ASTRONOMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CULT PRACTISE OF THE PEAK

SANCTUARY KOKINO

Olgica Kuzmanovska

Ss Cyril & Methodius University, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Department of Physics,
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Department of Physics,

Arhimedova 3, P.O. Box 162, Skopje, Macedonia

Jovica Stankovski

National Museum Kumanovo, Kumanovo, Macedonia

Corresponding author: Olgica Kuzmanovska (olgicak@pmf.ukim.mk)

Abstract:

The latest astronomical research of the site known as "Tatikev Kamen" (or peak sanctuary Kokino) casts
light on the cult practice of the local population of the Bronze Age in this region in northeast Macedonia.

The newly-discovered astronomic platform has been used to observe the heliacal appearance of the star
Aldebaran in a period of approximately 500 years, as well as the sunrise at the equinox. In 21 century
BC, Aldebaran has been much nearer to the point of equinox. Therefore, the stone notch that marked the
spring equinox has been used in the same time as a marker for the heliacal rising of Aldebaran, an event
which has happened two months after the spring equinox. In the morning of the heliacal rising of the star,
the appearance of the sun on the "mutual” marker has been visible from the platform with the stone
thrones.

In this article we express the view that the period from the spring equinox to the appearance of the Sun at
the "mutual marker" (from the platform with the thrones) is a period in which, even nowadays, according
to the local culture and folklore tradition, the local population celebrates different holidays which still
encapsulate visible elements from pagan cults. Those are folklore customs related to the celebrations of
the so-called Agrarian and Stock Breeding New Year, as well as holidays related to the cosmological
concepts of the Bronze Age people in the region.

Key words:

Archaeoastronomy, heliacal rising, solar calendars, stone markers

1. INTRODUCTION
The ancient observatory Kokino (also known as “Megalithic observatory Kokino”) is a part of the
archeoastronomical locality Tatikev Kamen (Tatic Rock), located 30 km northeast from the town of
Kumanovo, Macedonia. Its geographical coordinates are  = 42 15’ 48″ north latitude, and = 21 57’ 10”
east longitude. The locality has been discovered on an upper part of a hill with volcanic origin. Having a
height of 1013 m, the hill dominates the surrounding area and the village of Kokino at its foothill (Figure
1). The site contains several artificially carved and flattened surfaces (platforms) and objects cut in the
rocks, such as stone seats, astronomical and ritual markers, paths, etc (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Panoramic view of the archeoastronomical locality “Tatikev kamen”

Figure 2. Map of the locality “Tatićev kamen”. A – first platform with the stone seats. B – upper eastern platform. C –
astronomic platform (second platform). E - astronomic platform (third platform). D – northern terrace. F – sanctuary wall. G –
main access path. H - access to the northern terrace. I - side path. K – mutual marker
The most fascinating part of the locality is the lower, western platform (A) which contains monumental
stone seats (or “thrones”) carved in the rock terrain (Figure 3). Their construction, as well as the
construction of the platform, was naturally predisposed by the geological system of fractures and fissures.
The fractures in the rocks are limited in almost ideal cube blocks which could be moved relatively easy
[9]. The thrones are lined in south-north direction and in such a manner that a person who sits on them
faces the eastern horizon. A second platform (C) that strictly had astronomical purpose is positioned
around 30 m southwest from the thrones’ platform. A separate side path (I) that starts from the bottom of
the hill leads to it. On the north slope of the locality there is another platform made for astronomical
observations (E). It is a part of the northern terrace (D). Around 70 m to east and 15 m higher than
platform “A” there is one more artificially flattened surface (platform B) with the main path (approach) to
the archeoastronomical locality - constructed on the rocks.

Figure 3. The western platform with the stone seats (thrones)

The role of the locality as mountain, extra urban sanctuary (i.e. peak sanctuary) for the Bronze Age
people in the region during the whole period of the second millennium BC, was confirmed by its
topographic characteristics (its dominant position on the hill, the large radius of visibility for the top that
can be approached by the slope lit by the morning sun), as well as the large number of excavated
artifacts discovered in the archeological context (e.g. [20],[21]). The archeological campaigns started at
2001. Its use as megalithic astronomical observatory was additionally proved.

