝜏1Τ2 4.48𝜏1Τ2 ≈ 0.89𝑡1Τ2

Without time dilation effect, we would expect
4.48
ln 2 1
𝑁 𝑇 = 𝑁0 exp − 𝑇 ≈ 1000 × ≈ 45.
𝜏1Τ2 2

If we take into account that “muon clocks” run slower, we should expect
0.89
ln 2 1
𝑁 𝑇 = 𝑁0 exp − 𝑇 ≈ 1000 × ≈ 540.
𝑡1Τ2 2
When we move our muon detector to sea level, we determine experimentally that
approximately 540 muons survive the trip without decaying – can ignore any other
interactions that may remove muons.
30
Twin paradox

Paradox involves two identical twins, one of whom makes a journey into space in a
high-speed rocket and returns home to find that the twin who remained on Earth has
aged more

No, one twin is in the

Why? Is the situation
inertial reference frame,
symmetric for both
another one experiences
twins ?
acceleration !!!
Relativity of length

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2

32
Relativity of length

For a moving observer, time required for the light pulse to make a round
trip from the source to mirror and back is

𝑙0
Δ𝑡0 = 2
𝑐

𝑙0 is a proper length (length measured when the object is at rest)

Relativity of length

For a stationary observer, distance the lite travels from the source to the
mirror is
𝑑 = 𝑙 + 𝑢Δ𝑡1

Since light travels with the speed of light

𝑑 = 𝑐Δ𝑡1
Relativity of length
Comparing two expressions we find We know that
Δ𝑡0
Δ𝑡 =
𝑐Δ𝑡1 = 𝑙 + 𝑢Δ𝑡1 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2
or And
𝑙 𝑙0
Δ𝑡1 = Δ𝑡0 = 2
𝑐−𝑢 𝑐
In the same way, for return trip
𝑙 Combining these expressions gives
Δ𝑡2 =
𝑐+𝑢
Total time for the roundtrip is then
𝑙 = 𝑙0 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2 = 𝑙0 /𝛾
Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑡1 + Δ𝑡2
𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙 Length 𝑙 in the frame where the ruler
= + = is moving is shorter than the length 𝑙0
𝑐−𝑢 𝑐+𝑢 𝑢2
𝑐(1 − 2 ) in its rest frame.
𝑐
This is the length contraction effect
Muon decay (from the muon point of view)

From the perspective of an observer travelling with the muon at speed 𝑣 ≈ 0.98𝑐,
′
ln 2 ′
𝑁 𝑇 = 𝑁0 exp − 𝑇 ≈ 540 ⇒ 𝑇 ′ ≈ 0.89𝜏1Τ2 ≈ 1.35 × 10−6 s.
𝜏1Τ2
This observer would not measure the distance from the top of the “2000-m mountain” to sea
level to be 2000 m, but 1.35 × 10−6 × 0.98𝑐 ≈ 400 m = 1Τ𝛾𝑣 2000 m. 36
 18 𝐽𝑢𝑙𝑦 1853 − 4 𝐹𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑦 1928

Lorentz transformation

𝑢 𝑢 1
𝑥′ = 𝛾 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 , 𝑦′ = 𝑦, 𝑧′ = 𝑧, 𝑐𝑡 ′ = 𝛾 𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥 , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝛾 =
𝑐 𝑐 1 − 𝑢 2 Τ𝑐 2

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37, Section 5
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2, Sections 3 & 6

38
The Lorentz coordinate transformations relates the space – time coordinates of an event in
the two frames: (x,y,z,t) in frame S and (x’, y’, z’, t’) in frame S’.

To derive coordinate transformation we

can write

𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑥 ′ 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2

Factor 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2 is due to length

contraction

Solving for x’ gives us

𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡
𝑥′ =
1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2
The Lorentz coordinate transformations relates the space – time coordinates of an event in
the two frames: (t,x,y,z) in frame S and (t’, x’, y’, z’) in frame S’.

