1.

INTRODUCTION

Balochistan is situated in the South Eastern part of the country. Quetta is the provincial capital and
largest city of the province. It occupies the very southeastern-most portion of the Iranian Plateau,
the site of the earliest known farming settlements in the pre-Indus Valley Civilization era, the earliest
of which was Mehrgarh, dated at 7000 BC, located in modern-day Pakistani province of Balochistan.
It covers an area of 347,190 square kilo meters (134,050 sq mi) and it is Pakistan's largest province
by area, constituting 44% of Pakistan's total land mass. Balochistan is divided into 34 districts.

The capital city Quetta is located in a densely populated portion of the Sulaiman Mountains in the
north-east of the province. It is situated in a river valley near the Bolan Pass, which has been used as
the route of choice from the coast to Central Asia, entering through Afghanistan's Kandahar region.
The British and other historic empires have crossed the region to invade Afghanistan by this route.

Balochistan is rich in exhaustible and renewable resources; it is the second major supplier of natural
gas in Pakistan. The province's renewable and human resource potential has not been systematically
measured or exploited due to pressures from within and without Pakistan. Local inhabitants have
chosen to live in towns and have relied on sustainable water sources for thousands of years.

According to the 2017 census, the province had 12,344,408 inhabitants which are 6% of the total
population of the country. Whereas 1,568,780 inhabitants are living in urban areas while

4,997,105 are settled in rural areas.

1.2. Cultivated and Uncultivated Area.

Out of the total area of 34.7 million hectares, hardly 2.06 million (5.9 per cent) is cultivated and 54
per cent remains current fallow due to lack of water. Besides, there are 4.85 million hectares of
cultural wasteland which can be brought under cultivation subject to the availability of water.
Although the total cropped area of Balochistan is 3.8 per cent of the total cropped area of the
country (22.76 mha), and yet the province is the largest contributor to the national production of
apples (82 per cent), peaches (69 per cent), grapes (97.6 per cent), pomegranates (82 per cent),
dates (64 per cent), almonds (93.5 per cent) and plums (49 per cent). However, over-irrigation has
resulted in severe over-mining of ground water.

Again, in spite of limitation of irrigation water, yields per hectare of several crops are highest in the
country such as castor seed, while those of Mash, Jowar and Sesamum crops are the second highest
in the country.

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 1.3.Cropping Seasons

There are two seasons of crops, namely Kharif and Rabi seasons. These crops are sown in summer and
harvested in late summer or early autumn, while Rabi crops are sown in winter or early summer and
harvested accordingly. Rabi crops are wheat, barley, vegetable and fodder are important

The crops grown during Kharif are fruits, melons, vegetables, potato, fodder, onion etc. Almost all the
crops grown during Kharif season are cash crops, reflecting that the farmers are commercial, minded; as
they mostly produce for the market. This also indicates that agriculture in the province is a settled sector.
In addition to this melon is the crop which is sown both on irrigated and un-irrigated areas. Showing that
the farmers are rational as they scarce resource (water) in an proficient and effective manner.

Rural women are indulged in the agricultural activities inside their houses. Some old women do take part
in agriculture activities, for which they are not paid. At the time of sowing and reaping the crops, the
demand for seasonal labour raises and male labour is employed on daily wages for this function. Rural
local male labour has been replaced to some extent by skilled Afghan refugees, who are reliable and
obedient.

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 2. BACKGROUND OF AGRICULTURE IN
BALOCHISTAN
i) Land Ownership and Tenure System

As far as the land ownership in the region is concerned, the cultivated area is under personal ownership.
Those lands which have not been brought under governmental control belong to the tribe residing in the
area. Farming is normally done by landlords with the help of laborers on the pattern of share cropping or
with the laborers on cash contract for an agricultural year.

ii) Cropping Pattern

Balochistan does not produce subsistence crops. Moreover those crops, whose water requisite is very
high compared to the market price, are not formed. During Rabi, wheat captures the major percentage of
the irrigated area consisting of vegetables, cumin, fodder and barley. In Kharif season, a major share goes
to fruit production followed by vegetable and melon. Onion and fodder are also vital Kharif crops. Having
a glance at the nature of Rabi and Kharif crops, it is obvious that the farmers mostly produce for the
market. Within fruits apples and grapes can be singled out as major province fruits. Wheat is the second
major crop. Vegetables hold third place in ranking.

