MEMORY

MANAGEMENT

Presented By:-
Mr. P C Kaufa Nd
Computer Architecture and Servicing
 Operating System

A operating system is a set of master programs which is

desired to control entire operations of computer.
Operating System is a general purpose software which
is involved in each and every activity of the computer.
The various functions of operating system are
⦿ Interface between user and hardware
⦿ Peripheral Management
⦿ Memory Management
⦿ Process Management
 Memory

Memory refers to the physical devices used to store the

data temporary or permanent. There are two types of
memories that are
1. Primary Memory:- These are internal memory of
computer. They are very fast. The two types of primary
memory are RAM and ROM.
2. Secondary Memory:- These are physical devices to
store program and data. They are slow to access with
higher memory capacity. The various types of
secondary memories are tape, magnetic disks and
optical discs.
 Principals of Memory Management

The various aim and principals of memory management

are
⦿ To provide the memory space to enable many
processes to be executed at same time.
⦿ To protect the processes from each other.
⦿ To provide satisfactory level as performance to users.
⦿ To make addressing of memory space transparent for
an programmer.
 Address Binding

Each program resides on a disk but it must be brought to

memory for execution. The process has to be moved
between disk and memory. Thus different memory
address are used at different location. The process of
changing the addresses during storage is called
binding. The various types of binding are
1. Compile Time Binding
2. Load Time Binding
3. Execution Time Binding
 Physical and Logical Address

1. Physical Address:- The actual addresses that refer to

actual physical location of the main memory are
called physical addresses.
2. Logical Address:- The addresses generated by CPU are
called Logical addresses.
The logical and physical addresses are same at compile
time and load time binding. But it differs at Execution
time binding. The mapping of logical address to
physical addresses is done by hardware device called
Memory Management Unit.
 Relocation

The logical addresses are converted into physical

addresses by the help of relocation register present in
Memory Management Unit or by relocating linkers and
loader. The ability to load and execute a given
program to arbitrary place in memory is called
relocation. The user program supplies logical address
must be mapped to physical addresses before they are
used. The types of Relocation are
1. Static Relocation
2. Dynamic Relocation
 Relocation

The types of Relocation are

1. Static Relocation :- The Static Relocation is performed
before or during the loading of program into memory.
This is done by relocating linkers and relocating
loaders.
2. Dynamic Relocation :- The Dynamic relocation is
performed during the execution of the program. This is
done by the help of the hardware support called
Memory management Unit (MMU).
 Relocation

Relocation
Register

14000
Logical Address Physical
CPU +
Address
Memory
346 14346

MMU
 Partitioning

The Operating System manages the main memory by

dividing the memory into regions of fixed or variable
size is called Partitioning. It manages the main memory
efficiently. The two types of partitions are
1. Static Partition:- The whole memory is divided into
fixed sized frame is called static partition.
2. Dynamic Partition:- The memory is divided into variable
sized frame according to page size is called dynamic
partition.
 Partitioning
Example process space
P1 10
0 0
P2 5
P1 P1
10 10 P3 18
P2 P2
15 15
20
P4 7
P3
P3 30 33

P3 38 P4
40 40

47
P4 50 50

Static Partition Dynamic Partition

 Fragmentation

Fragmentation is a process in which storage space is

used inefficiently, reducing capacity and often
performance. Fragmentation leads to storage space
being wasted, and the term also refers to the wasted
space itself. The two types of fragmentation are
1. External fragmentation
2. Internal fragmentation
This problem is overcome by using Disk
defragmentation.
 Contiguous Memory Allocation

Each logical object is placed in physical memory at

consecutive addresses is called contiguous memory
allocation. Generally memory is partitioned and any
process requesting memory is allocated a partition.
On termination, process release memory partition to a
free pool of memory. There are number of scheme
which can be used for a system but we can rate
efficiency of a particular memory management
scheme like wasted memory, time complexity,
memory access overheads.
 Static Partitioned Memory Allocation

The memory partition are created sometime before the

execution of user programs these partitions remain
fixed. This approach is known as Static Partitioned
Memory Allocation. The number and size of partitions
is fixed during system generation process by
considering
1. Capacity of memory,
2. Degree of multiprogramming,
3. Size of program.
 Dynamic Partitioned Memory Allocation

The memory partition are created dynamically in

response to process requests. This approach is known
as Dynamic Partitioned Memory Allocation. The
partition creation process goes on till the whole
memory has been utilized. Whenever a process
requests for memory partition, memory management
of operating system creates a suitable partition to
allocate to the process. It selects the greater or equal
size to process, allocate the memory and keeps the
record in PDT.
 Algorithms

1. First Fit:- OS searches the first partition large enough

to store process.
2. Next Fit:- The memory manager keep a pointer on the
free list to store process.
3. Best Fit:- Memory manager searches free list from
beginning to end and selects the smallest possible
portion to hold process.
4. Worst Fit:- The memory manager scans the free list
and allocate the largest memory block to create
partition to store process.
 Swapping

The process of a suspended or preempted process in

main memory with a new process is called swapping.
When all memory partitions have been allocated and
there is need to allocate a partition to a process, a
suspended or preempted processes is taken out from
the memory in order to bring new process. Swapping is
used to implement the multi programming in the
system which have less hardware support for memory
management. Swapping is done by module called
Swapper
 Swapping

