Chapter 15 Leveling

Contents
1. Differential Leveling
2. Leveling Equipment
3. Stadia
4. 3-Wire Leveling
5. Errors in Leveling
6. Adjustment of Leveling Lines
7. Profile Leveling
8. Vertical Datums
Practice Problems

1. Differential Leveling

As the term implies, differential leveling is a process of measuring the difference in

elevation between points. A surveyor’s level and level rod are used in this process. A
level rod is merely a piece of wood, fiberglass, or metal marked off in meters or feet and
fractional parts of those units. The level is a telescope equipped with cross hairs and
attached to some type of device allowing the telescope to remain at the same height while
turning in a horizontal plane. Thus, the level establishes a line of sight in a horizontal
plane from which measurements can be made with the rod. As the observer focuses on
the level rod, the graduation of the rod coincident with the line of sight can be read thus
reflecting the distance between the line of sight and the point on which the rod is resting.

Figure 15.1 illustrates the use of a level and rod to measure the difference between two
points. In that illustration, bench mark (BM) 1 is a permanent object with a known
elevation of 436.27 feet above the datum being used. Turning point (TP) 1 is a temporary
object, such as the top of a stake, for which an elevation is to be measured. For the
measurement, the level is set up in a location allowing visibility of both objects and the
following two-step process is followed:

1. With the rod on BM 1, a reading is made and recorded. This reading is known
as a backsight (BS) and is added to the elevation of the bench mark to determine
the height of instrument (HI) which is the elevation of the line of sight.

2. The rod is then placed on TP 1 and a reading made and recorded. This reading
is known as the foresight (FS) and is subtracted from the height of instrument to
determine the elevation of TP 1.

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 Figure 15.1 Differential Leveling
(use Figure 13.2 from 5th Edition)

Using the process described above, the elevations of a continuing line of objects (or two
objects separated by a greater distance or greater difference in elevation than can be
covered by one set up of the level) may be determined by moving the level between set
ups as illustrated in Figure 15.2 and the associated field notes. With that process, a “leap
frog” process is used between the rod and level. After a backsight is taken, the level rod
remains at its location while the level is moved ahead to the next set up and then a
backsight is taken at the point that served as the previous foresight. The level then
remains at the new set up while the rod is moved to the next point for the foresight.

Figure 15.2 Continuous Differential Leveling

(use Figure 13.3 from 5th edition)

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 Field Notes for Differential Levels
Point BS(+) HI FS(-) Elevation
BM 3 441.72
8.56 450.28 1.10
TP 1 449.18
10.34 459.52 1.37
TP 2 458.15
7.75 465.90 1.83
TP 3 464.07
8.89 472.96 3.46
BM 4 469.50

2. Leveling Equipment

Level Rods – As described previously, a level rod is merely a graduated rod used to
measure the distance between a point and the line of sight. The most commonly type of
level rod in current use is the Philadelphia rod. That device consists of two sliding parts
and typically has graduations extending from zero to seven feet on the base part with the
ability to extend the rod on up to 13 feet with the sliding upper part. Most Philadelphia
rods are graduated in feet, tenths and hundreds with graduations running continuously
from zero at the bottom to 13 feet at the top. Each full foot is marked with a red number
(white in Figure 14.3) and each tenth of a foot is marked with black numbers. The
hundreds graduations alternate from black to white. The black graduations are pointed at
each tenth of a foot (0.10, 0.20, 0.30, etc) as well as for each five hundredth of a foot
(0.05, 0.15, 0.25, etc.) for ease of reading. For greater precision, the thousandth of a foot
may be interpolated. The rod is read at the point where the center cross hair of the
telescope intersects the rod. As examples, the correct rod reading for Figure 15.3(a) is
5.130 feet while the correct reading for Figure 15.3(b) is 5.180 feet.