iii) Organization of Production/ Farming Systems

Female labour involvement in the agriculture/ horticulture sector is negligible. Due to irregular tribal
setup, female labour is not involved either in Rabi or Kharif. Farming production decisions are taken by
the male members of the household. During peak season when the need for casual labour arises, they are
hired on daily wages or a special contract for the entire time period is negotiated. In the most of the
agricultural work is done through mechanization i.e tractors are used for the ploughing of land and tube
wells are being used for watering the fields. Therefore, manual labors are not as such required.

iv) Share tenancy:

This system makes the owner of the land enable to bear the cost of inputs and the production is divided
according to a set formula.

v) Cash tenancy:
This system allows the owner of the land to give his land for an agricultural year on an agreed amount.

vi) Crop sharing system:

In this system, the land owner shares his land with the cultivator and whole costs of production is paid by
the cultivator and usually 1/5th of the production is provided to the owner of the land. With the passage

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 of time, the use of advanced technology. From bullock to tractor and from manual cropping to thresher,
from traditional fertilizer to the use of chemical fertilizers, and from subsistence crops to cash crops. The
nature of agricultural production has been changing rapidly. As a result traditional agriculture is
converting into modern agriculture.

2.1. Irrigation.

The main source of irrigation during the last quarter of the 19th century was through “Karez ”. The
structuring of “ Karez ” and its maintenance was a costly matter. The expenses for plowing and
maintaining “ Karez ” had to be shared by water clients in proportion to the share held by each in the
land. Currently tube wells have become the major source of irrigation, as this system allows having
control over time and quantum of water to be used. In other words water resource consumption has
become more resourceful and effective. The owners of tube wells personally maintain their private
owned tube wells. Whereas the maintenance of government owned tube wells is the responsibility of the
Irrigation Department. The “ Karez ” and springs are maintained through province contribution.

There are some tube wells which are not being utilized. And the reason is that these tube wells are
situated in those areas where the water table has go down due to surplus uplift, or mechanical
breakdown. Of the canal irrigated area, about 84 per cent is in Nasirabad Division alone which is nearly 5
per cent of the province, while 6.8 per cent is in Mekran Division, 4.7 per cent is in Kalat Division, 3.9 per
cent in Sibi Division and negligible in Quetta and Zhob Divisions. Thus tubewells are the major source of
irrigation outside the canal irrigated areas followed by karezes, springs etc.

The number of tube-wells increased from 17.982 in 2013 to 27.906 in 2018. This indiscriminate
expansion-authorized and unauthorized- has led to over-mining of ground-water and its lowering by two
meters or more annually.

As a result, there is now no ground water potential in Quetta, Pishin, Mustong, Mangochar and Pishin
Lora due to their over-mining. Porali River basin has good potential, while Zhob, Qilla Saifullah, Nari River,
Humun-e-Lora and Kachhi Plain have a limited potential.

Some of these basins covering nearly 30 per cent of the province have already been overdrawn and face
drought-like conditions. At places, orchards have already been dried up and there is not even drinking
water and villagers have to shift to other places.

In order to overcome this problem following measures may be taken. Instead of over-irrigating orchards
with conventional gravity flow (flood irrigation), drip irrigation system should be adopted.

a) Drip Irrigation System

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 Drip irrigation is a planned irrigation system in which all necessary facilities are installed for efficiently
applying water directly to the root zone of plants by water emitters operated under low pressure. Drip
irrigation system is suitable for crop cultivation when irrigation water or rainwater is not enough for
conventional farming.

There are two types of drip irrigation systems are designed and installed at National Agricultural Research
Centre, Islamabad under water component of PAK-China collaboration project. The first one is micro
sprinklers for nurseries and 2ndone is over head micro sprinkler for vegetables in tunnels.

