Overview of Retrofitting Options in Induction Motors

to Improve their Efficiency and Reliability

Fernando J. T. E. Ferreira1, Senior Member, IEEE, André M. Silva1, Victor P. B. Aguiar2, Member, IEEE,
Ricardo S. T. Pontes2, Enrique C. Quispe3, Senior Member, IEEE, and
Aníbal T. de Almeida1, Senior Member, IEEE
1
Institute of Systems and Robotics, Dep. of Electrical and Computer Eng., University of Coimbra, Portugal
2
Dep. Engenharia Elétrica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Brazil
3
Dep. de Energética y Mecánica, Universidad Autónoma de Occidente, Cali, Colombia
e-mails: fernando.ferreira@ieee.org, victorpba@dee.ufc.br, ecquispe@uao.edu.co, adealmeida@isr.uc.pt

Abstract—The global induction motor market is moving fast the number of installed motors is increasing.
towards the higher efficiency classes, such as premium efficiency A question arises: Will the original efficiency of IE3-, IE4-,
(IE3) and super-premium efficiency (IE4) classes. Despite that, the and IE5-class motors be maintained over the respective long
existing operating motor stock is still dominated by below-standard lifetime or the expected results of MEPS will be strongly
and standard motors. In part, this is a result of the fact that on attenuated after the 1st or 2nd repair/rewinding?
average, induction motors, regardless their efficiency classes, can
No doubt that in parallel to MEPS it is equally important to
be repaired/rewound 2-4 times over their useful lifetime of 12-20
years. Hence, it is important that the repair/rewinding practices are ensure that motor repair centers/shops adopt “good practices”
of the highest quality possible, in order to ensure that the motor that avoid degrading the motor efficiency and reliability.
efficiency and reliability are maintained during that process,
particularly in the case of motors of higher efficiency classes. In
many cases, the motor efficiency and reliability can even be
improved during the repair/rewinding process. In this paper, an
overview of retrofitting options in induction motors to improve
their efficiency and reliability is presented.

Keywords—corrective maintenance, energy efficiency, electric

motors, induction motors, line-operated motors, motor efficiency,
motor reliability, motor repair, motor rewinding, stator winding
optimization, retrofitting.
1

I. INTRODUCTION

Although the three-phase induction motor market is Fig. 1. Past (2016) and forecast (2021) of motor efficiency class distribution for
global market of low-voltage motor (Source: IHS Markit) [35].
changing fast towards higher efficiency classes, such as
premium efficiency (IE3), super-premium efficiency (IE4), and
ultra-premium efficiency (IE5) classes, the existing operating
motor stock is still dominated by “bellow-standard” efficiency
(IE0), standard efficiency (IE1) and high efficiency (IE2)
classes. Nowadays the global market is dominated by IE2-class
motors, as shown in Fig. 1. The fast motor market transformation
is a result of minimum energy performance standards (MEPS)
being adopted all over the World (Fig. 2). The European Union
(EU) is strongly contributing to that trend, as it can be seen in
Fig. 3 [1, 2, 3, 4].
Despite higher efficiency motors having, in principle, a
longer useful lifetime, the motor repair service sector volume is
still more or less the same, since
978-1-5386-5186-5/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE

1
This work was supported by ISR-University of Coimbra (Project
UID/EEA/00048/2013) funded by “Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia”
(FCT).
 Fig. 2. Motor MEPS around the World (Source: ISR-UC, 2018).

Fig. 3. EU low-voltage motor market share evolution and 2020 forecast for 0.75-375 kW power range (Source: CEMEP) [35].

Fig. 4. Electric power drive system [2, 3, 35].


