Mechanics of Machining (Metal Cutting)

Advanced Machining Processes

 Water Jet cutting
 Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) are two
non-traditional or non-conventional machining processes. They belong to
mechanical group of non-conventional processes like Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
and Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM).
 In these processes (WJM and AJWM), the mechanical energy of water and abrasive
phases are used to achieve material removal or machining.

 If the process is used without abrasives, it is called as water jet machining (WJM)
and if used with abrasive, called abrasive water jet machining (AWJM).
 The process is generally used for cutting operation and known as water jet cutting
process (WJC).

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 Working mechanism of WJM

 When high pressure (1500-4000 bar) water emerges out of nozzle at high velocity, it
attains large kinetic energy. High velocity water jet is directed at a target in such a
way that the velocity is reduced to zero on striking the workpiece.
 When high velocity water jet strikes the work surface, its kinetic energy is converted
into pressure energy and results in high stress in work material. When the induced
stress exceed the ultimate shear strength of the work material, rupture take place.
 The jet velocity may be as high as 900 m/s. It is a true cold cutting process –no HAZ,
no mechanical stresses and environmental hazards.

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 Set-up and working
Pump and intensifier: The oil drawn from a reservoir, is pumped to an intensifier which uses low
pressure oil to produce very high pressure water. The intensifier that acts as a high pressure
pump, produces water pressure as high as 40 times that of the oil.

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 Set-up and working
Accumulator: To minimize pulsation in water flow, a high pressure accumulator (i e, a
pressure vessel to store high-pressure water to give smooth outflow) is used.
Nozzle and mixing chamber:
Abrasive particles are gradually accelerated due to the transfer of momentum from the
water phase to abrasive phase and when jet leaves the focusing tube.
The mixing chamber has a typical dimension of inner diameter 6 mm and a length of
10 mm. As the high velocity water is issued from the orifice into the mixing chamber,
low pressure (vacuum) is created within the mixing chamber.
Focusing tube – WC (Tungston carbide) • Small diameter – 0.8 to 1.6mm • Length –
50 to 80mm

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 Set-up and working
 During mixing process, the abrasive particles are gradually accelerated due to
transfer of momentum from the water phase to abrasive phase and when the jet
finally leaves the focusing tube, both phases, water and abrasive, are assumed to
be at same velocity.
 The mixing chamber, as shown in Fig. is immediately followed by the focusing tube
or the inserts. The focusing tube is generally made of tungsten carbide (powder
metallurgy product) having an inner diameter of 0.8 to 1.6 mm and a length of 50
to 80 mm. Tungsten carbide is used for its abrasive resistance. Abrasive particles
during mixing try to enter the jet, but they are reflected away due to interplay of
buoyancy and drag force. They go on interacting with the jet and the inner walls of
the mixing tube, until they are accelerated using the momentum of the water jet.
Catcher:
 Such high-energy abrasive water jet needs to be contained before they can damage
any part of the machine or operators. “Catcher” is used to absorb the residual
energy of the AWJ and dissipate the same.
 Fig. shows three different types of catcher – water basin type, submerged steel
balls and TiB2 plate type.

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Set-up and working

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 Advantage and Disadvantage
Advantage:

 Cheaper than other processes.

 Cut any material. (mild steel, copper, brass, aluminum; brittle materials like glass
ceramic, quartz, stone)
 Unlike machining or grinding, water jet cutting does not produce any dust or particle
that are harmful if inhaled.
Disadvantage:
 A limited number of materials can be cut economically.
 While it is possible to cut tool steels, and other hard materials, the cutting rate has to
be greatly reduced.

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 Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM)
 A water jet and a stream of abrasives coming from two different directions, mix up
and pass through the abrasive jet nozzle. Here, a part of the momentum of water jet
is transferred to the abrasives. As a result, velocity of the abrasives rises rapidly.
 Thus, a high velocity stream of mixture of abrasives and water impinges on the
workpiece (W/P) and removes material. Depending upon the type of the W/P
material being cut, material removal may occur due to erosion, shear, or failure
under rapidly changing localized stress fields. In abrasive water jet cutting (AWJC),
an erosive action of an abrasive laden water jet is employed for cutting, drilling, and
cleaning of hard materials.
 The pressure at which water jet operates is about 400 MPa which is sufficient to
produce a jet speed as high as about 900 m/s. Water-abrasive mixture jet exiting
from the nozzle at such a high velocity is fully capable to cut ceramics, composites,
rocks, metals, etc.

