Reproduction in cell:

Introduction:
• Reproduction is the mechanism to produce new generations and maintain a specie.
• There are two types of reproduction:
a) Asexual reproduction: involves only 1 parental organism which produces off
springs through mitotic division.
b) Sexual reproduction: involves 2 parents, Zygote produced by the union of two
meiotically produced sex cells (egg and sperm).

Cell cycle:
The period from the time a cell is produced until it completes mitosis. Cell division occurs
during growth and repair processes. Cell cycle has following stages:

a) Interphase: Growth and other metabolic processes

b) Mitotic phase

Stages:

1.The G1 (FIRST GROWTH): It is the early phase of the cell.

2. S (DNA SYNTHESIS) PHASE: It involves DNA replication.

3. G2 (SECOND GROWTH): This phase prepares the cell for division. It involves
in the synthesis of microtubules and replication of mitochondria and other organelles.

4. The M (MITOTIC)PHASE: Partitioning of chromosomes and daughter cells

take place.

Interphase:
• 90% of the total cell cycle.
• It includes G1, G2, S phase.
• During S phase, DNA replication occurs.
• Centromere has a specific location on any given chromosome. A disk of protein called
a kinetochore is attached to each centromere. It forms an attachment site for
microtubules of the mitotic spindle.
• During G2 phase, the condensation of chromosomes begins.
 • Now there are basically two types of Mitotic phase:
1)Mitosis
2)Meiosis

Mitosis:
The cell division in which no. of chromosomes remains constant in the daughter cells as in
the parent cells.
• Occurs in both haploid and diploid cells.
• Phases:
a) Karyokinesis
b) Cytokinesis

Karyokinesis:
Division of nucleus.

Mitotic apparatus:
 • The specialized microtubule structures include aster and spindle.
• Used to attach and capture chromosomes.
• Their spindles are larger than the nucleus
• There are the following steps involved in the formation of mitotic apparatus.
1. Duplication of centrioles and bipolarity of the dividing cells.
2. Origin of microtubules from centrioles, microtubules are made up of tubulin
and RNA.
a) Astral microtubule radiates outward to form aster.
b) Spindle microtubule is formed of kinetochore microtubule and polar
microtubule.

Subdivisions of Karyokinesis:
Karyokinesis can be further divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

1)Prophase: (pro mean first and phase means stage)

• The chromosomes are not visible during non-dividing phase.

• The DNA is stained with histologic stain and stained chromosomes appear as
fine threads.
• Condensation of chromatin material occur and become visible in the form of
thin threads (0.25 micrometer-50 micrometer).
• The nuclear envelope disappears.
• Nucleoli disappears.
• Mitotic apparatus is organized.
• Cytoplasm becomes more viscous
2)Metaphase: (Meta mean middle and phase means stage)

• Each metaphase chromosome has duplicated structure.

• It consists of two sister chromatids which are attached at a point called centromere or
primary constriction.
• Centromere has a specific area called kinetochore, having specific fibrous protein.
• Attachment of kinetochore fibers of spindle to kinetochore of chromosome.
• These fibers arrange the chromosomes at the equatorial plate or metaphase plate.

3) Anaphase: (Upward movement)

• Most critical phase.
• Ensures equal distribution of chromatids in the daughter cells.
• Contraction of kinetochore fibers of spindle towards their respective poles.
• They exert force on the centromere and separation of sister chromatids occur.
• Microtubules elongate and half of the chromatids travel towards each pole.
4) Telophase:
• Chromosomes unfold and decondense.
• Mitotic apparatus is disorganized.
• The nuclear membrane and nuclear reorganize.
• Two nuclei are formed at two poles of the cell.
Cytokinesis:
The division oof whole cell. There is different mechanism in plant and animal cells.
In animal:
• The astral microtubules send signal to equatorial region of the cell during late
telophase.
• It activates the actin and myosin which form contractile ring.
• Their contraction forms cleavage furrow.
• This furrow deepens and divides the parent cell into the 2 daughter cells.

In plants:
• No contractile ring
• Phragmoplast is formed of vesicles, originated from Golgi complex during metaphase.
These vesicles line up in the center of the dividing cell. These vesicles fuse to form
phragmoplast at the end of telophase.
• The membrane of vesicles becomes the plasma membrane of daughter cells.
• The vesicles also contain precursor of cellulose and pectin for future cell wall.
Significance of Mitosis:
1. Mitosis is responsible for the development of the zygote into an adult.
2. Equal distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell.
3. It is responsible for the growth and development of an individual.
4. It maintains the constant number of chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.
5. Mitosis is required for asexual reproduction, vegetative propagation in plants and also
responsible for repair and regeneration of damaged tissues.
6. Mitosis helps in maintaining purity of genome as there is no recombination or
crossing over takes place.
7. It is responsible for repair and regeneration of old and damaged cells in animals e.g.
gut epithelium, blood cells, etc.