Fig. 5. Electric motor: conversion of electric power into mechanical power
(Ull – line-to-line voltage; Il – line current;  – power factor;  –
motor efficiency; T – torque;  – angular speed) [35].
The Electrical Apparatus Service Association (EASA) has
developed and launched in June 2014 an International
Accreditation Program (AP) for service centers [12] based on
the “good practices” in ANSI/EASA AR100 Recommended
Practice for the Repair of Rotating Electrical Apparatus [13].
Presently, the AP is on its 4th year, and there are nearly 100
accredited service centers in 7 countries in North America,
Europe and Asia [12]. Objective evidence that the AP results in
maintain efficiency is provided in [12]. High-quality
repair/rewinding practices can in fact maintain or even improve
the motor efficiency and reliability.
In Latin America, the MEPS for electric motors only exist in
Mexico (IE3), Brazil (IE2; IE3 after 2020) and Colombia (IE2;
IE3 after September 2020). In the other Latin America countries,
most motors are of classes IE0 and IE1 [15].
In 2017, the Brazilian government has launched an action to
promote the replacement of old motors by IE2- and IE3-class
motors, involving electric energy distributers, motor
manufacturers and motor sellers/distributors, and, recently,
extended the motor power range covered by the MEPS. In this
country, EASA recommendations are encouraged and a
ministerial directive refers that the minimum efficiency levels in
force for new motors must be also followed in reconditioned
motors. This is a significant step to force the motor
maintenance/repair sector to offer high quality services.
In Colombia, in 60% of the repair shops to burn-off the old
winding varnish/resin it is used the pyrolysis oven with
temperatures not exceeding 360ºC, to avoid damaging the core
interlaminar insulation. In the other repair shops, direct gas
flame is applied to the stator, with a high risk of degrading the
interlaminar insulation, ultimately increasing the core losses
[15]. Chile and Argentina are at the same level of Colombia.
In Peru, the good practices are less disseminated and only
about 30% of the repair shops use oven with temperature control.
In other countries of Latin America, such as Bolivia, Cuba,
Venezuela, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Panama, the good practices
are not followed at all.
With the motor market changing fast, it makes sense to
widespread such repair recommendations to avoid degrading the
efficiency and reliability of the IE3-, IE4- or IE5-class motors,
since the extra investment on them should be protected, and
considering the number of times a motor is repaired over its long
useful lifetime, the MEPS will be less effective if the motor after
the first or second repair is negatively affected.
Presently, power drive systems (PDS; Fig. 4) convert nearly
50% of the global electric energy into mechanical energy, and
the electric motor (Fig. 5) is a key component in these systems.
The line-operated (or direct on-line; DOL) motors include
three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors (SCIMs), line-start
permanent-magnet (PM) motors (LSPMs) and, more recently,
the line-start or DOL synchronous reluctance motors
(DOLSynRM, with or without auxiliary PMs), covering all the
efficiency classes defined in the standard IEC60034-30-1 (Fig.
6) [1, 2, 3].
The typical full-load loss sharing in low-voltage, 4-pole, 50-
Hz SCIMs is shown in Fig. 7. The most relevant losses are the
stator Joule losses, accounting for 25-55% of the overall losses.
Core losses account for about 20-25%. Rotor losses account for
about 20%.
The fact that the installed in-operation SCIM stock is still
dominated by lower efficiency classes (IE0 and IE1), is mainly
due to reiterated motor repair, rewinding or reconditioning,
which is likely to occur 2-4 times during the useful motor
lifetime [8], which can be extended far behind the conservative
12-20 years, as it can be seen in Fig. 8 [9].
Another important fact is that the average load factor of line-
operated SCIMs is circa 60%, but motors with a load factor
lower than 20-30% are quite common in the industrial sector [9,
10, 11]. When a motor fails and is oversized, the user has several
options, as shown in Fig. 9.
In industrialized countries, it is expected that, in 5-10 years,
half of motors will be equipped with variable-speed drives
(VSDs) [2, 3]. A significant part of the other half (line-operated
motors), above 4-5.5 kW, may be equipped with
electromechanical/solid-state star-delta starters or electronic soft
starters.
Another interesting fact is that the increasing use of VSDs is
leading to a decrease of the mean time between failures (MTBF)
of the motor bearings due to the circulation of high-frequency
common-mode currents.
Fig. 6. Overview of the three-phase motor technologies available in the market
and/or under development [1, 3].

Fig. 7. Typical loss fraction in low-voltage, 50-Hz, 4-pole SCIMs [5, 6, 7].
Fig. 8. Data on SCIM actual age in the industrial sector, Switzerland, 2013 (4142
data points) [9].
Poor-quality motor repair techniques/methods may lead to a
decrease of efficiency of 1-4 percentage points (p.p.) [8]. This is
mainly due to the application of excessive/uncontrolled heat to
the stator core during the old winding stripping-out process
(burn-off for the pyrolysis of the impregnating varnish/resin),
which leads to the deterioration of the interlaminar insulation
and, ultimately, to the increase of the motor core losses, as it can
be seen in Fig. 10 [8]. The right burn-off technique is using an
oven with temperature control and avoid applying a temperature
higher than 360-370ºC [8].
Fig. 9. Options to deal with an oversized SCIM [3].
Fig. 10. Core loss variation after repair/rewinding process [8, 35].
Other factors contributing to the motor efficiency decrease
during repair include wrong winding specification changes,
incorrect lubrication, inappropriate bearing replacement, rotor
surface machining, etc. [8].
Based on these facts, it is important to discuss
repair/rewinding procedures and recommendations to avoid the
motor efficiency deterioration during its useful lifetime,
regardless the respective efficiency class, as well as to highlight
low-cost, cost-effective retrofitting modifications, implemented
during rewinding/repair actions that may help improving the
motor efficiency and reliability.
The emphasis of this paper is on the line-operated motors,
since the operation of motors controlled by VSDs can be easily
optimized with proper control strategies.
II. COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF MOTOR REPAIR/REWINDING
Motor maintenance can be corrective (or reactive/curative),
preventive systematic (or periodic) and/or preventive
conditioned (or predictive). When a motor fails, there are costs
associated to its repair (removal, transport, repair service and
reinstallation), unplanned maintenance actions, and to the PDS
downtime (which can be very high in continuous process
industries, if the PDS is critical). The rewinding/repair services
are within the corrective maintenance.