Figure 15.3 Graduations on a Philadelphia Rod

(use Figure 13.4 from 5th Edition)

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Philadelphia rods typically are constructed with a thin steel tape inserted in the face of a
wooden support. For projects requiring greater precision, rods with a graduated strip
made of invar is used. Invar is an alloy with a very low coefficient of expansion, thus
reducing imprecision due to contraction and expansion of the graduated strip with
changing temperature. Further, invar rods typically have the graduated strip supported at
a constant tension to standardize measurements. In addition, invar rods are typically in
one continuous piece as opposed to having two sections as does the Philadelphia rod to
eliminate any error due to the join. Typically, such rods are equipped with a level bubble
and prop poles (Figure 15.4) to insure that the rods are perfectly plumb when read.

Figure 15.4
Invar Rod with Prop Pole

Surveyor’s Levels – Traditionally, surveyor’s levels were spirit levels (Figure 15-5).
Such an instrument is equipped with an elongated slightly curved glass tube filled with
alcohol or other liquid which allows establishing a level horizontal line by centering a
bubble. Setting up such instruments can be time consuming since the instrument has to
be carefully adjusted to insure that it is level when pointed at any direction.

Figure 15.5 Spirit Level

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Today, self-leveling levels are in much more common use than spirit levels. Such
instruments are equipped with a compensator and a simple bull’s eye level rather than a
long spirit level. A compensator is a device consisting of a system of prisms and mirrors
suspended as a pendulum (Figure 15.6) within the level. As long as the level is roughly
leveled up, typically within +/- 10’ of the true vertical, the compensator swings freely and
establishes a horizontal line of sight. As a result, a self-leveling level is light, easy to
handle and set up, and its operation s quick and accurate.

Figure 15.6 Compensator in a Self-Leveling Level

The current state of the art in levels is the digital level. A digital level (Figure 15.7)
combines the advantages of the self-leveling level with a solid-state camera and
electronic image processing. Such instruments use a level rod with bar-code graduations.
Thus, the rod readings are automatically recorded eliminating observer and recording
error.

Figure 15.7 Digital Level

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 3. Stadia

Distances between the level and the level rods may be measured by use of the stadia
hairs in the telescope. One stadia hair is above and one below the principle horizontal
cross hair. Distance measurement by this method is based on the principle that the
interval between the two stadia hairs is proportional to the distance between the
instrument and the rod. Most levels have a stadia constant of 100. Therefore, the
distance to the rod may be determined by multiplying the interval between the top and
bottom cross hair by 100. As an example, in Figure 15.8, the top stadia hair has a rod
reading of 5.248 (interpolated to third place). The bottom stadia hair has a reading of
5.013. Therefore, the distance to the rod is 100(5.248 – 5.013) or 23.5 feet.

Figure 15.8 Stadia

4. 3-Wire Leveling

For increased precision with leveling the process of 3-wire leveling may be used.
That process increases the precision by using the average of three thread observations
for each sighting. In addition, that process provides an ideal method for determining
if leveling shots are balanced as well as allowing post correction to eliminate
collimation error. The process involves observing rod readings for all three
horizontal cross hairs for each sighting. By comparing the average of the three
readings with the middle hair reading, bad readings may be detected immediately and
the readings repeated. For this process, notes are typically kept as shown in Figure
15.9.

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 Figure 15.9 3-Wire Leveling Notes

BS FS Elev FS Dist BS Dist

10.000
top 3.000 1.500
mid 2.500 0.995
bot 2.000 0.490
mean +2.500 -0.995 11.505 100 101

top 5.255 2.962

mid 4.555 2.254
bot 3.853 1.546
mean +4.554 -2.254 13.805 140 142

5. Errors in Leveling

Collimation Error – The most common cause of errors in leveling is imperfect

adjustment of the level. Almost all level lines will have at least a slight difference from a
truly horizontal line. That difference is called collimation error (Figure 15.10). This
error can be eliminated by insuring that the backsight and foresight distances are equal in
length which cancels the error. In addition, by frequently performing collimation checks
on the level and adjusting the instrument as needed, this error can be minimized even in
unbalanced shots.

