Unit 2: Design of Large Span

Structures
(Tensile Structures)

Structural System and Design - V

 Contents
• Principle of Tensile Structures
• Understanding general structural behaviour of tension systems
• Pneumatic structures
• Understanding sag and cross-sectional area in cables structures
• Cable suspended and cable-stayed structure
• Modern day applications
Tensile Structures
 General Behaviour of Tensile Structures
• The term tensile structures describes the category of buildings in which the
load bearing capacity is achieved through tension stress in the majority of the
components, such as cables, technical fabrics or foils.
• It can also be defined as a structure where the exterior shell is a fabric
material spread over a framework. The fabric is maintained in tension in all
directions to provide stability.
• The only exception is represented by rigid boundaries and structural members
which are generally subjected to compression and bending.
• Tension structures are commonly subdivided in boundary tensioned
membranes, pneumatic structures and pre-stressed cable nets and beams.
 Common Misconceptions
• Fabric structures cannot take heavy weather conditions is an incorrect
statement.
• Fabric is elastic and stretches. Fabric has a strong tensile strength and will
creep (stretch very slightly) only a few percent over 20 years of use.

Chicago’s Navy Pier Denver International Airport

Pneumatic Structures
 Introduction
• It is a membrane structure which carries load developed from
the tensile stresses.

• They are stabilized by pressure of compressed air.

• Pressure difference between the enclosed space and the

exterior are responsible for giving the building its shape and
its stability.

• Round in shape because it creates greatest volume for least

amount of material.

• The whole envelope has to be evenly pressurized for best

stability.

• Pre-stressing of membrane can be done either by applying an

external force which pulls the membrane or by internal
pressurizing if the membrane is volume enclosing.