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 Process variables
Parameters which affect performance of AWJM process are:
 Water (flow rate, and pressure),
 Abrasives (type, size, and flow rate) and Number of passes
 Water nozzle and abrasive jet nozzle (design)
 Cutting parameters (feed rate, and stand-off-distance)
 Work material

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 Water Jet Pressure and flow rate
 Fig. shows the effect of water jet pressure on the depth of cut for various abrasive flow rates.
Pc is the minimum critical pressure required to cut the material.
 A minimum critical pressure Pc exits because of the minimum abrasive particle velocity
required to cut specific materials. Pc is obviously different for different workpiece materials.
The value of Pc for mild steel is between 200 and 275 MPa.
 The machined depth tends to stabilize, beyond certain value of water jet pressure. The
machined depth versus pressure relationship becomes steeper as the abrasive flow rate
increases. An increase in pressure also increases rate of nozzle wear and cost of pump
maintenance, and lowers volumetric efficiency.

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Water Jet Pressure and flow rate (Cont…)

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 Water Jet Pressure and flow rate (Cont…)

Water flow rate (Q) is proportional to square root of pressure (𝑄 = 𝑃) and square of
diameter of the nozzle (𝑄 = 𝑑 2 ). In AWJM, water is used as a propelling fluid which
enables high abrasive flow rates (0.1-5 kg/min) to be achieved, and makes it possible to
accelerate abrasives to high velocities (over 300 m/s). Fig. Shows the depth of cut is
affected by varying the water flow rate (increasing the nozzle diameter) while maintaining
the constant pressure. As the flow rate increases, the slope of the curve decreases because
the saturation point is reached. As the nozzle diameter increases and the water flow rate
increases, the rate of increase in the particle velocity is reduced, thus reducing the depth
of cut. Also increase in water flow rate beyond a certain value may result in higher
pressure losses in supply lines, unacceptable environmental conditions (in mining or
constructional applications).

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 Abrasives (type, size, and flow rate) and number
of passes
The type of abrasive used is also an important parameter. Garnet, silica and silicon
carbide are the most commonly used abrasives. Type of abrasive to be used is determined
after knowing hardness of the workpiece material. Higher the hardness of the workpiece
material, harder should be the abrasives to be used. Complete recycling of the abrasives is
not possible. The most common abrasive particle sizes used for AWJM range from 100 to
150 grit. An optimum abrasive particle size also exists for each particular nozzle mixing
chamber configuration.
Abrasive flow rate versus depth of cut is a linear relationship up to a point. Above a
critical flow rate, the cutting efficiency decreases. This is because of the fact that, as the
abrasive flow rate increases (with a fixed water flow rate), particle velocity begins to
decrease faster than the rate at which the number of abrasive particle impacts increase
because it reduces the mixing efficiency.

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 Abrasives (type, size, and flow rate) and number
of passes
Abrasive flow rate versus depth of cut is a linear relationship up to a point. Above a
critical flow rate, the cutting efficiency decreases. This is because of the fact that, as the
abrasive flow rate increases (with a fixed water flow rate), particle velocity begins to
decrease faster than the rate at which the number of abrasive particle impacts increase
because it reduces the mixing efficiency.

(a) Various work materials using Garnet as abrasive material; u = 15 cm/min; dn = 0.025 cm, and
P = 207 MPa, (b) for various nozzle diameters using aluminium as work material (Garnet #60; P
= 207 MPa; u = 20 cm/min) [Hashish, 1986\. 15
 Abrasives (type, size, and flow rate) and number
of passes

(a) Variation in depth of cut with a change in abrasive flow rate for various abrasive materials
while using tool steel A2 as work material, (b) Effect of particle size for multipass cutting in
stainless steel 17-4PH (Garnet; P = 276 MPa; dn = 0.071 cm; u = 20 cm/min; in - 1.8 kg/min)
[Hashish, 1986}.
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Abrasives (type, size, and flow rate) and number
of passes

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 Cutting parameters (feed rate, and stand-off-
distance)
When traverse rates are increased the depth of cut decreases. • There is also a minimum
critical traverse rate below which further increases in depth of cut are not obtained. • If
the traverse rate is not maintained at a relatively uniform velocity, a rough edge will
result because of the nature of the process. Fig. shows an optimum traverse rate that
exists for generation of a maximum kerf area (Traverse rate x depth of cut). However, in
case of mild steel, the rate of kerf (slot) area generation decreases with an increase in
traverse speed beyond the optimum value.

