Einstein:

light has not only wave properties, but also particle properties.

de Broglie Relation
Particles of matter show characteristics of waves under the proper circumstances

a baseball (0.145 kg) moving at about 60 mi/hr (27 m/s)

Wavelength: 10-34 m
Electrons are wavelike: How can the “position” of a wave be specified?

Wave Functions

Heisenberg uncertainty principle: it is impossible to know simultaneously

both the momentum and the position of a particle with certainty.

∆x: the uncertainty of the particle’s position

∆p: the uncertainty of the particle’s momentum p = mv
e-
The uncertainty principle only applies to very small particles, such as electrons.
The momentum equals mass multiplied by velocity, so px = myx

Baseballs: m is relatively large. the term on the right becomes nearly zero

That means, the uncertainties of position and velocity are quite small

Quantum mechanics can not identify the electron in the atom as moving in orbit.

it can make statistical statements about where we would find the electron

We may get the possibility of finding an electron in a hydrogen atom at some point.
wave function (ψ): Information about a particle in a given energy level.

ψ2, gives the probability of finding the particle within a region of space.

The wave function itself has no direct physical meaning

wave theory: the intensity of light is proportional to the square of the amplitude of
the wave, Ψ2.

Electron density: gives the probability that an electron will be found in a particular
region of an atom.

ψ, defines the distribution of electron density in three-dimensional space around

the nucleus.
 Ψ and Ψ2 have values for all locations about a nucleus

Figure: Plot of Ψ2 for the lowest energy level of the hydrogen atom The square of the wave function is
plotted versus the distance, r, from the nucleus.
Figure: Probability of finding an electron in a spherical shell about the nucleus
 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals

Each electron in an atom is described by four different quantum numbers.

Three quantum number (n, l, and ml) specify the wave function that gives the
probability of finding the electron at various points in space.

The wave function of an electron in an atom is called the atomic orbital.

Atomic orbital: qualitatively describes the region of space where the probability of
finding the electrons is very high.

Fourth quantum number(ms): refers to a magnetic property of electrons called spin.

Principal Quantum Number (n)

Energy of an electron in an atom principally depends on principle quantum number.

it can have any positive value; 1, 2, 3 and so on

Hydrogen atom/single-electron atomic ions(Li2+ and He+): Energy depends on n only

The size of an orbital also depends on n.

Orbitals of the same quantum state n are said to belong to the same shell
Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

The angular momentum quantum number (/) tells us the “shape” of the orbitals

it can have any integer value from 0 to n - 1.

An electron has a principal quantum number of 3

The possible values for l are 0, 1, and 2
Orbitals of the same n but different l are said to belong to different subshells of a
given shell

Denote a subshell within a particular shell

2p denotes a subshell with quantum numbers n = 2 and l = 1.

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

The magnetic quantum number (m/) describes the orientation of the orbital in space

Magnetic quantum number tells that orbitals of given n and l (given energy and
shape) have a different orientation in space.

the allowed values are the integers from -l to +l.

For a certain value of l, there are (2l + 1) integral values of m/

 (s subshell)
there is only one orbital in the s subshell

If l=1, then there are [(2 x 1) + 1], or three values of m/, namely, -1, 0, and 1.

There are three different orbitals in the p subshell

The orbitals have the same shape but different orientations in space
 Spin Quantum Number (ms)

This quantum number refers to the two possible orientations of the spin axis of an
electron; possible values are +1/2 and -1/2.

An electron behaves like a small bar magnet, with a north and a south pole.

Figure: The (a) clockwise and (b) counterclockwise spins of an electron. The magnetic fi elds generated by these two spinning motions are analogous to those from the two
magnets. The upward and downward arrows are used to denote the direction of spin.
Table: lists the permissible quantum numbers for all orbitals through the n = 4 shell.
Figure: Orbital energies of the hydrogen atom The lines for each subshell indicate the number of different
orbitals of that subshell.