Figure 15.10 Collimation Error

Collimation checks are made by setting two points about 200 feet apart. The level is first
set up about 20 feet from the first point on a line between the two points and rod readings
for all three horizontal crosshairs read and recorded. The level is then moved to a
location on the line between the two points about 20 feet from the second point and rod

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readings for all three horizontal crosshairs read and recorded. The correction for the
collimation error (“C” factor) may then be calculated as the sum of the short readings
minus the sum of the long readings divided by the sum of the long distances minus the
sum of the short distances. This may be expressed numerically as follows:

( RS1 + RS 2 ) − ( RL1 + RL 2 )
C= (15.1)
( DL1 + DL 2 ) − ( DS1 + DS 2 )

where C = collimation correction in ft/ft or m/m

R = rod reading for middle hair
D = distance calculated by stadia
S = subscript for short readings or distances
L = subscript for long readings or distances
1 = subscript for readings or distances for position 1
2 = subscript for readings or distances for position 2

If the “C” factor and the distances to the rod for each set up known, post-correction of
leveling data to eliminate the collimation error can be accomplished. If the “C” factor is
large (generally considered to be over 0.01 ft/ft), the level should be adjusted. This can
be done while the level is still set up at position 2, by adjusting the alignment screw until
the middle thread reading for the short sight reads the value calculated as follows:

Correct C = RS 2 + (C )( DS 2 ) (15.2)

where the symbols are the same as Equation 15.1

Curvature Error – Due to the curvature of the earth, a level reading on a distant rod is
greater than if leveling on a plane (Figure 15.11). The effect of curvature of the earth
may be calculated as 0.667 M2 feet (where M is distance in miles) or 0.785 K2 (where K
is distance in kilometers). Therefore, this is not a significant error for short sightings. It
can, however, become a factor for long sightings. This error can be eliminated by having
balanced backsights and foresights.

Figure 15.11 Curvature Error

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Refraction Error – Refraction causes errors in leveling due to its bending of the light
rays due to differences in air temperature encountered in the line of sight. Refraction is
proportional to distance and is generally in the opposite direction from curvature error. It
therefore cancels out some of the curvature error. Refraction error may be minimized by
avoiding sightings that pass close to the earth since temperature gradients are generally
greatest close to the earth’s surface. The general rule is to avoid sightings where the line
of sight passes closer than a half meter from the ground. Refraction error may also be
minimized by having short, balanced sightings and taking the backsight and foresight
observations in quick succession.

Recent research by the National Geodetic Survey has resulted in a refraction modeling
process to determine refraction error. Therefore, for precise geodetic leveling conducted
by or for that agency, tripods for levels are equipped with temperature sensors mounted
about 0.3 and 1.3 meters above the ground. Temperatures from those sensors are
recorded with each leveling sighting for correction purposes.

Rod Plumb Error – One of the most common and yet most easily prevented errors is
that caused by the level rod not being plumb at the time of sighting. This error may be
prevented by the person holding the rod being especially alert to the plumb of the rod and
by use of easily obtainable rod bubbles. As may be seen in Figure 15.11, the true reading
of an inclined level may be calculated as the product of the rod reading and the sine of the
angle from the vertical.

Figure 15.11 Level Rod Plumb Error

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Parallax – Parallax is the apparent change in the position of the cross hair as viewed
through the telescope. Because the reticle (the ring that holds the crosshairs in the
telescope) is stationary, the distance between it and the eyepiece must be adjusted to suit
the eye of each individual observer. The eyepiece is adjusted by turning it slowly until
the crosshair is as black as possible. After the eyepiece is adjusted, the object viewed
should be brought into sharp focus by means of the focusing knob for the objective lens.
If the crosshairs seem to move across the object when the viewer moves his eye slightly,
parallax exists. It is eliminated by carefully adjusting the eyepiece and the objective lens.
If parallax is not eliminated, it can affect the accuracy of the rod readings.