The area covered by each micro sprinkler is 113 ft2 with a discharge of 93 Liters per hour. These systems
are working with 90 % water application uniformity at pressure head of 15 psi. Micro irrigation systems
are capable to apply irrigation water along nutrients to crops grown in tunnels. Under the stressed
environment of D.I. Khan drip irrigation systems were designed and installed at ten different locations on
farmers’ fields for orchards and vegetables. 25% water saving and 30% yield increase attracted the
attention of NGOs and Progressive farmers for adaptation of these systems in the area.

b) Sprinkle irrigation system

The sprinkler irrigation system applies small amounts of water at frequent intervals to a unit area of crop.
It consists of a span of pipe which is supported on wheeled A-frame towers and is selfpropelled around a
central pivot point. The pipe delivers the water to the sprinklers. Water is usually delivered to the pivot
point through a buried mainline pipe. The system may vary in length from approximately 60 m to 790 m
(200 to 2,600 ft.) and is capable of irrigating a circular area up to 200 ha (500 ac.). Pressure required at
the pivot may vary from approximately 70 kPa (10 psi) when low-pressure spray nozzles are used, to 550
kPa (80 psi) when high-pressure impact sprinklers are used. Center pivot applications have also expanded
into the realm of applying not only water but also nutrients and chemicals to the crop via fertigation and
chemigation. Today a grower can apply water and chemicals with precision uniformity and high irrigation
efficiency. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council through its Agricultural Water Management Program,
Climate Change, Alternative Energy and Water Resources Institute, National Agricultural

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 Research Centre, Islamabad installed centre pivot systems (CPS) in all provinces for
research and demonstration purposes.

c) Trickle irrigation

Trickle irrigation is a system where water and fertilizer are applied through sprinkler
directly to each plant instead of irrigating the entire area as in surface irrigation systems.
For orchards and widely spaced crops, it is accomplished with small diameter laterals
running along each plant row. Emitters are attached to the lateral supply water to each
plant to meet crop water requirement.

This system needs high initial investment and is energy intensive. But at the same time, it
is labour, water and fertilizer efficient. No investment is needed in land leveling, but
maintenance requirement of the system is often more expensive than surface irrigation
systems. A major economic factor in the use of trickle system is the cost-effective
application of fertilizers and pesticides.

This system has been installed for demonstration at fields in coastal areas of Sindh and
Balochistan and also installed at CARS, PARC in Karachi on two acres area by using one
horse power single phase motor, where orchards like guava, ber and chiku are grown.

Cost of trickle irrigation system gets minimized when operated continuously during the
critical demand period. In addition to reduced irrigation water requirement and
minimization of return flows, trickle irrigation has other positive advantages like effective
water control. Low rate of water application also reduces deep percolation losses.

The plant canopy remains completely dry under the trickle system. It reduces fungus
incidence and other pests, which depend on moist environment. Experiments of trickle
irrigation on crops like tomatoes, grapes and sugar beets have shown significant earlier
maturation in comparison with other irrigation systems. High temporal soil water level
can be maintained with trickle systems. This system results in increasing yield and quality
of the crop.

On the other hand, there are some problems with the trickle irrigation system. The most
important among them is that small flows through emitters require small openings that
have historically been plagued by clogging. With the smaller emitter orifices, more
filtering and biological controls are needed. Great advances have been made to rectify
this problem but it will always need the attention of the designer.

d) Rain Gun Sprinkler Irrigation System

Similarly like trickle irrigation system, rain gun sprinkler irrigation system is also being
applied in coastal areas, and different types of rain guns have been introduced in

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 collaboration with local industries and progressive farmers. No doubt initial cost of
installation of this system is high but it is effective and recommended on practically all
types of soils, topographic conditions and almost all kind of crops.

AGRICULTURE in Balochistan has a huge economic potential. Many

areas in the province are suitable for the growth of rewarding crops
such as pistachios, almonds, walnuts and apricots, etc.

However, owing to multiple factors the true potential of agriculture is not

being realised. First, water scarcity is damaging agriculture in the province.
Almost 81 per cent of the farmers complain about the water scarcity in the
province.

Many areas in the province are in the grip of droughts, while the use of tube
wells, largely in northern Balochistan, is also not sustainable as it
alarmingly decreases water table levels in the soil.

Second, the non-availability of good quality seeds is a major problem.

Besides, rural farmers, largely because of lack of awareness, use old and
uncertified seeds for growing crops leading to approximately 40pc
germination failure. This inflicts massive losses on both individual farmers
and provincial economy.

Third, it is difficult for the farmers of Balochistan to have a smooth and easy
access to agriculture lending. According to the Soil Fertility Atlas report
jointly released by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the
US Department of Agriculture, loans are available to only 61pc of farmers.

Thus farmers are unable to invest in agriculture inputs such as seeds,

fertilisers and use of tractors.

Hence, large tracts of land in the province remain uncultivated. Last but not
least, the provincial agriculture department is unable to extend agricultural
knowledge and techniques to the farmers as its extension wing is nearly
non-existent.

