ECG426 – SOIL MECHANICS

WEEK 2
Physical properties and classification of soils;
1B) Soil Composition & Phase Diagram
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Week 2 : Coverage ~ Basic definitions, soil phase diagrams

and basic soil properties. Purpose and Basis of Soil
Classification.

Learning outcomes:
At the end of this lecture/week the students would
be able to:
i. Explain basic concepts of soil and soil
classification.
ii. Solve simple problems to determine basic
soil properties.
iii. Compare the different International Soil
Classification System
SOIL COMPOSITION

1B) SOIL COMPOSITION

SOIL COMPOSITION

OUTLINE of PRESENTATION ~ cont’d…

1.5 Terminology & Definition

1.6 Soil Phase Diagram
1.7 Basic Properties of Soil
1.8 Purpose for Soil Classification
1.9 Field Identification of Soil
1.10 Basis of Soil Classification System
1.11 Soil Classification System
SOIL COMPOSITION
Terminology and Definition
1.5 TERMINOLOGY & DEFINITION
Significant engineering properties of a soil deposit,
such as strength and compressibility, are directly
related to or at least affected by basic factors such
as how much volume or weight of a bulk of soil is
solid particles or water or air.
Information such as soil density or unit weight, water
content, void ratio and degree of saturation is used
in the calculation to determine the bearing capacity
for foundations, to estimate foundation settlement,
and to determine the stability of earth slopes.
Thus, an understanding of the terminology and
definition relating to soil composition is fundamental
to the study of soil mechanics.
SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil Phase Diagram

1.6 SOIL PHASE DIAGRAM

For the purpose of study and analysis, it is

convenient to represent the soil mass (comprising of
soil particles, water and air space) by a phase or
block diagram.

The phase relationship can be represented using any

of the following soil model :-
Unit solid volume
Unit solid mass
Unit total volume
SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil Phase Diagram

Idealized Phase Diagram

SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil Model
1.6 SOIL PHASE MODEL
Air Va Air Ma Air Va
Total
Volume
Water Vw Water Mw Water Vw
=1

Solid Vs Solid Ms Solid Vs

Unit solid Unit solid Unit total

volume mass volume

Of the 3 models above, the unit solid volume is

more preferred.
SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil Phase Diagram

1.7 BASIC PROPERTIES OF SOIL

 The soil mass is quantified into three
constituent phase materials which are
solid, liquid and gas.
 In a partially saturated state, the soil
may consist of these phases as shown
below, however, in a fully saturated
state or fully dry state, the soil will
behave as a two phase system.
 In a fully saturated state, water will fill
in the void spaces in the soil mass
whereas in fully dry state, the void
spaces will be filled with air.
SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil Phase Diagram
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

Based on the above model, the

following terms shall be defined :
(a) Void ratio (e)
(b) Porosity (n)
(c) Specific volume (v)
(d) Water content (w)
(e) Degree of saturation (Sr)
(f) Air-voids content (Av)
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

g) Grain specific gravity (Gs) and Particle

h) Soil Densities
• Dry density (d )
• Bulk density (b )
• Saturated density (sat)
• Submerged density ( ‘)
(i) Unit weights,  ( similar to densities)

Check out other relevant formulae !!!

SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

Definition of terms
(a) Void ratio (e)
The volume not occupied by solids is known as voids
volume: it may be occupied by either water or air, or by
a mixture of these.

Voidratio, e  volume of voids  Vv  Va  Vw

volumeof solids Vs Vs

Since Vs = 1, thus e = Vv
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms
(b) Porosity (n)
Another way of expressing the quantity of voids is to
relate to the total volume :

Porosity, n volume of voids  Vv

total volume V
e
Thus, based on the soil model : n
1 e
(c) Specific volume (v)
The total volume of the soil model is equal to 1 + e, this
quantity is known as the specific volume of the soil.
Specific volume, v = 1 + e
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

(d) Water content (w)

The ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solids is

termed the water content of the soil.