2. ARCHEOASTRONOMICAL RESEARCH

Most part of the archeological material was found on the highest part of the site and on the north slope of
the hill (the so called northern terrace). It dates from the three phases of the Bronze Age: the early Bronze
Age (21st-17th c. BC), see Figure 7 and Figure 8, middle Bronze Age (17 th–14th c. BC) and late Bronze
Age (14th–11th c. BC), according to the modified Reinecke chronology of the Bronze Age for central
Europe. This sacred enclosure or “temenos” was enclosed by a 80 m long wall (Figure 4), noted with “F”
on the map of the locality (see Fig. 2). In the archeological research of the “temenos” area two types of
religious structures were revealed; the ritual pits (Figure 5) and the circular stone constructions (Figure
6). The ritual pits had been formed around natural fissures of the rocks and delimited with stones mixed
with earth and sometimes of clay. They were filled with ceramic vessels or their fragments, as well as
ceramic votive figurines, pyramidal weights, moulds for casting bronze objects, stone axes, etc. The
deposit was then covered with earth and small stones. So far, the most similar to the Kokino ritual pits are
the pits of the Bronze Age sanctuary discovered at the locality Gradiste near village Pelince, around 8 km
west of Kokino. It dates from almost the same chronological period [22].

Figure 4. Sanctuary wall

Figure 5. Ritual pit

 Figure 6. Circular stone constructions

Very fascinating is the discovery of the small ceramic figurines: a female torso, a small figurine of a
bovine and several representations of a human leg (Figure 7). Almost identical figurines were found in a
similar context on the mountain sanctuary Traostalos on the island Crete. According to most authors they
probably had a function of providing fertility and good health of people and livestock (e.g. [2], [5], [6],
[15], [16], [20], [21]). The figurines were had been deposited on the mountain sanctuaries of Crete during
most of the Middle Minoan period (22st-17th c. BC). In the Late Minoan I period (16 st-15th c. BC) most of
these sanctuaries were no longer used (e.g. [4], [17]). The similarity of the archaeological artefacts (i.e.
the clay figurines) and the archaeological context in which they were found emphasize the same aspects
of the religious cults of the Kokino sanctuary and the sanctuaries on Crete, regardless of the geographical
distance of their Bronze Age communities. Recent ethnographic, linguistic and archaeological researches
confirm the relation of the Greek and Cretan religious beliefs, as well as of the other Aegean communities
with those of the Eastern peoples of Anatolia, Syria and Egypt since the Neolithic times. The relations
were even stronger during the Bronze Age (e.g. [3],[7]). Breaking the ceramic vessels and scattering their
parts after the ritual was practiced by the early Neolithic communities. In Kokino sanctuary, the fragments
of a same vessel burned by fire are discovered even 20 m apart from each other.

Figure 7. Ceramic votive figurines

Another ritual practise identified in Kokino has similar parallels on the Mediterranean basin. It is
connected with the so called circular stone constructions, composed of big stones arranged in circles with
diameters of 1-2m. The deposit put in the circles or around them is similar with the one from the pits. At
the end of the ritual which probably included libations, the deposits were covered with earth and small
stones forming a shape of small tumulus. Figure 8 shows a completely preserved cup and funnel
discovered in one of the pits.

Figure 8. Cup and funnel from the early Bronze Age

A similar ritual was performed around 60 km southeast of Kokino, at the locality Saint Atanasie
near the town Kocani. The locality contains three circular (with radius 2-4 m) and two rectangular (with
area 22.5m) platforms constructed on natural rock which was previously covered with layer of stones
coated with clay. At these platforms the researchers discovered fragmented ceramic vessels,
anthropomorphic and zoomorphic clay and terracotta figurines, stone hand mills, stone axes etc. Saint
Atanasie sanctuary was built at the end of 5 th and the beginning of 4th c. BC [1]; [14]. According to the
archeological findings it was related with the eneolithic settlement discovered near it.