Considering that the rewinding cost is not, in principle,

dependent on the motor efficiency class, and that the new motor
price increases with the efficiency class, the repair services are
becoming more competitive as the market is moving towards
higher efficiency classes, which are naturally more expensive.
A short study on cost-effectiveness of the rewinding services
of IE1-, IE2-, IE3- and IE4-class SCIMs is presented in this
section.
In Fig. 11, motor list prices from one of the largest motor
manufacturers and the repair prices offered by a typical
European repair shop, in EUR/kW, are presented. The most
significant motor price jump occurs when changing from
induction to PM motor technology.
Typically, the repair price is independent of the motor class
but depends on the pole number. Therefore, for 4-pole motors,
the percent repair price varies from 20% to 40%, decreasing with
the efficiency class due to the new motor price increase (Fig.
12).
The motor repair/rewinding service cost is mainly related to
the manpower, energy, copper wire, resin and bearings cost. But,
regarding the copper cost, in most cases repair shops attenuate
the new copper cost by selling the copper wire of the old
windings. This explains the independency of the rewinding cost
in relation to the motor efficiency class. In the case of the
bearings, they should follow the manufacturer specifications and
these components may be more expensive in the premium and
super-premium motors.
IE1 Class SCIM
IE2 Class SCIM
IE3 Class SCIM
IE4 Class LSPM
300 IE4 Class SCIM
100
400 V, 50 Hz
Motor Price (EUR/kW)
Fig. 12. Average repair cost as a percentage of new motor price [16].
For new IE3- or IE4-class motors, there is room for an
increase in the repair price without reducing the cost-
effectiveness of the service. If the repair price is maintained, the
repair services become more competitive as the motors move to
higher efficiency classes. An interesting fact is that the repair
cost as a percentage of the new motor price decreases from 2- to
4-pole SCIMs because the repair price is the same for these two
different models and the price of the new motor increases.
In Fig. 13, the average nominal efficiency and variation in
respect to the immediately lower efficiency class can be seen for
the 5.5-160 kW power range, 2- and 4-pole motors, using the
datasheet efficiency values from a single motor manufacturer.
The average nominal efficiency gain is between 1.3% and 2.0%.
In Fig. 14, the average payback time for different scenarios
is shown, for 4-pole IE1-, IE2-, IE3-, IE4-class motors in the 5.5-
160 kW power range, neglecting the possible operating point
change (or speed change). Since the payback time to recover the
extra cost of the new motor is higher than 3 years in most cases,
the repair is an interesting low-cost option for all efficiency
2&4 Poles
6 Poles
classes, even assuming a decrease of 1 p.p. after repair, which
8 Poles can be avoided by means of applying good repair practices.

Repair Price (€/kW)

4 Poles
Iron Frame

30 10
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
Rated Power (kW) Rated Power (kW)
Fig. 11. (left) List prices in EUR and EUR/kW for commercial 4-pole motors of
different efficiency classes (from the same manufacturer). (right) SCIM repair
prices per kW in a typical European repair shop including stator rewinding,
standard bearing replacement, rotor dynamic calibration, painting, and basic
quality control tests [16].

Fig. 13. Average nominal efficiency and the percent efficiency increase in
relation to the efficiency class immediately lower, for the 5.5-160 kW power
range [16].