Watercontent, w  mass of water  Mw

mass of solids Ms

w  Srew  Sre or wGs  Sre

Gs  w Gs

Percentage water content = 100w

SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

(e) Degree of Saturation (Sr)

The quantity of water in the soil may be expressed as a

fraction of the voids volume; this fraction is known as
the degree of saturation.

volume of water  Vw
Degreeof saturation, Sr 
volumeof voids Vv

Percentage saturation = 100Sr

For a perfectly dry soil,Sr = 0
and for saturated soil,Sr =1
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

(f) Air-voids content (Av)

The air-voids volume of a soil is that part of the voids
volume not occupied by water.
Air-voids volume = volume of voids – volume of water
Va Vv -Vw  e - Sre  e(1 - Sr)
The air-voids content is the ratio of the air-voids
volume to the specific volume of the soil
e(1 - Sr)
Av   n(1- Sr) or since Sr = wGs/e
1 e
e - wGs
Av  Percentage air voids = 100Av
1 e
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

(g) Grain specific gravity (Gs) and Particle density (s)

The ratio of the mass of a given volume of a material to
the mass of the same volume of water is termed the
specific gravity of the material.

The particle density (s), or grain density, is the mass

per unit volume of the solid particle, or grains, and is
equal to
s Gsw
The mass of water in the soil model will be :

Mw  Srew
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms
(h) Soil Densities
It is a measure of the quantity of material related
to the amount of space it occupies.

mass of solids
Drydensity, ρd 
total volume
Gsw  s
andbasedonthesoilmodel, d 
1 e 1 e
totalmass
Bulkdensity, b   mass of solids mass of water
total volume total volume
Gsw  Srew  s  Srew
andbasedonthesoilmodel, b 
1 e 1 e
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

The saturated density is the bulk density of the soil

when saturated, i.e. when Sr= 1

Saturateddensity, ρsat  Gs  e w
1 e

and Submergeddensity, ' sat - w

(i) Unit weights
The unit weight of a unit volume of soil is referred to as
its unit weight. It is a force per unit volume.
Unit weight = density x gravity (kN/m3)
3
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

DENSITY INDEX (ID) or RELATIVE DENSITY

The actual void ratio of a soil lies somewhere between the
possible minimum and maximum values depending on the
state of compaction.
In the case of sands and gravels, a good deal of variation is
attainable between two extremes and the relationship
between the void ratio values is termed as density index or
relative density given by:

emax -e
ID 
emax -emin
SOIL COMPOSITION
Definition of Terms

DETERMINATION OF POROSITY & VOID RATIO

 Porosity (n) and void ratio (e) of a granular soil can be
determined by filling a suitable mould or container
with water and adding the soil to fill the mould.

 The volume occupied by the soil particles may be

determined by comparing the masses of water in the
mould with the mould filled with soil and water.

e max  Gsw -sat(min) and n max  e max

sat(min) -w 1emax

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Purpose of Soil Classification
1.8 PURPOSE OF SOIL CLASSIFIFCATION
 Soil classification may be classified based on its
geological origin, mineralogy, grain size and its
plasticity index.
 The use of classification system, published
information or recommendations for design and
construction based on the type of material likely to
be misleading, hence adequate classification is
adopted to satisfy these conditions which are:
i) it must incorporate as descriptions definitive terms
that are brief and meaningful to the user.
ii) its classes and sub classes must be defined by
parameters that are reasonably easy to measure
quantitatively.
iii) its classes and sub classes must group together
soils which have characteristics that imply similar
engineering properties.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Field Identification of Soil
1.9 FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL
Coarse Fine Organic
Stone
Silt
InclusiveSoilTypes Gravel Peats
Clay
Sand
Roundedto
ParticleShape Flaky Fibrous
Angular
ParticleorGrainSize Coarse Fine -
PorosityorVoidRatio Low High High
Permeability High Lowtoverylow Variable
ApparentCohesion Nonetoverylow High Low
Inter-particleFriction High Low Nonetolow
Plasticity None Lowtohigh Lowtomoderate
Compressibility Verylow Moderatetoveryhigh Usuallyveryhigh