Other Errors in Leveling – In addition to those errors listed above, there are numerous
other potential sources of errors in leveling. Possibly the most common are blunders in
observing or recording of rod readings. The proliferation of digital levels is rapidly
eliminating that source. Another common source is the choice of turning points. Turning
points should be exceptionally stable and symmetrical on top so that the same elevation is
reflected for both the foresight and backsight on the point. Other errors are caused index
and expansion errors of the level rod. For precise leveling, this is typically corrected by
the calibration of the rod against a known standard.

6. Adjustment of Leveling Lines

Good leveling practice calls for either redundancy or closure in leveling lines to detect
blunders in observations. A preferred method is for each segment in a leveling line to be
double run, once forward and once back, thus making two independent sets of
measurements. A second method is for the leveling line to be run in a complete circuit or
closed on a second bench mark of known elevation.

With the double run process, there are typically some differences in the forward and back
runs which allows determination of a closure error. In addition, since each segment in
the line is double run, this allows distribution of corrections to the appropriate segment
by averaging the forward and back runs. The process for determining error of closure
and abstracting double run levels is illustrated in Figure 15.12.

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 Figure 15.12

Abstract of Double Run Levels

BM Direction Dif in Elev Avg Elev
1 10.000
F 1.092
B -1.089 1.091
2 11.091
F 5.336
B -5.340 5.338
3 16.429
F -2.786
B 2.779 -2.783
4 13.646
F -5.443
B 5.447 -5.445
5 8.201

Total Fwd Run -1.801

Total Back
Run 1.797
Closure 0.004

For single run closed leveling circuits, closure error may be determined by the difference
between the measured final elevation and the known elevation of the closing bench mark.
Since the location of the error is not known as in double run levels, an alternate method
must be used to distribute the error. Since random errors in leveling usually accumulate
in proportion to the number of instrument setups, it follows that the error of closure
should be distributed within the various segments of the level line in proportion to the
number of setups in each segment. The process for adjusting and abstracting a typical
closed leveling circuit closing on beginning bench mark is illustrated in Figure 15.13. As
may be seen, the correction that is applied to each segment is calculated as follows:

no. of setups in segment

correction = (beginning elev. − ending elev.) (15.3)
total no. of setups

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 Figure 15.13

Abstract of Closed Level Circuit

Dif in Adjusted
Segment Elev Elev Setups Correction Elev
10.000 10.000
BM 1 - BM 2 1.092 3 -0.006
11.092 11.086
BM 2 - BM 3 5.336 2 -0.004
16.428 16.418
BM 3 - BM 4 -2.786 3 -0.006
13.642 13.626
BM 4 - BM 1 -3.618 4 -0.008
10.024 10.000
Total
Closure = 10.024 - 10.000 = 0.024 12

The leveling adjustments discussed above deal with simple closed leveling lines or loops.
When dealing with a more complex leveling network, a more complex approach to
adjustment must be used to distribute any error since there are typically multiple
solutions. Figure 15.14 illustrates such a complex network. With this type of network,
the best approach is a least squares adjustment.

Figure 15.14 Typical Complex Leveling Network

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Least squares adjustment of a leveling network utilizes matrix algebra. (Chapter 12
covers the basic matrix algebra operations that are used in a least squares adjustment.)
The network illustrated in Figure 15.14 will be used to illustrate the adjustment process.

The first step is to create an observation equation is created for each line in the network
which defines the unknown points in terms of the known elevations and elevation
differences. This process is illustrated as follows:

Line 1: A = (100 + 5.10) = 105.10

Line 2: A = (107.50 - 2.34) = 105.16
Line 3: C = (107.50 – 1.25) = 106.25
Line 4: C = (100 + 6.13) = 106.13
Line 5: A - B = 0.68
Line 6: B = (107.50 - 3.00) = 104.50
Line 7: B - C = - 1.70

The second step is to use the above equations to create three matrices, typically called
“A”, “L”, and “X”. Matrix A contains a column for each unknown point in the network
(A, B, and C) and a row for each observation equation. Each element in the first column,
which represents point A, is the coefficient for A from the corresponding equation.
Therefore, the elements are either “1” or “0”. There is also a corresponding column for B
and C. Matrix L has only one column and also has a row for each observation equation
which contains the values from the right hand side of the equations. Matrix X contains
one column with a row for each unknown point in the network.