In early mountain sanctuaries on Crete dating from Middle Minoan (MMII) period, circular
constructions made from layers of pebbles were made, with votive figurines placed inside or near them
[17].

The thrones’ platform and the small platforms “C” and “E” on Figure 2 contain astronomical
alignments which provide unambiguous evidence that some of the religious rituals at Kokino were
performed according to the motion of the sun and several other celestial objects. In the astronomical
research, we measured the position of these alignments in order to identify the motives and estimate the
period of the year the ritual celebrations had been most probably arranged. The markers that point to the
rising positions of the sun, other stars and probably the full moon on particular calendar dates are
presented by small notches in the rocks which are artificially carved and distinguishable from the natural
cracks. There are indications that the notches are remains of apertures, i. e. they were covered on top
with horizontally placed stones in order to create narrow “windows” through which the astronomical event
was observed. We calculated the declination  (the latitude above the celestial equator) of this marker
using the formula:

sin   cos A cos  cos h  sin  sin h ,

and taking into account the small correction due to astronomical refraction. The azimuth A, estimated
from the north horizontal point and the altitude over the horizon h, were measured by a geodetic
instrument with laser, while  is the geographical latitude of the locality. We also used the Red Shift 4
computer program to reconstruct the sky map of the locality in different periods of the Bronze Age.

The most distinguishable astronomical marker, the so called “ritual marker”, is constructed for the
observer sitting on the thrones. It has a form of aperture placed just below the highest part of the locality
through which the sun rises on certain dates of the year. The sun’s rays pass through the right edge of
the artificially cut trench on the eastern platform (noted with ‘B’ on Fig. 2) and then through another
artificial notch below. As a result they illuminate just one of the thrones in the centre of the platform. The
declination  of the marker (Table 1) defined as the altitude above the celestial equator - coincides with
the positions of the rising sun in the middle of May (14 th or 15th of May) and in the end of July (30 th or 31st
of July). In the early Bronze Age, i.e. around 2000 BC when the observatory was constructed (according
to the archaeological evidence), the sun rose through the marker in the third week of May and at the
beginning of August, due to change in obliquity of the Earth’s rotational axis [16].

Figure 9. The stone markers of summer solstice –S1, autumnal and vernal equinox – S2 and winter solstice
– S3 (CITAT), and the rising sun on the particular days (photos above), observed from the platform “C”

The astronomical observations of the motion of the rising sun throughout the year were made
from a narrow platform composed of an artificially flattened stone blocks (noted with ‘C’ on Figure 2).
Considering the period of one millennium the locality was used as an observatory and its main religious
purpose, we guess that the observations were made on a daily basis by the local priests. They were
probably accessing it from an additional side path (noted with ‘I’ on Figure 2). The platform satisfies one
of the basic criteria that Hawkins laid out for a site to be considered as a megalithic observatory as a
homogeneous group of markers can be observed from a single central point [10]. Having the magnitude
of the solar disk, three of the markers point to the extreme positions of the rising sun on winter and
summer solstices and to the point of equinox, in spring and autumn [16]. Namely, moving apparently on
the celestial circle – the ecliptic, the sun changes its daily motion on the sky, too. As a result, it rises
precisely on east just on two dates, in the end of March and end of September (i.e. in the point of
equinox). On the other days throughout the year the sunrise position is relocated from the equinox point
and has extreme positions on summer (end of July) and winter solstice (end of December). The existence
of markers of the extreme positions and the equinoxes indicates that the Kokino people had a simple
solar calendar based on the observations of the daily motion of the rising sun. The calendar was used for
performing religious rituals that were undoubtedly related with arranging agricultural work of the
community [15]; [16];[20]. The stone markers for solstices and equinoxes and the rising sun through
them on particular calendar dates are shown on Figure 9.