• The pneumatic forms are bound to increase in popularity,

owing to the tremendous freedom they provide to the
architects in designing large free spaces within them.
 Origin
• The word pneumatic is derived from the Greek
word “pneuma” (meaning breath of air), thus
these are the structure which are supported by
air.
• “Pneumatic” structure” has been used by
mankind for thousand of years.
• But in the building technology, it was introduced
only about 40 years ago.
 Principle
• Its principle is the use of relatively thin
membrane supported by a pressure difference.
• Through increasing the inside air pressure, not
only the dead weight of the space envelope is
balanced, but the membrane is stressed to a
point where it cannot be indented by
asymmetrical loading.
 General Characteristics
1) Light Weight:
• The weight of the structure as compared to the area it covers is very
less.
• The weight of the membrane roof, even when it is stiffened by cables,
is very small.
• Low air pressure is sufficient to balance it.
• Even with spans of more than 100 m, the weight of the structure does
not exceed 3kg/m2.
2) Span:
• No structure can guarantee to give the spans upto certain limits. Cable
structures are exceptions (Cables for bridges usually).
 General Characteristics
• For a building, then the limitation is 150 m span due to its self weight.
• Another advantage over other structures is that, for pneumatic membrane,
there is no theoretical maximum span as determined by strength, elasticity,
specific weight or any other property.
• It is hardly possible to span a distance of over 36 km. With steel cables, they
would fail because of their inability to sustain their own weight. But with
pneumatics, such spans are quiet possible.
3) Safety:
• Pneumatic structures are safer than any other structure. Otherwise, a proper
care should be taken while establishing.
• Accidental circumstances are avoided as they are very light.
 General Characteristics
• There are warning signals while the release of return valve. Safety factor
warning time is quiet long as compared to other structures.
• Pneumatic structures cannot be destroyed by fire quickly and totally.
4) Theft:
• It is very safe. Nobody can pass through a pneumatic structure. If an air bag is
cut with a knife/pin, a bang is produced.
5) Human Health:
• In most cases, pressure of not more than 80-100mm and not less than 60mm.
But man can withstand pressures between 0.2 atm to 3 atm. Therefore, no
health hazard is presented by continuous stay in a pneumatic structure.
 General Characteristics
6) Quick erection and dismantling:
• Suitable for temporary constructions because they are as easy to dismantle as
to establish.
• 1 km2 of an area can be brought down in 6 hours and can be established in
less than 10 hours. The 4 hours difference is due to establishment of pegs etc.
7) Economy:
• It is not expensive where it is used for shifting structures. For permanent
structures, it is very expensive. Otherwise the cost per square foot of air
supported structures is among the lowest for large span roofs.
8) Natural Light:
• Given good natural light as translucent/transparent plastic sheets are used to
cover air bags. We can even bring the whole sun inside. There is a lot of
flexibility in getting sun light (50%-80%).
 Principle
• Use of relatively thin membrane supported by pressure
difference.
• Dead weight increases by increasing the internal pressure and
the membrane is stressed so that no asymmetrical loading
occurs.
• Membrane can support both tension and compression and thus
withstand bending moment.
Types of pneumatic structures
 Air supported structure
• Air must be constantly
provided.
• Life span of 20-25 years.
• Relatively low cost.
• They are either anchored
to the ground or to the
wall so that leakage is
prevented.
 Air supported structure
• Consists of a single membrane which is supported by small internal
pressure difference.
• Higher air than the atmospheric pressure supporting the envelope.
• Air locks or revolving doors help to maintain the internal pressure.
• The internal volume of a building air is consequently at a pressure
higher than atmospheric. The air supported structure uses a low
positive pressure to support a membrane over a given area.
• Air must be supplied constantly because of the continuous leakage,
primarily through the buildings used most often because of a) their
relatively low cost, b) their simplicity of design and fabrication.
 Air inflated structure
• It is supported by pressurized
air contained within inflated
building element. The internal
volume of building air
remains at atmospheric
pressure.
• The pressurized air in the
pillow serves only to
stabilizing the load carrying
membrane. The covered space
is not pressurized.
 Air inflated structure
• Supporting frames consists of air under high pressure.
• Internal pressure of building remains at atmospheric
pressure.
• There is no restrictions in number and sizes of
openings.
• They have ability for self support.
• They have potential to support an attached structure.
Classification of Pneumatic Structures
1.Type of differential pressure
2.Degree of differential pressure
3.Type of surface curvature
4.Proportions
 Type of Differential Pressure
• Pneumatic structures use either positive pressure or
negative pressure.
• In positive pressure system, the membrane is always
curved outwards, whereas in negative pressure systems,
the membrane is curved inwards.
• Being curved inwards, there is a tendency of water
logging and snow accumulation.
• Moreover, negative pressure systems require high
supports at the edge or in the centre which makes it more
expensive.
• Both of these systems are used for storage purposes.
 Degree of Differential Pressure
Low Pressure Systems:
• These systems are provided with low pressure air: hence
have to be provided with continuous supply of air.
Example: Air Supported Structures
High Pressure Systems:
• Used for easy erection and dismantling.
• The pressure difference is between 2000-7000mm (100
to 1000 times of low pressure systems).
• These high pressure air inflated systems are either having
a single valve system or a double valve systems which
avoids its collapse.
 Type of Surface Curvature
These structures can also be
classified according to the
types of curvature on the outer
surface-
• Single curved
• Doubly curved in the same
direction or synclastic
• Doubly curved in the opposite
direction or anticlastic
 Proportions
On the basis of different proportions, pneumatic
structures can be
• Two dimensions of similar size and one larger
dimension, Ex: Tubes, Masts, Columns, Towers
• Two dimensions of similar size and one smaller
dimension, Ex: Cushions, Lenses, Discuss,
Mattresses
• Three dimensions or similar size, Ex: Balloons,
Balls, Spheres, Bubbles
 Loading of pneumatic structures
• Wind and snow loads are the primary loads
that are acting on pneumatic structures.
• They are anchored very tight to the ground,
so no horizontal forces are exerted to the
envelope.
• As pneumatic structures are tensile, the
envelope has the ability to gain stiffness in
order to withstand the loads acting on them.
• Wind loads produce a lateral force on the
structures and snow load causes downward
forces on envelope.
• Pneumatic structures are designed to
withstand wind load of 120 mph and snow
load of 40 pounds/yard.
 Materials
Isotropic Materials: These show the same strength and stretch ability in
all directions.
Examples:
• Plastic Films: these are primarily produced from PVC, Polyethylene,
Polyester, Polyamide etc.
• Fabrics: these may be made of glass fibres or synthetic fibres which
are coated in a PVC, Polyester or Polyurethene film.
• Rubber Membrane: They are the lightest and most flexible.
• Metal Foils: They possess a very high gas diffusion resistance and
high tensile strength. One of the major problems in the use of metal
foils is the need to produce very exact cutting patterns.
 Materials
Anisotropic Materials: These do not show the same strength and stretch ability in
all directions. They have direction oriented properties.
Examples:
• Woven Fabrics: They have two main directions or weave. They can be made
of : Organic fibres (Wool, cotton or silk), Mineral fibres (Glass fibres), Metal
fibres (Thin steel wires), Synthetic fibres (Polyamide, Polyester and
Polyvinyle)
• Gridded Fabric: These are coarse-weave made of organic mineral or synthetic
fibres or metallic networks. They are particularly used where maximum light
transmission and high strength is required.
• Synthetic Rubbers: Combination of plastic and rubber. They can take better
wear and tear. They are more resistant to elongation.
• Plastics: Like woven fabrics. Its advantage is that they have more tensile
strength than normally manufactured plastic sheets.
 Components
Envelope:

• They can be made up of different materials.

