UNIT 2

2.1 – MIXTURES, SOLUTIONS, SOVENTS

₋ Substance: form of matter w fixed composition and characteristic prop.
- Mixture: system of 2 or + subs. mixed together, not chemically combined. –
heterogeneous/homogeneous
- Solution: a mixture made up of a solute and a solvent.
o Solvent is the substance that dissolves the solutes.
- Solubility: mass of a particular substance dissolving at a particular amount of solvent (100g
water) at a specific temperature (25ºC)
o How easily a substance dissolves depends on its particles.
o Soluble (a lot of a substance dissolves) , sparingly soluble, insoluble
o All sodium compounds are soluble in water.
- Saturated solution: a solution that can dissolve no more solute at that T.
- Soluble solids get more soluble as T rises.
- Aqueous solution: a solution in water
- Other solvents (volatile – evaporate easily at room T)
o White spirit – gloss paint
o Propanone – grease, nail polish
o Ethanol – Glues, printing inks, scented substances

2.2 – PURE SUBSTANCES AND IMPURITIES

- Pure substance: a substance that has no other substance mixed w it. Melts/boils at specific
T.
- Impurity: an unwanted substance mixed w/ a wanted substance
- Checking the purity – check MP and BP
1. Pure - Definite and sharp
2. Impure
 MP falls, BP rises (+impure, bigger change)
 Melts and boils over a range of Ts (+impure, wider T range)
- Separation – separating a mixture of substances into individual ones
1. Filtration – (separate) solid from liquid
2. Crystallisation – solute from solution
3. Evaporation – solute from solution
4. Simple distillation – solvent from solution
5. Fractional distillation – liquids from each other
6. Paper chromatography – dif substances from solution

2.3 – SEPARATION METHODS

SOLID FROM LIQUID
Heterogeneous
Filtering
- When – granulated solids insoluble in liquid solvent
- How – solid trapped (residue) in filter paper, solvent (filtrate) passes through
- Instruments – filter paper, filter funnel, flask
Decanting
- Solids that have heavy particles
- Pour off solution from container
Centrifuging
- Solid particles so small normal filtration not work
- Use centrifuge. Ex: separate blood cells and plasma
Homogeneous
Crystallisation
- When – soluble solids in a solution – when solubility varies w T
- Why – soluble solids tend to be less soluble at lower Ts
- How – letting crystals form (from solute)
- Process
1. Heat solution to evaporate some solvent – becomes concentrated then saturated –
Crystallisation P
2. Cool solution down, crystals of solute start to form as T falls at bottom of basin (T falls,
solvent diss. – solute) Check w/ glass rod
3. Remove crystals by filtering and rinse with distilled water
4. Dry with filer paper
- EX – copper(ii) sulfate in water
Simple distillation
- When – separate solvent from solution
- Instrument – apparatus
- Process
1. Heat solution in flask. Boils, water vapour rises into condenser. Salt behind.
2. Vapour condenses into water in cold condenser
3. Distilled water drips into beaker.
Evaporating all solvent
- When – substances in which solubility changes very little as T falls
- How – keep heating solution to evaporate solvent, salt will start appearing. Heat carefully
until dry
MIXTURE OF TWO SOLIDS
Heterogeneous
Solvent Extraction
- Add solvent that will dissolve just one of them
- Ex – salt and sand
1. Add water, salt dissolves. Filter, sand trapped in filter water, salt and water solution passes.
Rinse sand w/ water, dry in oven. Evaporate water from salt solution.
- Ex – sugar and salt – ethanol (just sugar), evaporate ethanol from solution in water bath
Magnetic separation
Sublimation
Homogeneous
Liquid-Liquid extraction
- When: 2 solutes dissolved in solvent
- What: extraction of subs from 1 liquid phase into other in sep. funnel
- Process
1. Add 2nd solvent (immiscible w 1st , solid to extract must have > solubility )
2. Shake
3. Solid will move to 2nd solvent layer, other solid remains in original
4. Separated through sep. funnel
Paper chromatography
MIXTURE OF TWO LIQUIDS
Heterogeneous
Separating funnel
- When: 2 immiscible liquids
- Process
1. Mixture poured into funnel
2. Layers allowed to separate
3. Lower layer run off by opening the tap
Homogeneous
Fractional distillation
- When – separate mixture of liquids w/ diff BP
- Process
1. Heat mixture in flask
2. At BP of substance w/ lower BP, it begins to boil. Some of other substance also evaporates.
3. Mixture of vapours rises up column, vapours condense on glass beads, heating them.
4. Beads reach T of BP of first substance, it no longer condenses on them and goes to
condenser as vapour. Second substance does, drips back into flask, where it condenses.
5. Liquid, drips into beaker.
6. When thermometer reads BP, all substance has gone.
- Uses – water and ethanol, refine crude oil, produce ethanol, separate gases in air.
- In 2 colourless liquids, thermometer used
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
- When: separate a mixture of substances, identify a substance, purify a substance, find out
n subs in mixture
- The more soluble a substance is in solvent, the further it will travel up chromatography
paper
- Why: diff solubilities in water, travel at diff rates across paper
Separate a mixture of substances
- Process
1. Place a drop of mixture at centre of (round) filter paper. Add 3 or + drops same spot
2. Drip water on same spot
3. Ink spreads out and separates in rings of separate colours (if black ink, blue-red-yellow) –
Chromatogram – filter paper w/ coloured rings
Identify substances
- Coloured mixture – in x mixture though to contain a,b,c and d
1. Place spot solutions of X, A,B,C,D in propanone along a pencil line in chromatography
paper, label.
2. Stand paper in little propanone in covered glass tank
3. Solvent rises up paper. Near top, remove.
4. X separated into spots. Match height of spots with the height of possible substances
contained.
- Colourless mixture – ex: several solutions of aminoacids dissolved in water. A contains
several.
1. Place spot of each along pencil line on ch paper. Label spots.
2. Place suitable solvent at bottom of beaker (mixtute water, ethanoic acid and butanol)
3. Roll chromatography paper into cylinder and place in beaker. Cover.
4. Solvent rises up. Almost top, remove.
5. Mark line where solvent reached.
6. Put paper in oven to dry.
7. Spray w/ locating agent (make amino acids show up) (Nynhydrin)
8. Heat in oven for 10 min. Spots turn purple. Mark w/ pencil in middle.
9. Measure distance initial line to each spot, and distance travelled by solvent.
10.Work Rf value e/ aminoacid.
 D moved by aminoacid / distance moved by solvent
11.Look up Rf tables to identify aminoacids
Rf value of compound is always the same for a given solvent under same conditions.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
- Uses
1.Identify pollutants in air or river water
2.Separate pure substances from tanks of reaction mixtures in fact
3.Separate individual compounds from groups when refining petroleum
- Need two phases:
1.Non-moving / stationary
2.Mobile – mixture to separate dissolved in solvent
- Substances in mixture separate bcs each has diff levels of attraction to solvent and
stationary phase
- Salt is soluble in both water and ethanol