⎡1 0 0⎤ ⎡105.10⎤
⎢1 0 0⎥ ⎢105.16⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢106.25⎥ ⎡ A⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ L = ⎢106.13⎥ X = ⎢⎢ B ⎥⎥
⎢1 − 1 0⎥ ⎢0.68 ⎥ ⎢⎣C ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢104.50⎥
⎢0 1 − 1⎥ ⎢− 1.70 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

The adjustment process involves solving Equation 15.3 provided below for matrix X.
Typically, this is accomplished by use of a calculator with matrix algebra capability or a
computer program.

X = ( AT A) −1 AT L (15.3)

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When solved, equation 15.3 used with data from this illustration yields the matrix X
which contains the adjusted or most probable values for A, B, and C, the three points in
the illustration with unknown elevations.

⎡ A⎤ ⎡105.14⎤
X = ⎢⎢ B ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢104.49⎥⎥
⎢⎣C ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣106.20⎥⎦
An additional important step with a least squares adjustment is an evaluation of the
residuals from the adjustment. This allows the spotting of blunders as well as providing
an idea of the size of the random errors in the data. Using the same A, X and L matrices
as in the adjustment itself, a residual matrix may be generated using the following
equation:

V = AX − L (15.4)

For the sample data used above in the adjustment, the calculation and the resulting
residuals are illustrated below:

⎡1 0 0⎤ ⎡105.10⎤ ⎡ 0.041 ⎤
⎢1 0 0⎥ ⎢105.16⎥ ⎢ 0.019 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎡105.14⎤ ⎢106.25⎥ ⎢− 0.062 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
V = AX − L = ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢⎢104.49⎥⎥ − ⎢106.13⎥ = ⎢− 0.058 ⎥
⎢1 − 1 0 ⎥ ⎢⎣106.20⎥⎦ ⎢0.68 ⎥ ⎢ 0.022 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢104.50⎥ ⎢− 0.017 ⎥
⎢0 1 − 1⎥ ⎢− 1.70 ⎥ ⎢ 0.005 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

The above process assumes that all level lines in the network have an equal weight for the
distribution of errors. A possibly more valid approach is to distribute errors weighted to
the length of the various lines, or to the number of setups in each line. This may be
accomplished for the illustrated network by creating a weight matrix “W” based on the
number of setups tabulated in Figure 15.14. Weights in a leveling network are inversely
proportional to the lengths of lines or the number of setups. Therefore, the elements for
each line in matrix W are entered as 1 divided by the number of setups. Note that matrix
W has the same number of columns and rows with both equal to the number of
observational equations and that the table is a diagonal matrix with the weights entered in
a diagonal line and all other elements being zero.

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 ⎡1 ⎤
⎢8 0 0 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 6 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 1 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ 4 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
W = ⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 6 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 4 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 1 0⎥
⎢ 4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎣⎢ 4 ⎦⎥

The adjustment process using weights involves solving the following equation for matrix
X:

X = ( ATWA) −1 ATWL) (15.5)

For the illustrated network, a comparison of the results of unweighted and weighted
adjustments are as follows:

Point Unweighted Weighted

A 105.14 105.15
B 104.49 104.49
C 106.20 106.21

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 7. Profile Leveling

Profile leveling is the process of determining elevations of points at measured intervals

along a fixed line. This is a common process in the planning of highways, canals,
pipelines and other linear projects where a vertical section of the earth is needed to
determine the location of the centerline of the project. Profile leveling is similar to
differential leveling except that multiple foresight readings are typically taken from one
backsight reading.