• Cannot be used as one continuous material.

• Material are seamed together by sealing, heat bonding or

mechanical jointing.

• The design of the envelope depends on an evenly pressurized

environment.

Cable System:

• They act as the supporting system.

• They experience tension force due to the upward force of the

air.

• Can be placed in one or two directions to create a network and

for better stability.

• They do not fail since they are pulled tight enough to absorb the
external loads.
 Components
Pumping Equipment:
• It is used to supply and maintain internal pressure inside the structure.
• Fans, blowers or compressors are used for constant supply of air.
• The amount of air required depends on the weight of the material and the
wind pressure.
Entrance:
• Doors can be ordinary doors or airlocks.
• Airlock minimize the chances of having an unevenly pressurized
environment.
 Components
Foundation:
• Pneumatic structures are secured to ground using heavy weights,
ground anchors or attached to a foundation.
• Weight of the material and the wind loads are used to determine the
most appropriate anchoring system.
• For bigger structures, reinforcing cables or nets are used.
• For a dependent pneumatic structure (roof only air supported
structure) the envelope is anchored to the main structure.
• When anchoring is done to soil, the cable is attached to the anchor
directly inserted and frictional forces of the soil to hold it down.
• Soil anchoring systems include screw, disk, expanding duckbill and
arrowhead anchors.
Components
 Uses
Sports and Recreation:
• Used as roof coverings for large sporting arenas.
• Ability to span great distances without beams and columns.
• Example: American Football or baseball grounds.
Military and Government:
• For storage, for emergency medical operations.
• To protect radar stations from weather conditions.
Hydro Engineering:
• Used within dams and flood prevention systems.
• It can be used in relatively small river of stream.
 Advantages
• Simple structure, easy installation and maintenance.
• Lightweight
• Medium is air
• Covers large spans without internal supports
• Portability
• Unobstructed open interior space
• No need for columns
• Rapid assembly and have low initial and operating cost
 Disadvantages
• Need for continuous maintenance of excess pressure in
the envelope
• Continuous operation of fans to maintain pressure
• Relatively short service life
• Dome collapses when pressure is lost.
• Cannot reach the insulation values of hard-walled
structures.
• Limited load carrying capacity
• Conventional buildings have longer lifespan.
 Conclusion
• Pneumatic structures have found wide range of
application.
• They are best suited for small and temporary
construction.
• They can be quickly erected and dismantled.
• Provoke fascination among observers and bystanders.
Examples
 Examples

Inflatable Teahouse – Kengo Kuma (Japan 2007)

 Examples

Inflatable Teahouse – Kengo

Kuma (Japan 2007)
 Examples

Air Forest – Mass Studies (Japan 2007)

 Examples

Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany

 Examples

Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany

Examples
Examples
Cable Structures
 Cable Structures
• Cables offer high tensile strength as a principle means of support.
 Cable Structures
• Cables are an essential part of long span designs.
• They also offer great strength for heavy roof loads allowing long spans with no
central support.
• Cables can also be used to support membranes.
• Cables require frequent upkeep due to the exposed steel having a tendency to
rust.
• A cables basic form when strung from end to end is a catenary curve.
• Cables work only in tension.
• A cables form adapts to the loads applied to it so that it is in pure tension.
• Cables must be well kept if exposed to the environment; usually a zinc coating
is applied.
• Some cable forms must be tested in a wind tunnel to evaluate chances of flutter
within the structure.
 Cable Structures
• Cables are pure tension members. It can only support tensile loading.
• Used as
➢ Supports to suspension roofs
➢ Suspension bridges
• Self weight of cable is neglected in analysis of above structures.
• When used as cables for antennas or transmission lines, weight is considered.
• A cable is a flexible structural component that offers no resistance when compressed or
bent in a curved shape. Technically we can say cable has zero bending rigidity.
• Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit load from one
point to another when used to support suspension roofs, bridges, cables form the main
load carrying element in the structure.
• We assume that cable is flexible and inextensible. Due to its flexibility cables offers no
resistance to shear or bending.
 Cable Structures
• Being inextensible the cable has constant length before and after the load is applied. As a
result once the load is applied the geometry of cable remains fixed.