Its research wing has rarely produced any meaningful results on any major
crops.

Saad Khosa
Quetta

Published in Dawn, February 7th, 2019

B alochistan has the most vital wheat yield potential and famously known as the country’s food
basket. It is therefore important to make sure that all the management of country and province

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 properly evaluate variability in wheat yield and yield components and fully and efficiently tapped the
benefit of this crop. Balochistan has wheat varieties yield potential of 6.5MT/hectares, but it is getting
only 2.4 MT/hectares. The province gets 95 percent wheat from irrigated and 5 percent from rain-fed
areas.
Pakistan’s wheat production can be increased by expanding wheat cropping area in Balochistan,
which is the country’s largest province with respect to its landmass. According to one estimate, out of
the total geographical area of 34.719 million hectares, the province has a cultivated area of 1.989
million hectares and 4.826 million hectares of land falls in the category of cultivable wasteland. Need
is to reclaim this cultivable wasteland and this can only be done if the capacity of the Provincial
Agriculture Engineering Department is enhanced by providing it additional machinery and bulldozers.

Presently, Balochistan is a wheat-deficit province. It excessively depends on Sindh and Punjab to

meet its wheat requirement. It actually faces the problem of food insecurity. It requires 900,000 metric
tons of wheat annually to feed its population of 6.8 million people. Each year the provincial food
department sets a procurement target of 50,000 MT from Naseerabad zone, but it hardly purchases
20,000 MT to 25,000 MT. It is because of the less support price fixed by the government that provides
the private traders and flour mill owners even from other provinces to lift maximum wheat of the
province, as they offer a price to the local growers, which is more than the government’s support
price. The private traders and flourmill owners exploit the situation. The agricultural growth is key to
curtailing poverty, as agriculture is the mainstay of rural economy and over 75 percent population of
the province depends on this sector for earning their livings.

The wheat support price needs to be enhanced enough to encourage the local farming community,
otherwise, the Balochistan will continue to excessively depend on other provinces and PASSCO to
meet its wheat requirement at higher price.

A long-term strategy needs to be devised to make Balochistan self-reliant in wheat. The sowing period
for wheat crop in the province commences from 1st November to 31st November. The land must be
prepared for timely sowing of crop, but it has been observed that local farmers frequently remain
unable to prepare it for wheat sowing. The land often remains uneven or it is not properly leveled due
to lack of mechanization. The uneven land causes water losses. Similarly, at the time of irrigation, the
local farmers frequently face the problem of water shortage.

Balochistan’s annual requirement of quality seed stands at 33,000MT to get a quality crop. The
province gets only 4,000MT of quality seeds from different sources and the rest of the requirement is
met by the local farmers themselves, as there is no seed production corporation in the province.

Directorate General of Agriculture Research (cereal crops) is presently working to increase wheat
production in Balochistan by producing improved germplasm tolerant/resistant to specific environment
and disease problem. A research program on wheat crop was launched in 1976 by the Agriculture
Research Institute (ARI) Quetta. It has developed wheat varieties suited for both plains and uplands in
the province. The ARI has so far released six varieties of wheat including Zarghoon-79, Zamindar-80,
Zardana-92, Sariab-92, Zarlashta-99 and Raskoh-2005.

ISSUES & CONSTRAINTS

Scarcity of water and proper management of available water as the main issues related to the wheat
production in the province. There is no perennial system of irrigation except Naseerabad district.
Wheat is grown over an area of 408,913 hectares in the province. According to the statistics of the
provincial Agriculture department, the province produced 872,066 tons or yielded 2133Kgs per
hectare during the fiscal year 2006-07. Wheat is mostly used as bread wheat in the province.

The non-availability of agricultural inputs at the time of sowing are the other important issues related
to the wheat crop in the province. The priority should be given to the development of water resources
to maximize crop production, as agriculture development is linked to water resource development in
the province.

Moreover, necessary measures must be taken for construction of farm to market roads, establishment
of Agro-based industries, provision of storage and processing facilities for agro products and farm

8|Page
 mechanization to bring green revolution in the province. The local growers face the shortages of
pesticides and fertilizers at the critical stages of the cultivation of wheat crop and they have to
purchase these inputs at higher prices. Another problem is the non-availability of quality seeds for
wheat crop.