At each setup of the level, foresight readings are taken along the centerline of the profile
at each full station and at any break of the topography. A break is where there is a
sudden significant change in slope. The elevation of each of these points may then be
determined by subtracting the readings from the height of instrument at the setup. Figure
15.15 illustrates typical field notes for the profile leveling process. The resulting profile
from the notes is illustrated in Figure 15.16. Note that the sightings on the bench mark
and turning point are read to a higher order of precision than sightings on the ground.

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 Figure 15.15 Profile Leveling Notes
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM 4 478.26
4.87 483.13
32+00 11.5 471.6
33+00 9.4 473.7
+75 10.1 473.0
34+00 8.2 474.9
35+00 3 480.1
+15 1.9 481.2
+70 2.3 480.8
36+00 5.2 477.9
+50 6.8 476.3
37+00 5.9 477.2
38+00 13.3 469.8
TP 10.72 472.41
4.54 476.95
38+60 13.2 463.8
39+00 12.0 465.0
40+00 3.9 473.1
41+00 1.2 475.8
42+00 0.8 476.2
+70 0.7 476.3
+80 1.5 475.5
43+00 0.4 476.6
BM 5 0.17 476.78

Figure 15.16 Profile Plotted from Level Notes in Figure 15.15

(use Figure 13.7 from 5th Edition)

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 8. Vertical Datums

To allow comparison with other geospatial data, surveys are typically referenced to a
common framework or datum. Typically, horizontal coordinates for points in a survey
are referenced to a datum based on an ellipsoid of revolution approximating the figure of
the earth. Unlike horizontal coordinates, elevations have traditionally not been related to
the ellipsoid. Rather, they have been more typically referenced to an average stage of the
tide such as mean sea level although the use of a tidal datum creates challenges with use
for a large area because of the geographic variability of tidal datums. This challenge has
been dealt with by use of a horizontal surface shaped by the earth’s gravity force that
approximates the elevation of stilled sea level around the world. That surface is called
the geoid. It represents an elevation with equal gravitation force and is thus is a concept
ideally suited for a datum for elevations.

In the United States, the geoidal datum used prior to 1991 was established by holding as
fixed the elevations of mean sea level at 26 locations along the coastlines of the United
States and Canada and using a least squares adjustment of the level lines connecting those
points. That datum was known as the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD
1929), formerly called the sea-level datum of 1929. With increased understanding of the
geographic variability of sea level, the current geoidal datum was established using a
different approach. That current datum, the North American Vertical Datum of 1988
(NAVD 88), was established by use of a minimal constraint adjustment holding mean sea
level at just one point, Father Point in Quebec, Canada, as fixed. A similar geoidal datum
has been established on the island of Puerto Rico, known as the Puerto Rican Vertical
Datum of 2000 (PRVD 2000) by holding the elevation of mean sea level at San Juan as
fixed.

Elevations referenced to the geoid are considered to be orthometric heights and are
defined as the distance between the geoid and the point as measured along a plumb line
passing through the point. Currently in the United States, most elevations used in
topographic mapping, geodetic surveys, engineering studies, construction surveys, and
geographic information systems are orthometric heights and are referenced to NAVD 88.
Even though the geoid is is a somewhat irregular surface as compared to the predictable,
smooth, and mathematically perfect shape of the ellipsoid (Figure 15.17), elevations,
referenced to the geoid, are generally preferable to those referenced to the ellipsoid for
most applications. One reason is perception since in some places in the United States, the
ellipsoid is 50 meters or more above sea level. The most important reason is that a datum
based on gravity is preferable since water can theoretically run “uphill” in terrain
measured relative to the ellipsoid in areas where the geoidal separation is changing.

An understanding of the difference between ellipsoidal and orthometric elevations is

especially important when dealing with elevations derived from GPS observations. Since
the GPS orbital information is referenced to the ellipsoid, elevations determined by GPS
observations are relative to the ellipsoid. For use for most applications such as

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topographic mapping, such elevations must be adjusted to orthometric heights by
subtracting the geoidal separation (parameter N in Figure 15.17) at that location using a
model of the geoid. Within the United States, models of the geoid have been developed
using a combination of geodetic leveling, GPS observations, and gravity observations. In
less developed areas of the world, precise geoidal models may not exist.