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 Cutting parameters (feed rate, and stand-off-
distance)
An increase in stand-off-distance rapidly decreases machined depth (Fig. 6.8). This has
been explained by arguing that the liquid phase of the jet breaks up into droplets
resulting in free abrasive particles. These free abrasive particles rebound upon impact
that leads to a shallower penetration. There is an upper value of SOD beyond which the
process will no longer do the cutting.

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 PROCESS CAPABILITIES
 It can cut thick materials about to 200 mm and still maintain a comparatively
narrow kerf.
 The kerf width decreases as workpiece hardness increase.
 Machined surface no thermal and mechanical damage because there is no heat
generation and other things.
 Machining of the glass normally stray cutting leads to frosting of the surface; that
means It can be utilized to make some surface texture also along with the
machining.

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 Applications
This process has been employed to cut a wide range of materials including both metals
(copper and its alloys, lead, tungsten carbide, aluminium, etc), and non-metals
(graphite, silica, glass, acrylic, concrete, etc). The process has been applied to machine
the sandwiched honeycomb structural materials currently used in the aerospace
industries. Its advantage is the capability of omnidirectional cutting having no burrs.
The edges of structural aluminium plate have also been successfully cut. This technique
is getting acceptance as a standard tool for cutting materials in a number of industries
like aerospace, nuclear, oil, foundry, automotive, construction and glass. The optimum
performance has been reported with 0.38 mm jet at 200 MPa with an abrasive flow rate
of 0.54 kg/min.

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 Application
Application: Materials:
• Paint removal • Steels
• Cleaning • Non-ferrous alloys
• Cutting soft materials • Ti alloys, Ni- alloys
• Cutting frozen meat • Polymers
• Textile, Leather industry • Honeycombs
• Mass Immunization • Metal Matrix Composite
• Surgery • Ceramic Matrix Composite
• Peening • Concrete
• Cutting • Stone – Granite
• Pocket Milling • Wood
• Drilling • Reinforced plastics
• Turning • Metal Polymer Laminates
• Glass Fibre Metal Laminates

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Application

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 Electrochemical Machining

It is also known as contactless electrochemical forming process. The noteworthy

feature of electrolysis is that the electrical energy is used to produce a chemical
reaction, therefore, the machining process based on this principle is known as
electrochemical machining (ECM).

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 Introduction
In ECM, electrolysis principle is used to remove the material from workpiece. It is
based on Faraday’s law which state that ‘The weight of the substance produced
during the electrolysis is directly proportional to current passes through it and length
of the time of the electrolysis process and the equivalent weight of the material,
which is deposited’.
It is reverse process of the electroplating. In electroplating, two dissimilar metal
comes in contact through an electrolyte (electrically conducting fluid) and anode
loses the metal to cathode. In ECM, work is made of anode and tool act as cathode.
Hence, in ECM, work loses material but before deposition on cathode plate, the
dissolved metal is carried away by the flowing electrolyte.

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 Electrolysis
Fig. shows an electrolytic cell in which DC battery sends electric current through the molten
sodium chloride salt. Electrons from the battery enter the melt at the cathode, and when the
circuit is complete, they leave the melt at the anode returning to the battery. Sodium ions (Na+)
from the medium combine with the electrons available at the cathode, and produce sodium
metal which accumulates at the cathode region as:
Na+ + e —> Na.
Thus, sodium ions are reduced (reduction process) at the cathode.
At the same time, chloride ions migrate towards the anode and are oxidized (in oxidation
process) to chlorine as:
Cl —> — Cl, + e .
Thus, the external circuit feeds electrons into the medium at the cathode.
These electrons are consumed at the cathode by the positive ions, and are released by the
negative of the medium at the anode.