Another problem is the adulteration of fertilizers and pesticides. Adulterated fertilizers and pesticides
available in the province have had adverse impact on the quality of yield. The pesticides from China
are adulterated, re-packed and sold under different trade marks in the province.

The government should ensure the timely provision of essential agricultural inputs to local farmers at
subsidized rates for the cultivation of wheat. It should launch a number of projects for crop
maximization to reduce poverty and food insecurity in the province. The province is already reeling
under higher poverty and in rural areas over 50 percent people live below the level of poverty line.

A seed production corporation should be established in Balochistan to ensure supply of quality seeds
to wheat growers as and when required. The government should also involve the private sector to
ensure availability of quality seeds to the local growers of wheat. Steps should be taken against those
fertilizers and pesticides companies, which are involved in the adulteration of these key agricultural
inputs.

The government should take initiative to utilize the locally grown wheat to meet the local needs and
steps should be taken to check its movement outside the province through purchasing by private
parties or smuggling across the border. The government must take steps to improve socio-economic
conditions of the local farming community to achieve the goal of self-reliance in food. Local farmers’
problems related to water shortages and frequent load shedding and power breakdown should be
resolved. They should be offered handsome support price for wheat crop, as a token of their
encouragement.

Fertilizer:

As per data released by NFDC, urea offtake declined 71% YoY and 74% MoM to 119K tons in Oct’19.
This takes 10MCY19 urea offtake to 4.49mn tons, down 2% YoY. The ending inventory stands at
886K tons in Oct’19 vs. 212K tons in Oct’18/peak of 1.7mn tons in May’17. Subsidized LNG supply to
non-operational fertilizer plants since Oct’18 and 100K tons of urea import remained the main culprits
for the inventory build-up. On the other hand, directing the potential subsidy towards small farmers
(owning 50% of farmland) could reduce urea price by PKR860/bag.

Province-wise production of crops is depicted as follows.

Table 1.1 Province Wise Production of Crops From 2011-12 to 2016-2017

Production tonns…931.80 million tonns

pakistan panjab 26673.00

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 Districts of balochistan

1) Papolations 12.34 million

2) Governor of balochistan justices (R) amanullah khan yasinzai
3) Total area 247,190 km2 @ (134,050sq mi)
4) Seats of national essambly 30
5) Seat of provincial assembly 65

Agriculture land in balochistan

The total cultivated area in Balochistan is 2.09 million hectares, out of which

0.98 million hectares (47%) fall under the category of irrigated agriculture.
45 The remaining 53% is cultivated by seasonal floods and rainfall. ... The
34% area irrigated by tubewells includes both electric-powered ...
6)
7) Largest district area wise Khuzdar
8) 33 districts
9) 3 lak 39 thousand sq/ kilo metre (raqba)
10) 44 thousand kilometre (kacha road)
11) 6 hazar kilometre (roads)
12) 70% people living rural areas of balochistan
13) 86% poverty in balochistan
14)

Disticts of Khuzdar

Agriculture
The art or science of cultivating the ground, including the harvesting of crops,
and the rearing and management of livestock; tillage; husbandry; farming.

Agronomy
 is the science of utilizing plants, animals and soils for food, fuel, feed, and fiber
and more to do this effectively and sustainably, agronomy encompasses work in
the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, animal sciences and
soil science.

plant breeding.
plant breeding is can be define as a science as well as art of improving the
genetic make up plant in relation to their economic use.

Horticulture

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 the branch of plant agriculture dealing with garden crops, generally fruits,
vegetables, and ornamental plants. ... In terms of scale, horticulture falls
between domestic gardening and field agriculture, though all forms of
cultivation naturally have close links.

Balochistan balochistan geographycal area

situated in the southwest of Pakistan
and covers an area of 347,190 square kilometres (134,050 sq mi).
Pakistan's largest province by area, 44% of Pakistan's total land mass.