To derive coordinate transformation we

can also write

𝑥 ′ = −𝑢𝑡′ + 𝑥 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2

Solving it for t’ (using expression for x’

from previous slide) gives

𝑡 − 𝑢𝑥/𝑐 2
𝑡′ =
1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2
Lorentz transformation

To summarize, space–time coordinates (t,x,y,z) in the frame S are transformed

to space-time coordinates (t’,x’,y’,z’) according to

𝑥 ′ = 𝛾 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 ,
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦,
𝑧 ′ = 𝑧,
′
𝑢
𝑡 = 𝛾 𝑡− 2𝑥
𝑐
Where
1
𝛾=
1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2

Space and time are intertwines, we can’t say that length and time have
absolute meaning, independent of the frame of reference
Lorentz transformation
𝑢
• In the limit of ≪ 1 and 𝛾 ≃ 1 Lorentz transformation
𝑐
𝑢
𝑥′ = 𝛾 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 , 𝑦′ = 𝑦, 𝑧′ = 𝑧, 𝑡′ =𝛾 𝑡− 2𝑥 ,
𝑐
reduces to the Galilean transformation.
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡, 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦, 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧, 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡.
Time-position four-vector, more symmetric way

In order to describe the mechanics of a relativistic particle, we can specify its four-
position in space-time:
(𝑐𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
And a Lorentz transformation, say,
′
𝑢
𝑐𝑡 = 𝛾 𝑐𝑡 − 𝑥 = 𝛾𝑐𝑡 − 𝛾𝛽𝑥,
𝑐
′
𝑢
𝑥 = 𝛾 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 = −𝛾𝛽𝑐𝑡 + 𝛾𝑥,
𝑐
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦, and 𝑧 ′ = 𝑧, where, 𝛽 = 𝑢Τ𝑐 , can be written in a matrix form:
𝑐𝑡′ 𝛾 −𝛾𝛽 0 0 𝑐𝑡
𝑥′ −𝛾𝛽 𝛾 0 0 𝑥
=
𝑦′ 0 0 1 0 𝑦
𝑧′ 0 0 0 1 𝑧
43
Time-position four-vector

• The quantity
s2 = 𝑐 2 𝑡 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2

Is invariant under Lorentz transformation, it is the same in every reference frame.

It is called space-time interval
𝑠 2 = 𝑠 ′2

𝑐 2 𝑡 ′2 − 𝑥 ′2 − 𝑦 ′2 − 𝑧 ′2
= 𝛾𝑐𝑡 − 𝛾𝛽𝑥 2 − −𝛾𝛽𝑐𝑡 + 𝛾𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2
2 2
𝑢 𝑢
= 𝛾2 1 − 2 𝑐2𝑡2 − 𝛾2 1 − 2 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 − 𝑧2
𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑐2 𝑡2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 − 𝑧2
Space time diagram
Worldline
Δ𝑠 2 = 𝑐 2 Δ𝑡 2 − Δ𝑥 2 − Δ𝑦 2 − Δ𝑧 2

If (𝑐Δ𝑡)2 > Δ𝑥 2 + Δ𝑦 2 + Δ𝑧 2 , two

events can be casually connected.

If (𝑐Δ𝑡)2 < Δ𝑥 2 + Δ𝑦 2 + Δ𝑧 2 , two

events cannot be casually connected.

If (𝑐Δ𝑡)2 = Δ𝑥 2 + Δ𝑦 2 + Δ𝑧 2 ,.
two effects can be connected by light
signal only
Lorentz transformation for velocity

Lorentz transformation has the form

′ ′ ′ ′
𝑢
𝑥 = 𝛾 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝛾 𝑡− 2𝑥 .
𝑐
The Lorentz transformation for the infinitely small displacements 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑧, 𝑑𝑡
′ ′ ′ ′
𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = 𝛾 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛾 𝑑𝑡 − 2 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑐
46
Lorentz transformation for velocity
𝑢
𝑑𝑥 ′ = 𝛾 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑑𝑡 ′
= 𝑑𝑧, = 𝛾 𝑑𝑡 − 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑐
So, by the chain rule of differentiation, the velocity of 𝑃 according to 𝑂′ ,
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ′ ′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 ′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡′ −𝑢 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢
= = / = 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑜𝑟, ′
𝑣𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑢𝑣𝑥
1− 2
2
𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑐
′ ′ ′
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡′ 1 𝑑𝑡 ′
1 𝑣𝑦
= = / = , 𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝛾 1 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝛾 1 − 𝑢𝑣𝑥
𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑐2
′ ′ ′
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡′ 1 𝑑𝑡 ′
1 𝑣𝑧
= = / = , 𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑧 =
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝛾 1 − 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝛾 1 − 𝑢𝑣𝑥
𝑐 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑐2
47
Lorentz transformation (cont.)

• Example: Two rockets A and B are approaching each other with the velocity v=0.8c with
respect to the stationary observer. What is velocity of rocket A as measured by observer in
B.
′
𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣𝑥
1− 2
𝑐

1.6𝑐
𝑣𝑥 = 0.8𝑐, 𝑢 = −0.8𝑐 𝑣𝑥′ = = 0.975𝑐
1 + 0.64
Lorentz transformation (cont.)