RateofCompression Immediate Moderatetoslow Moderatetorapid

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Field Identification of Soil

1.9.1 Particle size

This test is carried out based on identification

of main groups by visual examination and ‘feel’.
The main groups consist of :

i) Gravel particles which are clearly recognisable

(> 2 mm)
ii) Sand particles which have a distinctively gritty
feeling between fingers (0.06 mm < d < 2 mm)
iii) Silts which are slightly abrasive and not gritty
(0.002 mm < d < 0.06 mm)
iv) Clays which are greasy (<0.002 mm)
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Field Identification of Soil
1.9.2 Grading
➢ Grading refers to the distribution of sizes which is divided
into two main distribution, mainly, well graded which has a
wide distribution of particle sizes and poorly graded also
known as uniformly graded which contains only narrow size
range.
➢ For a rapid estimate of the particle sizes and grading, a field
settling test can be conducted in a tall jar or bottle.
➢ A sample of soil is shaken in the jar with water and then is
allowed to stand for a few minutes.
➢ The coarsest particles will settle below the jar first, followed
by progressively small particles.
➢ Subsequent examination of the nature and thickness of the
layers of sediment yields an approximate proportions of the
size range.
➢ The basis for determining the composite types can be
referred to BS 5930: 1999.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Field Identification of Soil
1.9.3 Compactness
Compactness or field strength can be
estimated by using a hand spade or pick,
or by driving a small wooden peg to
classify whether it is either loose, dense
or slightly cemented where appropriate.
Hand Spade
1.9.4 Structure
The descriptive terms used are as follows:
i) Homogeneous - consist of essentially one soil type
ii) Inter stratified - alternate layers or bands of different
materials or the interval between bedding planes.
iii) Intact - a non fissured fine soil
iv) Fissured - direction, size and spacing of fissures.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Field Identification of Soil
1.9.5 Cohesion, Plasticity and Consistency
❖ Cohesion is when the soil particles stick together and
plasticity is when it can be easily moulded without
cracking.
❖ Both of these behaviours are affected by the water
content of the soil.
❖ After removing particles over than 2 mm, a handful of soil
at its moisture content is squeezed and is moulded to
describe its consistency as follows:
i) very soft if it exudes between fingers
ii) soft if it is very easily moulded and sticks to hand
iii) firm if it is easily moulded with moderate pressure
iv) very firm if it is moulded with considerable pressure
v) hard it would not mould under pressure of the hand
vi) crumbly if it breaks into crumbs
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Field Identification of Soil
1.9.6 Dilatancy
• Dilatancy is a result of glossy film of water appearing on the
surface of the pat soil after it has been tapped.
• To observe the dilatancy of a soil, particles which are larger than 2
mm is removed and moistened sufficiently to make it soft but not
sticky.
• The pat of soil is then placed on the palm and tapped several times.
• Very fine sands and organic silts exhibit dilatancy whereas clays
and medium coarse to coarse sands do not.

1.9.7 Dry Strength

• Dry strength of the soil is estimated by breaking the dried pat with
fingers.
• The pat of moist soil used in the dilatancy test is dried in an oven and the
test is carried out.
• A high dry strength indicates a clay with high plasticity but inorganic silts
exhibit low dry strength.
• The presence of sand reduces the dry strength of silt resulting a gritty
feeling when it is rubbed.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Field Identification of Soil

1.9.8 Weathering
❖ Climatic conditions at the ground surface or exposed
faces can led to weathering of soil which reduces the
strength and increases the compressibility of the soil.
❖ The weathered state can be generalised into:

i) unweathered where no visible signs of weathering is

observed.
ii) slightly weathered where apparent weakening along
joints and fissures but the soil blocks are still intact.
iii) moderately weathered where fabric is partly disrupted
with some parts at higher moisture content than others.
iv) highly weathered where considerably fabric disruption
and softening with original structure hardly apparent.
v) fully weathered where it is structureless, matrix
softening and considerably weaker than its original soil