Fig. 14. New motor vs. motor repair average payback time for the 5.5-160 kW
power range, considering: (left) the same motor efficiency class; (right) the new
motor with a higher efficiency class [16].
It should be referred that motor repair shops can perform
most of the work manually, not having the large-scale
production equipment limitations, particularly concerning the
stator winding insertion into the stator core slots, allowing the
implementation of more complex winding configurations such
as the short-pitched, double-layer windings.
There are several customized aspects that can be specified to
the motor manufacturer when potential operating issues can be
predicted. However, most of the motor operation problems are
identified after buying, during installation and running, and/or
after failure. Examples of problems identified after the motor
failure are bearing current activity, unbalanced winding
overheating or single-phasing, voltage surges/transients, and
partial discharge occurrence. During the repair/rewinding
services, the motor can be improved, upgraded and/or equipped
with extra components to increase its reliability and efficiency,
being this subject addressed in Section IV.
III. CONTINUOUS MOTOR MONITORING
Nowadays, most modern industrial plants are implementing
motor monitoring systems, following the “IoT” and “Industry
4.0” trends, which are becoming a standard. Continuous key
operation data acquisition and record, including the actual motor
load variation over the entire operating cycle, is very important
for the users to make smart decisions regarding the motor
maintenance or replacement, particularly concerning the best
option when a motor fails and is oversized and/or has variable
load.
On one hand, monitoring key data such as current, voltage,
temperature and vibration, allows to apply motor condition
monitoring techniques targeted to, for example, performance
assessment, fault diagnosis and failure prognostics, i.e.,
preventive conditioned or predictive maintenance strategies can
be implemented, reducing the costly unplanned downtime of the
PDS.
On the other hand, the continuous monitoring of current and
voltage, allows to estimate the motor load cycle and supply
condition, which is key data to know if the motor is oversized or
has a variable load and, on that basis, decide if it should be
replaced by another of different rated power, the connection
mode should be changed, or it is advantageous to redesign the
stator winding in order to match the peak efficiency with the
dominant and/or maximum actual load level.
Furthermore, the continuous monitoring allows comparing
the system performance before and after implementing a given
measure and to provide evidence of the expected/claimed energy
savings or benefits, including verifying if the motor is
consuming the same energy after a repair/rewinding service.
Continuous monitoring is also important to identify
abnormalities in the motor supply voltages or load prior to a fault
or failure, in order to the user be able to take proper action to
avoid repeating the same situation.
Nowadays, there are several commercial data acquisition
solutions with wired and/or wireless communication interfaces
to monitor three-phase motors.
If convenient, the collected data can be stored in an online
database. Many companies specialized in large-scale
maintenance services offer online big data analysis tools,
incorporating deterministic and/or machine learning [17, 18]
based algorithms to produce useful information for motor
maintenance, relatively simple to understand by the end-user.
IV. RETROFITTING OPTIONS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY AND
RELIABILITY OF INDUCTION MOTORS
When a motor needs to be repaired/rewound, there is an
opportunity to improve several constructive aspects, without
increasing significantly the service cost, which may turn these
services even more competitive in relation to the acquisition of
new motors. There are three different cases, namely, the well-
sized line-operated SCIM, the oversized line-operated SCIM,
and VSD-fed SCIM, with different retrofitting options for
improving efficiency and reliability.
Since the largest loss share is associated with the Joule losses
in the stator winding (Fig. 7), the improvement of the stator
winding by means of an optimized redesign is an excellent
opportunity for the motor user to benefit from a significant
efficiency gain in the motor when a repair/rewinding service is
required, taking advantage from the fact that, in general,
handmade rewinding task has less design limitation/restrictions
than those associated with automatic large-scale motor winding
processes used by manufacturers. The improvements can
involve shortening the winding heads length, increasing the slot
fill factor, reducing the space harmonic content of the
magnetomotive force (MMF), and/or adapting the fundamental
flux to the motor actual load [10, 16, 19-23]. The latter
possibility (motor downsizing [10]), may allow converting a
strongly oversized IE1- or IE2-class SCIM into a well-sized IE4-
or IE5-class SCIM, and, at the same time, improving
significantly the respective power factor. In Fig. 15, an example
of conversion of an oversized 5.5-kW, IE1-class SCIM into a
1.5-kW, IE5-class SCIM, is shown (experimental results).
Fig. 15. Converting a strongly oversized IE1-class SCIM into a well-sized
IE5-class SCIM, by means of adapting the fundamental magnetizing flux [35].
A. Stator Windings and Insulation System
In most cases, a copy of the original winding configuration
is made, which is the recommended option if: (i) the motor is
well sized to the actual maximum load over the entire operating
cycle; (ii) the technical knowledge of the technicians performing
the rewinding is limited; and/or (iii) the winding configuration
has not been incorrectly changed in previous repair/rewinding
services [8].
If the motor to be rewound is well sized or its load cycle is
not known, the new winding should produce the original
fundamental magnetizing flux, but the original winding can be
improved in order to reduce the respective resistance, by means
of increasing the conductors cross-section and, consequently, the
slot fill factor, and reducing the coil heads (or end-windings)
mean length, which does not contribute for the torque
production, only contributing the increase of the stator Joule
losses, stator winding resistance, leakage reactance and amount
of copper used. The end-winding mean length reduction is
obtained by means of shortening the coil pitch and the distance
from the coil heads to the core, the latter aspect strongly
depending on the technician skills. The increase of the slot fill
factor not only leads to the reduction of the winding resistance
and respective Joule losses, but also to the improvement of the
heat dissipation from the stator winding to the core.