The existence of a marker for the equinoxes indicates the sophisticated observational skills of the
Kokino “astronomers”. The sun’s declination  at these two dates (around 21st of March and 22rd of
September) is about zero degrees. For the Bronze Age communities, the equinox point in the sun’s yearly
motion on the sky, indicated the turning point between the two extremes and divided the solar cycle into a
warm and a hot season [11]; [19]. Additional confirmation that the builders of the megalithic observatory
Kokino were familiar with the concept of equinox is the existence of a second equinox marker. It can be
observed from the platform “E” on the northern terrace. Additionally to this marker, few other prominent
notches were carved on the rock that covers the eastern horizon of an observer standing on platform “E”.
Their declinations match almost exactly with the theoretical declinations of the bright star Aldebaran in the
constellation Taurus, in the course of the half of the second millennium BC [15]; [16]. Additionally, the
equinox marker was also Aldebaran’s marker in the years when the sanctuary was constructed because
the Aldebaran’s position was in the equinox point in the 21 st century BC (see Table 1). More precisely, the
year of the exact match of the Aldebaran’s position and the equinox marker is 2083 BC, according to the
Red Shift 4 computer program. Just like most of the stars, Aldebaran’s position changed due to its proper
motion and the precession of the Earth’s axes. That was the reason for carving the other four of its
markers in the course of several centuries.

Table 1. Horizontal azimuth and altitude, astronomical refraction corrections and declinations of the three markers
that relate the astronomical platforms

Refraction Declination
Marker Azimuth Altitude
correction ( ′ ) ()

Ritual marker on
7605′10″ 1201′40″ 4.67 18.26
platform “A”

Equinox marker
8943′27″ -1′23″ 34 -0.19
on platform “C”

Equinox marker
on platform “E”
10658′13
1802′42″ 2.7 0.14
″
(also Aldebaran’s
marker)
 Figure 10. The stone block with the “mutual” marker, seen from the highest part of the locality (bottom), the
rising sun in the middle of May, observed from the thrones’ platform (upper left) and the rising sun on vernal equinox,
which was also Aldebaran’s rising position around 2000 BC, observed from platform “E” (upper right)

We estimate that the heliacal rising of Aldebaran and the near star cluster Pleiades, which
happened around 60 days after the spring equinox, was the astronomical event related with the religious
cults of Kokino. The heliacal rising of a star is defined by its appearance in the eastern horizon of the
observer just before sunrise and, after a period of invisibility. The heliacal rising of different bright stars
marked the beginning of new seasons in many ancient calendars [19]. The error of several days when
determining the heliacal rising of a star is inevitable due to the change in visibility, climate conditions and
the observational criteria of the ancient sky-watchers. For the case of Kokino observatory, there is one
very important coincidence; the equinox marker on the platform “E” (which was also Aldebaran’s marker
around 2000 BC), is constructed on a same stone block as the ritual marker through which the sun rises
on two mornings (in middle of May and late July). In other words, in the beginning of the second
millennium BC, the heliacal rising of Aldebaran in the second half May through the equinox marker seen
from platform “E” and the sunrise through the ritual marker seen from the thrones’ platform happened in
the same morning (see Figure 10). As the equinox marker and the ritual marker are built on the same
stone block, they are “mutual” for the both platforms, the one with the thrones and platform “E” (noted with
“K” on Figure 2).

In the next chapter we will discuss the most possible relation between the astronomical
alignments and the rituals arranged in Kokino sanctuary during the Bronze Age.
 3. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

The latest archeoastronomical research of the astronomical alignments of the northern terrace of
the peak sanctuary Kokino enables better insight on the cult practice of the Bronze Age communities of
the north part of Macedonia. It also indicates its influence on the present-day rituals related with the so
called spring cycle of holidays in the folklore of the surrounding area.

The period between the spring equinox and the day of the heliacal rising of the star Aldebaran on
the “mutual” marker (i.e. the morning when the sun lights just one stone seat on the lower throne
platform), which happens in the second half of May, is a season of spring holidays in the local folklore.
Most of them have had pagan origin and were later incorporated in the new Christian beliefs. Also, the
mythological representations and practices of the old solar calendars were coordinated with the Julian
calendar (which is also solar).