• If object is moving with the velocity 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑐 , 𝑣𝑦 = 0, 𝑣𝑧 = 0, than its velocity in the

moving reference frame is

𝑐−𝑢
𝑣𝑥′= 𝑢𝑐 = 𝑐, 𝑣𝑦
′ = 0, 𝑣 ′ = 0.
𝑧
1− 2
𝑐
If the object moves with the speed of light in one frame, its speed in other frame is also c

• If u is much smaller than c we arrive to the Galilean transform for the velocity

𝑣𝑥′ = 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢, 𝑣𝑦′ = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧′ = 𝑣𝑧

Doppler effect

o The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves. Consider a source of light that emits an
electromagnetic waves of frequency 𝑓0 and period 𝑇0 = 1/𝑓0 all directions in the source’s
rest frame.

𝑦′

𝑣
𝑥′

𝑧′

Suppose in another frame the source is moving with speed 𝑣 along the 𝑥 ′ -axis toward the
observer. What frequency of light 𝑓 ′ will be observed for a photon along the ?the light
along

50
In stationary reference frame, time between emissions of the wave crests is T

Distance between the crests is 𝜆 = 𝑐 − 𝑢 𝑇 and the frequency he measures is 𝑓 = 𝑐/𝜆

𝑐
𝑓=
𝑐−𝑢 𝑇

51
Doppler effect (continued)
𝑐
𝑓=
𝑐−𝑢 𝑇
Due to time dilation
𝑇0
𝑇=
1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2

Since 𝑇0 = 1/𝑓0 we can write the expression for 𝑓 as

𝑐 𝑐 2 − 𝑢2 𝑐+𝑢
𝑓= = 𝑓0
𝑐−𝑢 𝑐 𝑐−𝑢

If the source moves away from observer

𝑐−𝑢
𝑓= 𝑓0
𝑐+𝑢
Doppler effect (continued)

If the source moves perpendicular to observer,

1 𝑇0
𝑓 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 =
𝑇 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2

And expression for 𝑓 becomes

𝑐 2 − 𝑢2
𝑓= 𝑓0 = 1 − 𝑢2 /𝑐 2 𝑓0
𝑐

The Doppler effect in the perpendicular direction is just a time dilation.

Doppler effect (continued)

• If the source is approaching observer, the frequency is higher than 𝑓0 , light is

blue-shifted

• If the source moves away from observer, the frequency 𝑓 is lower than 𝑓0 , light is red-
shifted

• If velocity is small, the frequency shift is approximately

𝑢
Δ𝑓 = 𝑓 − 𝑓0 = 𝑓0
𝑐

Application of the Doppler shift:

Astronomy: to measure velocity of astronomical objects
Atomic physics: laser cooling
Law enforcement: car speed detector
25 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 1642 − 20 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ 1726

Relativistic mechanics

𝑑𝒑 1
𝑭= , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝒑 = 𝛾𝑚𝒗, 𝛾=
𝑑𝑡 1 − 𝑣 2 Τ𝑐 2

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37, Sections 6, 7 & 8
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2, Sections 5, 7 & 10

56
Relativistic momentum

Principle of conservation of angular momentum states that the total momentum of an

isolated system is constant.

However if we use the Newtonian definition of momentum

𝒑=𝑚𝒗

Then momentum which is conserved in one reference frame is not conserved in another
reference frame, after we apply the Lorenz transformation for velocity.
Relativistic momentum (example) Two particles with mass m and velocity v
undergo elastic collision.
y
In our “centre of mass” reference frame,
direction of the velocity changes, but the
1 magnitude of velocity remains the same.
m 𝑣Ԧ 𝛿𝑣 If the angle between initial and final
1 2 directions are small, we can write for the
final velocities
𝛿𝑣 −𝑣Ԧ m

2
x 𝑣1𝑥 = 𝑣 2 − 𝛿𝑣 2 ≃ 𝑣, 𝑣1𝑦 = 𝛿𝑣

𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣 2 − 𝛿𝑣 2 ≃ −𝑣, 𝑣2𝑦 = −𝛿𝑣

 In the other reference frame, where particle
Relativistic momentum (example)
2 is initially at rest, initial velocity for
particle 1 is w.
y
Lorentz transformation for velocities gives