In general, the hand-based winding insertion into the stator
core performed in most repair shops does not have the
limitations of the serial production machines/processes and,
hence, higher slot fill factors and shorter end-windings (even if
maintaining the coil pitch) may be easily obtained in repair
shops, leading to lower winding resistance and losses (Fig. 16).
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 16. (a) Coil-head length reduction by reducing the distance to the stator core
stack; (b) Coil-head length reduction by shortening the pitch; (c) Conduction
section increase by increasing the slot fill factor.
By optimizing the winding in terms of configuration,
effective pitch and per-coil turns, the end-windings length and
the airgap MMF total harmonic distortion (particularly the low-
order spatial harmonics) can be both significantly reduced,
leading to lower stator and rotor losses and less vibration,
ultimately improving the motor efficiency and extending the
motor MTBF, even if the number of turns per phase has to be
increased to compensate the decrease of the fundamental
winding factor that results from the effective coil pitch
shortening [16, 19]. If the number of turns per phase has to be
increased, the conduction section has to increase in the same
order to avoid increasing the winding resistance, and that leads
to a slot fill factor higher than the original, but, in most cases, it
can be handled by repair shops performing the coil insertion into
the core manually. Note that, if the per-coil turn number is
optimized individually to minimize the air-gap MMF total
harmonic distortion, different slot fill factors result from this
process [16]. In the cases where the original stator windings are
in aluminum, which is still used in IE0/IE1-class motors, during
rewinding, the conversion to copper windings is a good option,
reducing significantly the stator Joule losses [16].
There are software tools (e.g. BobiSoft [16, 34]) that can
generate and optimize automatically in a few seconds complex
winding configurations, such as the concentric, double-layer, 2-
tier winding (Fig. 17, left), which can be optimized in terms of
effective coil pitch and number of turns per coil. An example of
a simple configuration change that allows to reduce the end-
winding mean length is replacing a concentric 2-tier, single-
layer winding (Fig. 18, left) or an imbricated, single-layer
winding by a concentric 3-tier, single-layer windings (Fig. 18,
right). But the double-layer, short-pitched winding lead in most
cases to better performance than the single-layer windings, as it
is shown in Fig. 19. The latter presents a lower average coil pitch
(related to coil heads), but the same effective coil pitch (related
to coil sides).
Fig. 17. Circular 96-slot, 4-pole, winding diagrams of: (left) concentric, 3-tier,
double-layer winding; (right) imbricated, double-layer winding.
 design, which means that the stator winding Joule losses
decrease, approximately, by the same amount, without
increasing the winding assembling difficulty. Also, the stator
leakage inductance is approximately half of the reference design,
which can improve significantly the machine power factor, as
well as the torque production.
Concerning “choice #2”, the low order airgap MMF spatial
harmonics were practically eliminated (Fig. 20.c), remaining
only the harmonics due to the slotting effect. The effect of such
low harmonic content, and lower stator winding resistance and
leakage inductance can be seen in the improved electromagnetic
torque produce by this design (Fig. 20d). This solution has the
Fig. 18. Circular 96-slot, 4-pole, winding diagrams of: (left) concentric, 2-tier,
single-layer winding; (right) concentric, 3-tier, single-layer winding. inconvenient of having larger slot fill factor, which increases the
winding assembling difficulty, but may improve the thermal
dissipation.
In motors controlled by VSDs or with electronic soft starters,
redesign of the stator winding for star connection at rated voltage
to avoid homopolar circulating currents in the delta loop is a
good option. This is particularly interesting in motors operating
with higher levels of saturation (which happens in motors of
lower efficiency classes, with a smaller core and lower quality
magnetic silicon-steel sheets) [11, 20].
Magnetic Flux = 0,011 Wb/pole Magnetic Flux = 0,011 Wb/pole Magnetic Flux = 0,011 Wb/pole
Airgap MMF THD = 8% Airgap MMF THD = 6% Airgap MMF THD = 6% TABLE I
Copper Weight = 6.7 kg Copper Weight = 6.5 kg Copper Airgap = 6.4 kg Comparative analysis between reference and optimized designs.
Copper Losses = 76 W/phase Copper Losses = 73 W/phase Copper Losses = 72 W/phase
Designs
Choice Choice Choice
Fig. 19. Circular 48-slot, 4-pole, winding diagrams of: (left) concentric, 2-tier, Property Unit Ref.
#1 #1a #2
single-layer winding; (middle) imbricated, double-layer winding; (right)
concentric, 3-tier, single-layer winding. Airgap MMF THD % 15.95 15.62 15.62 14.27
Stator winding resistance Ω/Phase 5.037 4.384 4.165 4.506
As mentioned before, further improvements on the winding Stator leakage inductance mH/Phase 739 392 392 359
design quality can be attained by selecting an adequate Airgap induction T 0.60 0.62 0.62 0.61
distribution of coils and turns per coils. Depending on the size, Slot fill factor 0.478 0.460 0.479 0.496
and structural and electrical characteristics of the machine (e.g. Coil type 1 turns 132 4 4 37
number of slots, poles, phases, induction and slot fill factor Coil type 2 turns 132 123 123 100
setpoints, etc.), a very large number of winding
patterns/configurations is possible. Hence, the development of
algorithms based on metaheuristics may be the only or more
efficient way to find feasible solutions in a reasonable time. As
a practical example of that, the optimization of the stator
winding of a 2.2 kW, IE2-class SCIM using the software
BobiSoft is presented in Fig. 20. By using a two-objective
optimization (minimization of the airgap MMF space harmonic
content and the stator winding resistance), with airgap induction
and slot fill factor constraints, the software generated a set of
(a)
efficient solutions (Fig. 20b). Two distinct solutions were
chosen, “choice #1” and “choice #2”, giving more importance to
the winding resistance minimization and to the airgap MMF
THD minimization, respectively. A comparative analysis of
these solutions, including the reference design, is provided in
Table I.
Regarding “choice #1”, it has 87% of the stator winding
resistance of the reference project, and, still, having a slightly
smaller MMF THD. Its slot fill factor was also smaller than the
reference project, thus an opportunity to further reduce the stator
winding resistance by increasing the conductors’ section is
considered, resulting in the winding design “choice #1a”. In this (b)
design, the stator winding resistance is 83% of the reference