• The easiest structure type to think is a tension structure to resist only tensile force and of
these, the simplest are those which sustain only unidirectional tension as represented by a
cable or thin rod.
• It comprises of non-rigid, flexible cables shaped in a certain manner and fixed at the ends
to span the space.
• The load is transmitted through simple stresses; either through compression or tension.
• Two cables with different points of suspension tied together form a suspension system. A
cable subject to external loads will deform in a way depending upon the magnitude and
location of the external forces.
• The high tensile strength of steel, combined with the efficiency of simple tension makes a
steel cable the ideal structural element to span large distances.
Cables
Cables
 Loading in Cables
• In order to understand the mechanism by means of
which a cable supports vertical loads, one may
first consider a cable suspended between two fixed
points, located at the same level and carrying a
single load at mid span.
• Under the action of the load the cable assumes a
symmetrical triangular shape and half the load is
carried to each support by simple tension along the
two halves of the cable.
Loading in Cables
Loading in Cables
Loading in Cables
 SAG in Cables
• The triangular shape acquired by cable is called sag.
• SAG is the vertical distance between supports and lowest
point in the cable.
• Without SAG, cable cannot carry a load.
 Calculation of SAG in Cable Structures
• The triangular shape acquired by the cable is characterized by the SAG.
• The vertical distance between the supports and the lowest point in the
cable. Without the sag the cable cannot carry the load, since the tensile
forces in it would be horizontal and horizontal forces cannot balance
the vertical load.
• The undivided pull of the sagging cable on each support may be split
into two components:
➢ A downward force equal to half the load
➢ A horizontal inward pull or thrust
• The thrust is inversely proportional to the sag; halving the sag doubles
the thrust.
Calculation of SAG in Cable Structures
Calculation of SAG in Cable Structures
 Optimal SAG
• A large sag increases the cable length, but reduces the
tensile force and allows a reduction of cross-section. A
similar sag requires a larger cross-section.
• Hence the total volume of cable (product of cross-
section and length), must be minimum for some optimal
value of sag.
• Optimal sag equal half the span for a given horizontal
distance and corresponds to a symmetrical 45° triangle
cable configuration with thrust = p/2
 Types of Cable Structures
There are generally two types of cable structures.

• Suspension type cables

• Stayed type cables

 Suspension Bridge
• A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck
(load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables
on vertical suspenders.
• This type of bridge has cables suspended between
towers, plus vertical suspender cables that carry the
weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses.
This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc
upward for additional clearance.
• The main type of force in a suspension bridge are tension
in cables and compression in the pillars.
 Suspension Bridge
• The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge,
since any load applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in
these main cables.
• The main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports,
and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground.
• The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called
hangers.
• The bridge will usually have two smaller spans, running between
either pair of pillars and the highway, which may be supported by
suspender cables or may use a truss bridge to make this connection. In
the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables.
Suspension Bridges – Load bearing mechanism
 Advantages of Suspension Bridges
• Suspension bridges have a high strength to weight ratio.
• They are flexible (can also be disadvantage) and can span
long distances with no piers therefore good on very high
places, across water etc. and they require little access
from below aiding construction.
• They can be very thin and therefore less visible.
• They have an elegant look.
• The arc spanned by a suspension bridge is very long in
proportion to the amount of materials required to
construct bridges.
 Disadvantages of Suspension Bridges
• Flexibility disadvantages
➢ Suspension bridges are flexible, which is an advantage until conditions become
severe. Instability in extremely turbulent conditions or during strong earthquakes
may require temporary closure. In 1940, high winds, caused the Tacoma
Narrows bridge, near Seattle, Washington, to collapse.
• Foundation disadvantages
➢ When built in soft ground, suspension bridges require extensive and expensive
and expensive foundation work to combat the effects of the heavy load on
foundation towers.
• Heavy loads
➢ Flexibility also becomes a disadvantage when heavy, concentrated loads are
involved. Suspension bridges are not generally used for regional rail crossings
that carry maximum weight loads, which adds dangerous stress to the structure.
Examples of Suspension Bridges