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 Electrolysis
The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or
addition of electrons from the external circuit. Positively charged ions (cations) move
towards the electron-providing (negative) cathode. Negatively charged ions (anions)
move towards the electron-extracting (positive) anode. In this process electrons are
either absorbed or released. In chemistry, the loss of electrons is called oxidation,
while electron gain is called reduction. Electrolysis has been successfully put to work
in the areas like electroplating, electroforming and electropolishing.

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Working of ECM

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 Working of ECM
This process works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. In ECM, small
electric DC’ potential (5-25 V) is applied across the two electrodes, i.e. cathode and
anode (anode is work and cathode is tool) immersed in electrolyte (Fig.). The transfer
of electrons between the ions and the electrodes completes the electrical circuit. The
tool is of hollow tubular type to provide the passage for circulating the electrolyte
between tool face and the work. As the power supply starts, current starts flowing
through the circuit and electron removed from the anode surface/workpiece. These
ions tends to migrate to the hollow cutting tool but before theses can get deposited on
cutting tool face, these are swept away by the rapidly flowing electrolyte. Tool face
has reverse shape of the desired workpiece. The sides of the tool are insulated to
concentrate the metal removal action at the bottom face of the tool.

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 Working of ECM
The cathode is moved towards the anode at the same rate at which the work is being
dissolved so that the gap (spacing) between the two electrodes remains constant. It
really does not matter even if work is fed towards the tool. This will help in
maintaining a constant material removal rate (MRR). Smaller gap at various points
(Fig. a) between confronting surfaces of the electrodes-tool and work-will result in
higher current density (J) and hence higher MRR. With the progressive movement of
cathode towards the anode, ultimately the two surfaces will closely match.

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 Theory of ECM
In an electrolytic cell (or ECM cell), material removal is governed by Faraday’s laws
of electrolysis given below.
(i) The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current (or the amount of
substance deposited or dissolved) is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed.
(ii) The amounts of different substances deposited or dissolved by the same quantity of
electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights.
……………………………………………….

Material removal rate in ECM:

To simplify the analysis given in this section, the following assumptions are made:
(i) Electrical conductivity (k) of electrolyte in the IEG remains constant.
(ii) Electrical conductivities of tool and work materials are very large (1,00,000/ohm
cm) as compared to that of electrolyte (less than 1.0/ohm cm).
(iii) Effective voltage working across the electrodes is (V-AV), where AV is a small
fraction of V and includes electrode voltage, overvoltage, etc. It is assumed to remain
constant.
(iv) The anode dissolves at one fixed valency of dissolution.
……………………………………………………………… 31
 Numerical Problem
1. During the electrochemical machining (ECM) of iron (atomic weight = 56, valency =2) at current of
1000A with 90% current efficiency, the material removal rate was observed to be 0.26 gm/s. If Titanium
(atomic weight = 48, valency=3) is machined by the ECM process at the current of 2000 A with 90%
current efficiency. What will be the the expected material removal rate in gm/s ? 0.30 gm/sec.
2. Estimate the MRR (cc/sec) of an alloy containing 18% Cobalt, 62% Ni, and 20 % Cr during the ECM
process with current of 500 amp. The density of the alloy is 8.28 g/cc. The following data is available.
Co-58.93-2
Ni-58.71-2
Cr-51.99-6 1.24*10-2cc
3. A researcher conducts the ECM on binary alloy (density=6000kg/m) of iron (atomic weight 56 and
valency 4) and metal p (atomic weight 24, valency 4). If volumetric material removal rate of the material is
50 mm3/s at a current of 2000 amp. Find out the percentage of metal P. 24.48
4. ECM is performed to remove the material from an iron surface of 20 mm*20 mm under the following
condition: inter electrode gap-0.2 mm, Voltage-12 V, specific resistance-2 ohm cm, Atomic weight-55.85,
Valency- 2, Constant-96540. Find out the material removal rate. 0.3471gm/s
5. In ECM process, a square hole of dimension 5 mm*5mm is drilled in lock of the copper. The current is
5000 amp and atomic weight and valency of the copper are 63 and 1, respectively. If faradays constant is
96500. Find out MRR. 3.25gm/sec
6. While removing the material from iron (Atomic weight-56, valency-2, density 7.8 g/cc) by ECM process.
If MRR is 2 cc/min then find out the current value. 896.07 amp