(c)
(d)
Fig. 20. Conversion of a 24-slot, 4-pole, concentric, 2-tier, single-layer winding
into a 24-slot, 4-pole, concentric, 3-tier, double-layer winding with optimized
coils and turns per coil distribution: (a) Winding circular diagram (left: reference
design; right: optimized design); (b) Resultant Pareto front of a multiobjective
optimization (airgap MMF THD and winding resistance minimization); (c)
Airgap MMF THD spatial harmonics of the reference and Choice #2 design; (d)
Electromagnetic torque-speed curves of the reference and choice #2 designs.
In the case of oversized motors, the winding can be
redesigned in order to produce a lower fundamental magnetizing
flux (leading to a lower torque), in such a way that the efficiency
peak matches or become nearby the dominant and/or maximum
load. In practice, this is a permanent motor downsizing strategy
[10]. If the motor is strongly oversized (load < 30-40%), a simple
change from delta to star connection will reduce the torque to
one third, leading to an improvement of the efficiency and power
factor [11, 21]. The advantage of this strategy is that it is easily
reversed if the user wants to use the rated output power, by
means of reconnecting the stator winding in delta mode. A
multiflux stator winding may also be implemented during the
motor rewinding, if it proves to have advantages for the user
(e.g., multipower or multivoltage motor) [22].
If the load varies, a load-based automatic connection-mode
management system can be implemented using external
contactors, current sensors, and smart relays or PLCs, or,
alternatively, using dedicated electronic devices, such as
InSwitch, which is installed inside the motor terminal box during
a repair service [21, 23, 24].
Potting of the winding heads with thermal conductive
polymers/resins (Fig. 21, right) to improve heat dissipation 2 is
also an interesting option that can be easily implemented during
the motor repair/rewinding service. At full-load, a decrease of
2
The potting can be made with a thermally conductive silicon encapsulant. For
example, the SC-320 from LORD company has a thermal conductivity of
3.2 W/m.K @ 25ºC, which is 130 times higher than that of standstill air [25].
22% in the average coil temperature can be obtained (Fig. 21,
left) or, alternatively, an increase of 16% is possible in the output
power at original nominal temperature [25].
Fig. 21. Comparison of the average coil temperature of a 4-kW motor for two
different cases: (a) conventional varnish/resin impregnation (no potting); (b)
potting stator coil heads with thermally conductive silicone material (SC-320,
from LORD company) [25].
Regarding the insulation system, during the rewinding
service, tit can be upgraded from B or F to H, without a
significant increase in the cost. Upgrade of the insulation system
class to accommodate the additional harmonic losses due to the
PWM voltage supply.
The standard enameled magnetic wire may also be upgraded
to a reinforced type withstanding higher voltage peaks and
partial discharges (inverter grade magnetic/enameled wire with
extra layers and special enamel compounds), at a marginal extra
cost (the price of magnetic wire is mainly driven by the copper
price), being this change particularly important in VSD-fed
motors. Reinforcement of the winding insulation in the first
coil(s) is particularly critical. This may extend significantly the
motor MTBF.
Moreover, it is equally important to guarantee a good
impregnation, using a highly resistant and thermally conductive
varnish/resin and a technique that minimizes the air voids in the
slots and end-windings (e.g., trickle impregnation with rotating
stator). A good impregnation minimizes the partial discharge
occurrence and improves the heat dissipation from the windings
to the core.
B. Bearings and Mitigation of Bearing Currents
The friction losses of a motor, combining Coulomb dynamic
friction and viscous friction components (lubricant), can be
reduced during the motor repair by replacing the existing
standard bearings by equivalent low-friction bearings.
For example, the low-friction, deep-groove, ball bearings
from one of the largest bearing manufacturers, which are
equipped with low-friction seals, low-friction grease, and a
special cage (Fig. 22; identified as “Bearing II from
Manufacturer A” in Fig. 23), may reduce 40-70% the friction
losses at rated speed in relation to standard bearings, as shown
in Fig. 23. The friction reduction leads to a lower operating
temperature and, consequently, to a much longer grease life and