2𝑣
m 𝑤 𝑤=
1 + 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
1 2
𝑣2
m 𝛿𝑣 1 − 2
𝑐
𝑣1𝑥 ≃ 𝑤, 𝑣1𝑦 =
1 + 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2

𝑣2
Reminder: 𝛿𝑣 1 − 2
𝑐
𝑣𝑥 −𝑢 1 𝑣𝑦 𝑣2𝑥 ≃ 0, 𝑣2𝑦 =−
𝑣𝑥′ = 𝑢𝑣 𝑣𝑦′ = 𝑢𝑣 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
1− 2𝑥 𝛾 1− 2𝑥
𝑐 𝑐
Relativistic momentum (example) 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝛿𝑣 1 − 2 𝛿𝑣 1 − 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑣′1𝑦 = 2 2
, 𝑣′2𝑦 =−
1 + 𝑣 /𝑐 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2

Therefore initial momentum along y axis is 0, but the

final momemtum 𝑚 𝑣′1𝑦 + 𝑚𝑣′2𝑦 ≠ 0. We must
m 𝑤 modify classical expression for momentum !!!
1 2
m 𝑣2 1
1+ 2 2 −
2
𝑣 ′ 2𝑦 𝑐 2𝑣
= 2 = 1−
𝑣 ′1𝑦 𝑣 𝑣2
1− 2 𝑐 1+ 2
𝑐 𝑐

= 1 − 𝑤 2 /𝑐 2 −1/2
= 𝛾𝑤
Relativistic momentum (example) 𝑚 𝑣 ′ 2𝑦
= 1 − 𝑤 2 /𝑐 2 −1/2 = 𝛾𝑤
𝑚 𝑣 ′1𝑦
y
Solution: Correct expression for relativistic
momentum is:
m 𝑤 𝑚𝒗
𝒑= = 𝛾𝑚𝒗
1 2 1− 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
m x
And conservation of momentum is valid!

𝛾𝑣1 𝑚𝒗′𝟏 + 𝛾𝑣2 𝑚𝒗′𝟐 = 𝟎

(Note: we assumed 𝑣′2 ≪ 𝑐, so classical

formula for momentum 𝑚𝑣′2 is still
approximately correct for particle 2)
Relativistic momentum (continued)
𝑚𝒗 m is the rest mass, (mass measured when particle
𝒑= does not move),
1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
v is velocity of the particle.

Relativistic momentum sometimes interpreted as

“relativistic mass”:

𝑚
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑙 =
1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2

Don’t apply it blindly !!!

𝑭 ≠ 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝒂, and kinetic energy 𝑲 ≠ 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝒗𝟐 /2

Newton second law:
𝑑𝒑 𝑑 𝑚𝒗
𝑭= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
Constant force does not cause constant acceleration:

If force and velocity are parallel

𝑑𝒑 𝑑 𝑚𝒗 𝑚 3 𝑚𝒂
𝑭= = = 𝒂 = 𝛾
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2 3/2

If force and velocity are perpendicular, force performs no work. Magnitude of v is

constant, and
𝑑𝒑 𝑑 𝑚𝒗 𝑚𝒂
𝑭= = = = 𝛾𝑚𝒂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
Newton second law:
In general case
𝑑𝒗
𝒂= = 𝒂∥ + 𝒂⊥ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒂⊥ ⋅ 𝒗 = 0.
𝑑𝑡
Then,
𝑑𝒑 𝑑
𝑭= = 𝛾𝑚𝒗 = 𝛾 3 𝑚𝒂∥ + 𝛾𝑚𝒂⊥ .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In general, force and acceleration vectors are not parallel

Relativistic work and energy
Work that force F performs to move particle initially at rest at 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 is

𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 = න 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = න 3/2
𝑥1 𝑥1 𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
We can rewrite
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
And evaluate integral by the change of variables, to obtain kinetic energy

𝑣
𝑚𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐾=𝑊=න 3/2
= − 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2
0 𝑣2 1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
1− 2
𝑐
Relativistic work and energy
In limit 𝑣 Τ𝑐 → 0, we get the classical expression for kinetic energy

𝑚𝑐 2 𝑣2
𝐾= − 𝑚𝑐 2 ≃ 𝑚𝑐 2 1 + 2 − 𝑚𝑐 2
1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2 2𝑐
𝑚𝑣 2
=
2

In limit 𝑣 Τ𝑐 → 1 , relativistic kinetic energy K

becomes infinite as v approaches c
Relativistic work and energy

Expression for the kinetic energy is a difference between 𝑚𝑐 2 (rest energy, independent of
𝑚𝑐 2
v), and (total energy)
1−𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑚𝑐 2 = = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2
1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
For the particle at rest (K=0)
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

It is the rest energy.