Meiosis:
The cell division in which the no. of chromosomes in daughter cells are reduced to one half
as compared to the parent cells.
• Occurs only in haploid cells.
• It takes place in animal cells at the time of gamete formation.
• It takes place in plant cells at the time of spore formation.
• Each diploid cell produces four haploid cells.
• There are two divisions:
 a) Meiosis |: It is the reduction division.
b) Meiosis ||: similar to mitosis.

Meiosis |:
Meiosis I separate homologous chromosomes and produce two cells with haploid
chromosome number (n) for that reason it is known as rreduction ddivision. Meiosis I consist
of four stages:
1. Prophase I
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I.

Prophase I:
Prophase I is the longest in duration compared to prophase in mitosis. Chromosomes are
not arranged in homologous pairs. Each diploid cell has chromosome of each type. One of
this pair comes from each parent by the fusion of male and female gametes. The
interphase oof meiosis lacks G2 stage. The chromosomes are replicated during interphase.
The prophase I is divided into 5 stages (Le Za Pa Di Dia):
 a) Leptotene:
• The first stage of Prophase I
• Chromosomes become shorten and thick (ribbon like).
• Become visible.
• Size of nucleus increases and chromosomes start getting closer to
each other.
b) Zygotene:
• The pairing of homologous chromosomes starts.
• Also called synapsis.
• Essential and specific phenomenon.
• This pairing has a definite starting point. Each paired complex
structure is called as bivalent or tetrad.
c) Pachytene:
• Complete pairing of chromosome and chromosome more thick
• Each bivalent has four chromatids, wrap around each other.
• Non sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes are
exchanged their segments by chiasmata formation during crossing
over.
• Exchange of segments of non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes is called crossing over. It results reshuffling of
genetic material takes place and production of new recombinants.
• It may lasts days, weeks, even years.
d) Diplotene:
• The repulsion of paired chromosomes
• Starting of separation but homologous chromosomes remain
united by chiasmata.
• Each bivalent has at least one chiasmata.
e) Diakinesis:
• Condensation of chromosomes reaches at its peak
• Separation is completed but still united a a point, not by
chiasmata.
• Nucleoli disappears.

2) Metaphase I:

• Nuclear membrane disappears.

• Spindle fibers and kinetochore fibers originate and attach to the
kinetochore of homologous chromosome from each pole.
• Arrange the bivalents at the equator.

3) Anaphase I:

• The kinetochore fibers contract and spindle elongate.

 • It pulls the individual chromosome towards their respective poles.
• Each pole receives half of the total no. of chromosomes.

4) Telophase I:

• Nuclear membrane reorganizes

• Two nuclei are formed.
• Each nucleus has two half no. of chromosomes.
• Division of the cytoplasm divides the cell into two.
• Decondensaton of chromosomes occur.

Cytokinesis:
• Cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, resulting in the pocketing of
the cell into two cells.
• At the end of ttelophase I and cytokinesis, two daughter cells are produced, each with
one half of the number of chromosomes (haploid set of replicated chromosomes) of
the original parent cell.

Meiosis ||:
There is small interphase in two daughter cells after the telophase |. But replication of
chromosome does not take place during this interphase. The Meiosis II consists of :

1)Prophase II: Each dyad is composed of a pair of sister chromatids attached by a

common centromere.

2)Metaphase II: Centromeres are positioned at the equatorial plane.

3)Anaphase II: Centromeres divide and the sister chromatids of each dyad are pulled to
opposite poles.

4) Telophase II: One member of each pair of homologous chromosome present in each
pole. Each chromosome is referred as monad (a combination of maternal and paternal genetic
information). Nuclei reform around chromosomes at the poles. Following cytokinesis and
finally four haploid gametes result from a single meiotic event.

Importance of Meiosis:
• Variation:
Two significant processes take place:
a) Crossing over

b) Random assortment of chromosomes

• Constant number of chromosomes in each generation:

1) It takes place during gamete cell formation and spore formation in plants.
2) It reduces no, of chromosomes to one half in each gamete or spore.
3) Original no. of chromosome is restored after fusion.
4) It maintains chromosome number constant generation after generation.