bearing service life in greased for life bearings. The friction
reduction was achieved thanks to several design features, such to virtually any size motor [27]. Another interesting solution is
as the internal geometry of the raceways, the grease type as well an internally installed brush (Fig. 25). This protects the motor
as the polymer material of the cage, which features a lower itself and the complete installation, leading to less maintenance.
coefficient of friction than the conventional steel cage [26]. The brush can be pre-installed on new motors by specifying a
variant code or retrofitted to motors being repaired/rewound.
The second option, as an alternative to shaft grounding, is the
installation of insulated bearings (Fig. 26). This is an excellent
solution to low-frequency circulating currents in line-operated
motors and, in this case, only the non-drive-end bearing needs to
be isolated. In some cases, instead of installing an insulated
bearing, the bearing housing in the frame shield can be insulated,
but this is likely to be more expensive. Due to the relatively high
electric capacitance, such bearing may not be effective in
blocking the high-frequency common-mode currents. Regarding
Fig. 22. Low-friction, deep-grove, ball bearings [26]. the choice of outer versus inner bearing insulation, the latter
should be better since, for the same coating type and thickness,
the impedance will be, in principle, higher. The most expensive
solution is the replacing the existing bearings by hybrid bearings
with steel rings and ceramic balls (Fig. 27). In general, these
bearings are greaseless (lubricant free), have very low friction
losses, and a long lifetime (the wear of the races is lower due to
the lower friction between the balls and races and to the lower
centrifugal forces due to the lower ball mass).
In VSD-fed motors, during the rewinding process, a partial
Fig. 23. Comparison of friction loss variation, considering the “Bearing I from
Manufacturer A” as reference (rotational speed: 5000 r/min, bearing type: 6306
electrostatic shield may also be implemented (very low-cost
with shields, C3 clearance) [26]. solution) to reduce the electrostatic coupling between the
windings and the rotor and thus the levels of voltage peaks
Regarding the low-frequency circulating and high-frequency between the shaft and frame to safe limits. This is an interesting
common-mode electric currents circulation through the complementary solution [28].
bearings. The latter is an increasing issue in VSD-fed motors. Other complementary solution to mitigate the high-
For low-frequency circulating currents, resulting from an frequency common-mode currents include the installation of
induced voltage between the shaft ends, only the bearing in the filters at the VSD output, reduced VSD switching frequency,
non-drive-end needs to be insulated. For the high-frequency proper motor and VSD grounding and cabling, etc. [29].
common-mode currents, resulting from a voltage difference
between the shaft and the ground, both bearings need to be
insulated, and the associated electric capacity has to be very low
to provide higher capacitive impedance at high frequencies.
During the motor repair, there are several solutions that can
be implemented to mitigate the bearing currents. The first option
is installing brushes connecting the shaft to the
frame/ground/earth, in order to deviate the currents from the
bearings. This is more indicated for common-mode current Fig. 24. External ring-shape brush with conductive micro-fibers [27].
mitigation, although it also results in low-frequency circulating
currents if both shaft ends were grounded. Typical external
brushes have the disadvantage of requiring frequent
maintenance, which is a critical issue in industry. An innovative
ring of specially engineered conductive micro-fibers (Fig. 24) is
claimed by the manufacturer to provide a highly reliable
(maintenance-free; unaffected by dirt, grease, or other
contaminants; lasts for life of motor), very low impedance path
from shaft to frame, bypassing the motor bearings entirely [27]. Fig. 25. Internal bearing brush. Fig. 26. Insulated bearing.
These rings use the principles of ionization to boost the electron-
transfer rate and promote extremely efficient discharge of the
high-frequency shaft currents induced by VSDs. This is a
relatively low-cost solution, easily installed in minutes (even in
the field; mounts on either end of motor shaft; simple screw-on
mounting brackets; no machining required), that can be applied