Akashi Kaikyo Suspension Bridge

Examples of Suspension Bridges

Golden Gate Suspension Bridge

 Cable Stayed Bridges
• A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables
support the bridge deck.
• There are two major classes of cable-stayed bridges: harp and fan.
• In the harp or parallel design, the cables are nearly parallel so that the height of
their attachment to the tower is proportional to the distance from the tower to
their mounting on the deck.
• In the fan design, the cables all connect to or pass over the top of the towers. The
fan design is structurally superior with minimum moment applied to the towers
but for practical reasons the modified fan is preferred especially where many
cables are necessary.
• In the modified fan arrangement the cables terminate near to the top of the tower
but are spaced from each other sufficiently to allow better termination, improved
environmental protection, and good access to individual cables for maintenance.
 Cable Stayed Bridges – Load bearing mechanism
• In the cable-stayed bridge, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures
which transmit the bridge loads to the ground.
• A cantilever approach is often used to support the bridge deck near the towers,
but lengths further from them are supported by cables running directly to the
towers.
• This has the disadvantage, compared to the suspension bridge, that the cables
pull to the sides as opposed to directly up, requiring the bridge deck to be
stronger to resist the resulting horizontal compression loads, but has the
advantage of not requiring firm anchorages to resist the horizontal pull of the
main cables of the suspension bridge.
• By design all static horizontal forces of the cable-stayed bridge are balanced so
that the supporting towers do not tend to tilt or slide, needing only to resist
horizontal forces from the live loads.
Cable Structures
Cable Structures – Loading Mechanism
Cable Structures – Components
Cable Structures – Components
Cable Structures – Loading Mechanism
 Geometric Funicular forms
• If the load is shifted from mid span position, the cable changes shape.
• If two equal loads are set on the cable in symmetrical positions the cable
adapts itself by acquiring a new configuration.
Funicular Polygons:
• As the number of loads increases, the funicular polygon approaches a
geometrical curve – the PARABOLA.
Catenary:
• If the equal loads are distributed evenly along the length of the cable, rather
than horizontally, the funicular curve differs from a parabola, though it has
the same general configuration. It is a catenary.
• A cable carrying its own weight and loads even distributed horizontally,
acquires a shape that is intermediate between a parabola and catenary.
• This is the shape of cables in the central span of suspension bridges.
Geometric funicular line

- Catenary - Triangle

- Parabola -
Trapezoid

- Polygon
- Ellipse
 Special Design Considerations
• Cable structures are more correctly categorized
into either suspension structures or cable-stayed
structured suspension structures that can be
typically sub-classified into:
➢ Single Curvature Structures
➢Double Curvature Structures
➢Double Cable Structures
Single and Double Curvature Cable Structures
Cable Stability – Cable Trusses
Single and Double-layer cable system
 Applications of Cable Systems
• The earliest use of cables in buildings dates back to A.D. 70 to roof a
Roman amphitheater by a rope cable structure.
• Rope cables anchored to masts spanned in a radial fashion across the
open structure supported a movable sunshade that could be drawn
across to cover the arena.
• The span was 620 ft. along major axis and 513 ft. along minor axis.
• The first modern roof was an arena. Load bearing cables are
suspended from two intersecting arches, anchored against one another.
At night angles to the load bearing are secondary cables prestressed to
ensure tautness even on a hot day. Corrugated sheets supported on the
cable network.
Applications of Cable Systems
Examples of Cable Structures

Yoyogi National First Gymnasium, Tokyo, Japan

Examples of Cable Structures

Yoyogi National First Gymnasium, Tokyo, Japan

Examples of Cable Structures

Yoyogi National First Gymnasium, Tokyo, Japan

Examples of Cable Structures

Yoyogi National First Gymnasium, Tokyo, Japan

Examples of Cable Structures

Yoyogi National First Gymnasium, Tokyo, Japan

Examples of Cable Structures

Kurilpa Bridge, Sydney, Australia

Examples of Cable Structures

Kurilpa Bridge, Sydney, Australia

 Cables
• A cable may be composed of one or more structural ropes, structural
strands, locked coil strands or parallel wire strands.
• A strand is an assembly of wires formed helically around centre wire
in one or more symmetrical layers.
• A strand can be used either as an individual load-carrying member,
where radius or curvature is not a major requirement, or as a
component in the manufacture of the structural rope.
• A rope is composed of a plurality of strands helically laid around a
core. In contrast to the strand, a rope provides increased curvature
capability and is used where curvature of the cable becomes an
important consideration.
 Cables
• Cables are made of high-strength steel, usually encased in a
plastic or steel covering that is filled with grout, a fine
grained form of concrete, for protection against corrosion.
Types of Cables