Figure 15.17 Orthmetric vs Ellipsoidal Heights

In addition to the vertical datums discussed above, local tidal datums, such as mean high
water and mean lower low water are used for some applications. Typical applications
include water boundary and hydrographic surveys. See Chapters 24 and 25 for
discussions on these applications.

Practice Problems

1. The term “height of instrument”, as used in leveling, is which of the following?

(A) distance from the ground to the axis of the telescope

(B) elevation of the line of sight above the datum being used
(C) height of the line of sight above a bench mark
(D) all of the above

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2. A distant point observed through a level telescope appears to be lower than it
actually is because of which of the following?

(A) collimation error

(B) refraction
(C) curvature of the earth
(D) both (B) and (C)

3. Balancing distances to backsights and foresights eliminates which of the

following?

(A) curvature of the earth errors

(B) collimation errors
(C) rod plumb errors
(D) both (A) and (B)

4. At a leveling setup, the monument on which the rod is set for the backsight has an
elevation of 10.000 feet. The back sight reading is 2.456 and the foresight
reading is 4.232. What is the elevation of the foresight point?

(A) 7.544 ft
(B) 8.224 ft
(C) 12.456 ft
(D) 16.688 ft

5. What is the curvature of the earth error associated with a leveling shot of 1000
feet?

(A) 0.024 ft
(B) 0.032 ft
(C) 0.035 ft
(D) 0.547 ft

6. Assuming a typical stadia constant, what is the

distance between the level and the rod in this illustration
if the rod is in feet?

(A) 23 ft
(B) 46 ft
(C) 59 ft
(D) 67 ft

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7. What is an advantage of an invar leveling rod?

(A) low coefficient of expansion

(B) more visible graduations
(C) top portion of rod can be detatched
(D) better resolution

8. What is the rod reading for a typical backsight in this illustration?

(A) 0.930
(B) 1.000
(C) 1.100
(D) 1.270

9. For a typical modern level, what device defines the line of sight?

(A) spirit level bubble

(B) bull’s eye bubble
(C) compensator
(D) plumb bob

10. What is the closure error for the closed leveling run having the measurements
provided in the table below?

setup BS FS
(A) 0.005 BM 1 - BM 2 2.543 5.222
(B) 0.006 BM 2 - BM 3 3.278 4.362
(C) 0.007 BM 3 - BM 2 4.135 3.053
(D) 0.008 BM 2 - BM 1 5.047 2.359

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11. What is the closure error for the closed leveling run having the measurements
provided in the table below?

Published elevation for BM 1 = 10.000 ft

(A) 0.009 ft
Published elevation for BM 5 = 4.291 ft
(B) 0.011 ft
(C) 0.012 ft
setup BS FS
(D) 0.015 ft
BM 1 - BM 2 3.124 5.667
BM 2 - BM 3 3.487 4.223
BM 3 - BM 4 5.213 5.673
BM 4 - BM 5 2.413 4.392

12. With a level rod reading of 6.000 feet, what is the corrected reading if the level
rod is 5º off vertical?

(A) 5.977 ft
(B) 5.986 ft
(C) 6.002 ft
(D) 6.023 ft

13. What is the foresight rod reading necessary to find a point on the ground with an
elevation of 2.00 feet if you sight on a bench mark with an elevation of 5.25 and
read a backsight of 2.52?

(A) 2.73
(B) 5.25
(C) 5.77
(D) 7.77

14. What is the elevation of bench mark B using the 3-wire field notes provided in the
table below?

BS FS Elev
(A) 7.078 ft BM A 10.000
(B) 8.921 ft top 3.477 4.566
(C) 8.922 ft mid 2.965 4.044
(D) 9.812 ft bot 2.456 3.521
BM B

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 15. Calculate the collimation correction ( C factor) for determining collimation error
given the following field notes for a C test. The rod readings are in feet.