However, it is still an open question what was the exact event (natural or astronomical) that
marked the beginning of the pagan New Year in the Bronze Age. In the Macedonian tradition there are
several closed cycles that contain mythical, religious and social characteristics which can be useful for the
determination [18]. For example, the agricultural New Year begins with sowing and plowing the fields.
The activities were beginning with the Orthodox Christian holiday Krstovden on September 27 th. On this
day the sower was on the field before sunrise saying a prayer and then starting the work. According to
some researchers, these magical practices were marking the beginning of the agricultural New Year [18].
In Kokino, the illumination of one of the stone thrones by the morning sun occurred in May, but and also in
late July or beginning of August. We hypothesize that the rituals arranged on the second date were
celebrating the successful harvest, as one of the most important events of the agricultural communities in
the area. The person who had the principal role in the execution the mountain ritual probably sat on the
illuminated seat, most likely - the tribal leader in a role of head priest. The scene described the concept of
uniting the Heavens and Earth which ensured the cyclic renewal of nature. The ritual was known in
antiquity as ‘hieros gamos” i.e. the “sacred marriage” or union of the fertility Goddess and her divine male
consort [8].

A variety of sources suggest that people in the Aegean believed in similar myths and had
practiced corresponding rituals since the Bronze Age period with the divine couple having different names
in different mythological concepts. In the region of the Near East the sacred union was made between
Innana and Dumuzi, or Ishtar and Tammuz. In Greek mythology there is a divine couple in each
generation of gods; Gaia and Uranos, Rhea and Cronos, Hera and Zeus, etc. All of the myths suggest the
annual death of the male at the end of spring or early summer, and his rebirth in the autumn when he
reunites with the goddess. In Near East the sacred marriage was one of the main rituals in the
celebrations that marked the beginning of the New Year. On Crete in the historical period - the New Year,
was starting near the autumn equinox marking the rainy season [13].

Motives of the cosmic hierogamy between the Heavens and the Earth and the sacred
marriage are also present in the Macedonian ethnical tradition. The main element of these cosmological
concepts is the water, i.e. the heavenly rain. This was not ordinary, but divine rain that marked the sacred
union between Heavens and Earth if it occurred on strictly determined time periods and under certain
conditions. Thus, most of the spring holidays are related with special activities, such as picking special
plants or collecting the morning dew [18]. In western part of Macedonia the dominant activity was
stockbreeding. In this region the beginning of the New Year was related with the holiday called Letnik in
mid March. The activities arranged around this holiday had magic meaning and were performed for a
purpose of providing the fertility and prosperity of the community. The holiday was related with other
spring holidays (Gjurgjovden, Eremija, etc.) that celebrated the awakening and renewal of nature.
 The most important in the spring cycle was a Christian holiday with archaic, pagan origin, called
Gjurgjovden (May 6th). It is also celebrated by non-Christian communities in Macedonia and had a basic
meaning of celebration of life and the nature reborn [12]. The rituals preformed on Gjurgjovden are similar
to those of some Roman holidays, as Palilija on April 21th, when people ornamented the live stock with
green branches and sacrifices were given to the gods for the sake of protecting the people and live stock
from accidents. The celebrations in honor of the god Dionysus performed by the ancient Greeks and
Thracians, according to many ancient authors, have similar elements with the rituals performed by
Macedonians that all culminated around Gjurgovden and marked the beginning of the warm (summer)
half of the year.

We suggest that the beginning of the New Year for the Bronze Age community that built the
sanctuary and the megalithic observatory Kokino coincided with the heliacal rising of Aldebaran in the
second half of May. Then, the star was visible in dawn, before sunrise, for the first time after many
months of invisibility. The event was symbolically marked by the notch seen from platform “E”, which was
also the marker for the sunrise on spring (vernal) equinox in the period the sanctuary was built. We guess
that Aldebaran, among other bright stars, was chosen to be observed because its appearance coincided
with the position of the sun in equinoxes. As the Aldebaran’s marker is “mutual” for platforms “E” and the
one with the thrones, the sunrise through the ritual marker on the thrones’ platform happened in the
morning of the heliacal rising of the star on platform “E”. According to the archaeological evidences the
two astronomical events were the main cause for arranging the celebrations and rituals. They marked the
beginning of the new season, the renewal of the nature and starting the agricultural work cycles on which
the whole community depended of.

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