Fig. 27. Hybrid ball bearings with steel rings and ceramic balls (typically in
silicon nitride).
C. Cooling Fan
The conventional general-purpose bidirectional centrifugal
fan can be replaced by a unidirectional centrifugal fan if the
motor rotates in a single direction (which is typical in fan and
pumps). If a downsizing is performed during repair or the motor
efficiency is significantly improved, a small fan may also be
used, slightly reducing the windage losses and, hence, boosting
the motor efficiency [30].
In the case of variable-speed motors, a flexible-blade fan
may be used, reducing the losses at high speed and increasing
the cooling and toque capability at low speed [31].
It is important that all the input air inlet holes in the fan cover
are unobstructed, to allow maximum cooling airflow rate
through the frame. A reduction in the cooling airflow rate leads
to an increase in the equivalent thermal resistance of the motor,
ultimately increasing its internal temperature rise and shortening
the insulation/motor lifetime [32, 33].
D. External Frame
During a repair/rewinding service it should be avoided to
repaint the motor upon the existing original painting, since that
may lead to a significant increase in the frame to ambient
thermal resistance. Instead, the original old painting should be
removed and a new coating applied. A high-thermal-
conductivity paint should be used.
If the stator frame does not require repainting, it should be as
clean as possible to ensure the minimum thermal resistance
between the frame surface and the ambient.
For a given amount of total losses, the internal average
temperature rise will be proportional directly to the equivalent
thermal resistance between the frame and the environment [32,
33].
V. CONCLUSIONS
The motor market is changing fast toward higher efficiency
classes, as a result of MEPS being adopted all over the World.
The MEPS effectiveness over the expected useful life of
motors will strongly depend on the repair/rewinding services
quality, since they can have a significant impact in the motor
efficiency and reliability. After the first or second
repair/rewinding, if the motor efficiency decreases 1-4%, the
expected energy consumption reduction will be compromised.
Accreditation programs such as that offered by EASA are
important to promote good practices among the motor repair
centers/shops. Moreover, in general, the repair/rewinding
services are becoming more competitive in relation to the option
of purchasing new motors.
In addition to the good practices to maintain the original
specifications and performance of the motors, there are some
retrofitting options that can be implemented during the repair
service that may lead to an improvement of the motor efficiency
and reliability, without increasing significantly the service cost,
such as the improvement of the original stator winding
configuration, specifications, and insulation, and the installation
of low-friction bearings and efficient cooling fans.
The replacement of the original winding configuration
(implemented by the motor manufacturer) by a better one and
the multiobjective optimization of the winding in terms of coil
pitch and coil turns are interesting approaches since they may
lead to a significant reduction of the respective ohmic resistance
and airgap MMF special harmonic content, ultimately
contributing to the motor efficiency increase, without increasing
the winding cost.
In line-operated oversized motors, significant efficiency and
power factor gains can be obtained by properly changing the
number of phase turns and/or the connection mode of the stator
windings, either permanently in constant-load motors or
dynamically in variable-load motors, through automatic load-
based stator winding connection mode change systems.
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