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 Electrolyte
It serve two purpose:
1. Two complete the circuit and, 2. Provide cooling action to cutting zone
Electrolyte properties (composition, concentration, pH value, temperature and
concentration of foreign elements) together with tool shape should be closely
controlled because these are the important variables which determine the geometry of
the machined component (anode profile).
Composition, concentration and pH value of electrolyte solution are controlled by
adding water and salt solution. Their quantity to be added depends upon the periodic
analysis of the check samples. Temperature is another important factor which governs
the electrical properties of the electrolyte. It is controlled (within ± 1° C) by heating
or cooling the electrolyte while in the tank.
Selection of electrolyte is quite important. However, inexpensive, easily available and
commonly used electrolyte is sodium chloride (common salt). It is also necessary to
pump the electrolyte at very high pressure through the IEG, so that the desired MRR
can be maintained. Thus, the anode profile to be produced depends upon so many
factors but they can be narrowed down to only two, current density and cathode shape.

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 Tool Material
There is no tool wear. Any material of good conductor of electricity can be utilized for
the tool material. The basic requirement of tool material is given below:
 Good conductor of thermal conductivity
 Strong enough to sustain the high hydrostatic pressure
 Easily machined
 The bottom portion of the tool should be polished
Most commonly used tool material for ECM process are Ti, Cu, brass, or stainless
steel.

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 Advantages of ECM process
ECM offers impressive and long lasting advantages. The advantages of ECM process
are listed below:
 It can machine highly complicated and curved shapes in a single pass. A single tool
has been used to machine a large number of pieces without any loss in its shape
and size.
 There is no cutting force because material removal occurs due to ion exchange.
Also there is no involvement of high temperature and stress. Hence, due to absence
of cutting forces and temperature, thin section can be machined easily.
 Theoretically, tool life in ECM is very high because of no tool wear.
 The process offers several advantages, viz the machinability of the work material is
independent of its physical and mechanical properties (hardness, ductility).
 Machined surfaces are stress and burr free having good surface finish (best surface
finish obtained is in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 μm), better corrosion resistance, and
better accuracy.
 Fairly goo tolerance is obtained.
 Process can be easily automated.

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 Limitations of ECM process
ECM has its own limitations, and listed below:
 ECM can be used only for electrically conductive work-materials.
 The accuracy of the machined components depends upon the factors like tool
design, degree of the process control imposed, complexity in the shapes produced,
etc.
 Machining of materials consisting of hard spots, inclusions, sand and scale present
some practical difficulties.
 Post machining, cleaning is must to reduce the corrosion of the workpiece.
 Larger power consumption and the related problems.
 ECM, under certain circumstances, is found to be incapable of economically
producing the dimensional tolerances desired on the workpiece.
 It cannot produce sharp corners and edges.

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 Application
ECM technique removes material by atomic level dissolution of the same by
electrochemical action. Thus the material removal rate or machining is not dependent
on the mechanical or physical properties of the work material. It only depends on the
atomic weight and valency of the work material and the condition that it should be
electrically conductive. Thus ECM can machine any electrically conductive work
material irrespective of their hardness, strength or even thermal properties. Moreover
as ECM leads to atomic level dissolution, the surface finish is excellent with almost
stress free machined surface and without any thermal damage. This process has
attracted the maximum attention of those involved in machining of hard and tough
materials, especially with complex contours.
Over the years, ECM principle has been employed for performing a number of
machining operations viz turning, trepanning, broaching, grinding, fine hole drilling,
die sinking, piercing, deburring, plunge cutting, etc. it is being widely used in
industries related to aeronautics, nuclear technology, space vehicles, automobiles,
turbines, etc. Some of the typical examples of ECM applications are: machining of
turbine blades made of high strength temperature resistant (HSTR) alloys, copying of
internal and external surfaces, cutting of curvilinear slots, machining of intricate
patterns, production of long curved profiles, machining of gears, production of
integrally bladed nozzle for use in diesel locomotives. 37
Application

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