Conservation of mass and energy
Two blocks of mass m are stuck together
after collision. Due to conservation of
energy

2𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝐾 = 𝑀𝑐 2

M > 2m, mass has increased

Principle of conservation of mass and

energy: in an isolated system change of
rest masses is always accompanies by the
changes in energy

Δ𝐸 = Δ𝑚𝑐 2
Example: nuclear reaction
Conservation of mass and energy, Example

How much energy is equivalent to 1 kg?

𝑚 2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = 1𝑘𝑔 × 3 × 108 = 9 × 1016 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑠

How much electricity was generated in the world in 2016?

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generation)

25,000 TW ⋅ hour = 2.5 × 1016 𝑊 × 3600 𝑠 = 9 × 1019 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

Equivalent of 1000 kg
Units of energy in particle physics

Most experiments in particle physics are done with accelerators, where particles are
accelerated in the electric field. It is therefore common to use electron-volt as a unit of
energy
1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 Coulomb × 1 Volt = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

1keV = 103 eV, 1MeV = 106 eV, 1GeV = 109 eV, …

“Natural units” for momentum [𝑝] = eV/𝑐

“Natural units” for mass [𝑚] = eV/𝑐 2

For example, mass of the electron 𝑚𝑒 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg = 0.511 MeV/𝑐 2

mass of the proton 𝑚𝑝 = 1.67 × 10−27 kg = 938.3 MeV/𝑐 2
Four-momentum

The energy and momentum of the relativistic particle give a four-momentum,

(𝐸/𝑐, 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧 )
It transforms under Lorentz transformation just like its four-position:

𝐸′/𝑐 𝛾 𝛾𝛽 0 0 𝐸/𝑐
𝑝′𝑥 𝛾𝛽 𝛾 0 0 𝑝𝑥
= .
𝑝′𝑦 0 0 1 0 𝑝𝑦
𝑝′𝑧 0 0 0 1 𝑝𝑧
Lets find a quantity which is invariant under Lorentz transformation. If 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 = 0, then
𝑣 2
𝐸/𝑐 2 − 𝑝 2 = 𝛾 2 𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 = 𝛾 2 1 − 2 𝑚2 𝑐 2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 2 .
𝑐
𝐸 2 − 𝒑𝑐 2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4
73
Four-momentum (cont.)

𝐸 2 − 𝒑𝑐 2 = 𝑚2 𝑐 4 is invariant under Lorentz transformation

𝐸 2 = 𝒑2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 4 , 𝒑 = 𝛾𝑚𝒗

o If 𝑚 = 0, then 𝒗 = 𝑐 and
𝐸
𝒑 = .
𝑐
One example of a relativistic particle with 𝑚 = 0 is the photon, where 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 and so
ℎ𝑓 ℎ
𝒑 = = .
𝑐 𝜆
Here, ℎ is Planck’s constant, 𝑓 and 𝜆 are the frequency and wavelength of the photon.74

Photon does not have mass, but has nonzero momentum !!!
Electric and Magnetic fields in special relativity

Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics, 14th edition, by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Chapter 37, Section 5
Modern Physics, 2nd edition, by Randy Harris, Chapter 2, Sections 3 & 6

75
Electric and Magnetic fields as a relativistic effect

Lorentz force for a charge q moving with the velocity 𝑣Ԧ in electric field 𝑬 and
magnetic field 𝑩 is.

𝑭 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑩)

Let negative charges move with the same velocity 𝑣,

Ԧ
Assume that the charge density is the same for positive and negative charges.
Electric and Magnetic fields
𝑭 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑩)

In the stationary reference frame flow of electrons in the wire produces magnetic field 𝑩,
therefore the charge will experience the force 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑩 in the upward direction
Electric and Magnetic fields 𝑭 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑩)

For the observer moving with the charge, the charge is at rest. Since 𝑣Ԧ = 0, charge does
not feel force due to magnetic field.

But behaviour of the charge (it should accelerate upwards) should be the same for both
observers.

What force acts on the charge and why?

Electric and Magnetic fields 𝑭 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑩)

Due to relativistic length contraction, spacing between moving positive charges is

smaller, in this reference frame the wire becomes positively charged. Charge experience
force due to electric field E.