(A) 0.002 ft/ft setup short long

(B) 0.008 ft/ft 4.621 4.236
(C) 0.011 ft/ft 1 4.516 3.320
(D) 0.015 ft/ft 4.412 2.403

4.400 3.929
2 4.302 3.010
4.199 2.091

16. Which of the following practices should be followed to minimize leveling error
due to refraction?

(A) not allowing line of sight to be close to ground

(B) balancing backsights and foresights
(C) taking backsights and foresights in quick succession
(D) all of the above

Solutions to Practice Problems

1. In leveling, the term “height of instrument” means the elevation of the line
of sight above the datum being used.

The answer is (B).

2. A distant point appears to be lower than it actually is due to curvature of the

earth.

The answer is (C).

3. Balancing distances to backsights and foresights eliminates

errors for both curvature of the earth and collimation.

The answer is (D).

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4. The elevation of the foresight point may be calculated as follows:

BS elev 10.000 ft
+ BS +2.456
HI 12.456
-FS -4.232
8.224 ft

The answer is (B).

5. The curvature of the earth may be calculated as follows:

1000 ft
1000 ft = = 0.189mi
5280 ft / mi
curvature = 0.667 M 2 = 0.667(0.189) 2 = 0.024 ft

The answer is (A).

6. The top stadia hair is 6.13 and the bottom stadia hair is 5.67, so the stadia
distance is 100(6.13 – 5.67) = 46 feet.

The answer is (B).

7. An advantage of an invar leveling rod is that it has a low coefficient of

expansion and thus reduces error due to temperature differences.

The answer is (A).

8. The rod reading is 1.100 ft.

The answer is (C).

9. Most modern levels us a compensator to define the line of sight.

The answer is (C).

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 10. The error of closure may be calculated as shown below.

setup BS HI FS elev
BM 1 10.000
2.543 12.543 5.222
BM 2 7.321
3.278 10.599 4.362
BM 3 6.237
4.135 10.372 3.053
BM 2 7.319
5.047 12.366 2.359
BM 1 10.007

Error of Closure = 10.007 – 10.000 = 0.007

The answer is (C).

11. The error of closure may be calculated as shown below.

setup BS HI FS elev
BM 1 10.000
3.124 13.124 5.667
BM 2 7.457
3.487 10.944 4.223
BM 3 6.721
5.213 11.934 5.673
BM 2 6.261
2.413 8.674 4.392
BM 5 4.282

Error of Closure = 4.291 – 4.282 = 0.009 ft

The answer is (A).

12. True reading = (rod reading) cos(angle) = (6.000 ft)cos(5º) = 5.977 ft

The answer is (A).

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 13. BM Elev 5.25
+ BS 2.52
HI 7.77

To find a contour of 2.00, FS = 7.77 – 2.00 = 5.77

The answer is (C).

14. The elevation may be calculated as illustrated below:

avg avg
BS BS HI FS FS Elev
BM A 10.000
top 3.477 4.566
mid 2.965 2.966 12.966 4.044 4.044
bot 2.456 3.521
BM B 8.922

The answer is (C).

15. The “C” factor may be calculated as below.

avg
setup short reading dist long avg
4.621 4.236
1 4.516 4.516 20.9 3.320 3.320 183.3
4.412 2.403

4.400 3.929
2 4.302 4.300 20.1 3.010 3.010 183.8
4.199 2.091

sums 8.817 41.0 6.330 367.1

( RS1 + RS 2 ) − ( RL1 + RL 2 ) 8.817 − 6.330

C= = = 0.008 ft / ft
( DL1 + DL 2 ) − ( DS1 + DS 2 ) 41.0 − 367.1

The answer is (B)

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16. To minimize error due to refraction in leveling, observers should not allow
the line of sight to be close to ground, balance backsights and foresights,
and take backsights and foresights in quick succession.

The answer is (D).

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