Operating
System

Process
Swap out P1
User Space
Swap in
Process
P2
 Compaction

The process of relocating all partitions into one end of

memory and to combine holes into large free area is
called compaction. When the memory becomes
fragmented, solution is to relocate all partition into
one end using compaction. All the effected processes
are suspended and they are copied from one to another
area of memory. It can be performed whenever possible
or only when needed. System compacts memory when
large free area is return or there is failure to allocate
memory.
 Paging

Paging is a memory management scheme that permits

the physical address space of a process to be non
contiguous. In paging physical memory is divided into
fixed sized partitions called frames. Virtual address
space is also divided into blocks of same size called
pages. A page map table is used for address
translation. The virtual address of a process is divided
into two parts that are
1. Page number (p)
2. Page offset (d)
Paging
 Segmentation

Segmentation is memory management scheme in which

the address space of single process is divided into
blocks that may be placed into non contiguous area of
memory. Due to external fragmentation the waste
memory increases which should be reduced in system
by using the segmentation to utilize the memory in
proper manner. Segment descriptor table is use to
record the details of different segment belonging to
different process area in memory. It is flexible and
easy to use.
 Segmentation

The translation from virtual to physical address in main

memory is done as follows.
1. The segment number of virtual address is used to
access the segment descriptor table.
2. It is checked that whether the offset of segment is
within bound of segment.
3. The base address of segment is obtained from SDT.
4. The offset of the virtual address is added to physical
base address to get actual physical address.
Segmentation
 Virtual Memory

The secondary memory that is used to keep the portions

of address spaces of currently executing process is
called virtual memory. The portions are shifted to and
fro between main memory and virtual memory. Virtual
memory is a technique that allows the execution of
processes that may not be completely in memory. By
this method CPU can execute the program as large as
physical memory.
 Virtual Memory

The various issue that are specific to virtual memory

concept are
1. Allocation Policy:- decides how much real memory to
be allocated to each process.
2. Fetch Policy :- decides when and which items are to
be brought to main memory.
3. Replacement Policy:- decides which item should
replaced with new memory.
4. Placement policy:-decides about placement of an
incoming item in physical memory.
 Demand Paging

A demand paging system is similar to a paging system

with swapping. Processes reside on secondary
memory. When we want to execute a process, we
swap it into memory. A swapper swaps the page into
memory only when it needed. It avoids reading into
memory pages that will not be used anyway thus
decreasing the swap time and amount of physical
memory needed. The hardware support for demand
paging is page table and secondary memory which is
same as in paging and swapping.
 Page Replacement

To reduce the page faults occurrence, we used the

technique of page replacement. In this if no frame is
free, the OS finds the one that is not in used and make
it free. Then this freed frame is used to hold the page
which is faulted. The routine for page replacement
are
1. Find the location of desired page on disk.
2. Find a free frame
a. if there is a free frame, use it.
b. if there is no free frame, use a page
 Page Replacement

replacement algorithm to select the victim frame

and write victim page to disk change the page and
frame table accordingly.
3. Read the page to free frame, change the page and
frame tables.
4 . Restart the user process.
The algorithm used for page replacement are
a. FIFO Page Replacement,
b. LRU page Replacement,
c. Optimal Page Replacement
 First In First Out

FIFO replacement algorithm is the simplest replacement

algorithm. In this page which is the oldest one is
replaced with the new page. It use the page queue in
which the page at the head is replaced with the page
inserted at the tail. It is implement by using the FIFO
queue. There is Belady anomaly problem with FIFO
replacement algorithm. The number of page faults are
increases with increase in number of frames in main
memory.
 First In First Out

Example:- Consider the main memory consists of 3 frames

for FIFO Page Replacement algorithm and input pattern
of memory pages.

7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0

7 7 7 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 0

0 0 0 0 3 3 3 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 3 3
 Optimal Page Replacement

The Optimal Page Replacement algorithm replace the

page that will not be used for longest period of time.
The page which might not be used for longer time is
replaced with the new page. This replacement
algorithm has lowest page fault rate. This algorithm is
difficult to implement as it requires future knowledge
of the reference string. It overcome the belady’s
anomaly.
 Optimal Page Replacement

Example:- Consider the main memory consists of 3 frames

for Optimal Page Replacement algorithm and input
pattern of memory pages.

7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0

7 7 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 4 0

1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
 Least Recently Used

The least recently used algorithm will replace the page

that has not been used for longest period of time. LRU
replacement. LRU chooses that page which has not been
used for the longest period of time. This algorithm is
looking backward in time, rather than forward that is
used in Optimal page replacement. The two
implementation for LRU are Counters and Stack.
 Least Recently Used

Example:- Consider the main memory consists of 3 frames

for LRU Page Replacement algorithm and input pattern
of memory pages

7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 30

7 7 7 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3

1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2
SUMMARY
⦿ Memory refers to the physical devices used to store
the data temporary or permanent.
⦿ The process of changing the addresses during storage
is called binding.
⦿ The binding is of three types are Compile Time, Load
Time, Execution Time Binding.
⦿ The actual addresses that refer to actual physical
location of main memory are called physical
addresses.
⦿ The addresses generated by CPU are called Logical
addresses.
SUMMARY
⦿ The OS manages the main memory by dividing the
memory into regions of fixed or variable size is called
Partitioning.
⦿ The secondary memory that is used to keep the
portions of address spaces of currently executing
process is called virtual memory.
⦿ A demand paging system is similar to a paging
system with swapping
⦿ The algorithm used for page replacement are FIFO
Page Replacement, LRU page Replacement, Optimal
Page Replacement.
Thanks