Wheat
Wheat
 is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple food.[2][3]
[4]
 The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum; the most widely grown
is common wheat (T. aestivum).
The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile
Crescent around 9600 BCE. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis.
Wheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop (220.4 million hectares, 2014).
[5]
 World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. [6] In 2017, world production of
wheat was 730 million tonnes, with a forecast of 2019 production at 766 million tonnes, [7] making
it the second most-produced cereal after maize.[7][8] Since 1960, world production of wheat and
other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st
century.[9] Global demand for wheat is increasing due to the unique viscoelastic and adhesive
properties of gluten proteins, which facilitate the production of processed foods, whose
consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide industrialization process and
the westernization of the diet.[10][11]
Wheat is an important source of carbohydrates.[10] Globally, it is the leading source of vegetable
protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared
to other major cereals[12] but relatively low in protein quality for supplying essential amino acids.[13]
[14]
 When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber.[10]
In a small part of the general population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can
trigger coeliac disease, noncoeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis.
[15]

Contents
Ripe wheat kernels ready for harvesting

Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop
rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all
combined to promote wheat as a viable crop. When the use of seed drills replaced broadcasting
sowing of seed in the 18th century, another great increase in productivity occurred.
Yields of pure wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long
cultivated land, and the use of fertilizers became widespread. Improved agricultural husbandry
has more recently included threshing machines and reaping machines (the 'combine

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 harvester'), tractor-drawn cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see Green
Revolution and Norin 10 wheat). Great expansion of wheat production occurred as new arable
land was farmed in the Americas and Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Physiology[edit]
Leaves emerge from the shoot apical meristem in a telescoping fashion until the transition to
reproduction ie. flowering.[29] The last leaf produced by a wheat plant is known as the flag leaf. It
is denser and has a higher photosynthetic rate than other leaves, to supply carbohydrate to the
developing ear. In temperate countries the flag leaf, along with the second and third highest leaf
on the plant, supply the majority of carbohydrate in the grain and their condition is paramount to
yield formation.[30][31] Wheat is unusual among plants in having more stomata on the upper
(adaxial) side of the leaf, than on the under (abaxial) side. [32] It has been theorised that this might
be an effect of it having been domesticated and cultivated longer than any other plant. [33] Winter
wheat generally produces up to 15 leaves per shoot and spring wheat up to 9 [34] and winter crops
may have up to 35 tillers (shoots) per plant (depending on cultivar). [34]
Wheat roots are among the deepest of arable crops, extending as far down as 2m. [35] While the
roots of a wheat plant are growing, the plant also accumulates an energy store in its stem, in the
form of fructans,[36] which helps the plant to yield under drought and disease pressure, [37] but it has
been observed that there is a trade-off between root growth and stem non-structural
carbohydrate reserves.[38] Root growth is likely to be prioritised in drought-adapted crops, while
stem non-structural carbohydrate is prioritised in varieties developed for countries where disease
is a bigger issue. Depending on variety, wheat may be awned or not awned. Producing awns
incurs a cost in grain number,[39] but wheat awns photosynthesise more water-use-efficiently than
their leaves,[40] so awns are much more frequent in varieties of wheat grown in hot drought-prone
countries than those generally seen in temperate countries. For this reason, awned varieties
could become more widely grown due to climate change. In Europe, however, a decline in
climate resilience of wheat has been observed. [41]

Genetics[edit]
Wheat genetics is more complicated than that of most other domesticated species. Some wheat
species are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, but many are stable polyploids, with four sets
of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).[42]

 Einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) is diploid (AA, two complements of seven

chromosomes, 2n=14).[4]
 Most tetraploid wheats (e.g. emmer and durum wheat) are derived from wild emmer, T.
dicoccoides. Wild emmer is itself the result of a hybridization between two diploid wild
grasses, T. urartu and a wild goatgrass such as Aegilops searsii or Ae. speltoides. The
unknown grass has never been identified among now surviving wild grasses, but the closest
living relative is Aegilops speltoides.[43] The hybridization that formed wild emmer (AABB)
occurred in the wild, long before domestication,[42] and was driven by natural selection.

 Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields. Either domesticated emmer or durum wheat
hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass (Aegilops tauschii) to make
the hexaploid wheats, spelt wheat and bread wheat.[42] These have three sets of paired
chromosomes, three times as many as in diploid wheat.
The presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields. Apart from
mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity during domestication, there has been more recent
deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics. Genes for the 'dwarfing' trait, first
used by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short-stalked wheat, have had a huge effect on
wheat yields worldwide, and were major factors in the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico
and Asia, an initiative led by Norman Borlaug. Dwarfing genes enable the carbon that is fixed in
the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production, and they also help

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 prevent the problem of lodging. 'Lodging' occurs when an ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots
on the ground, and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes the grass grow taller and
become more susceptible to this problem. By 1997, 81% of the developing world's wheat area
was planted to semi-dwarf wheats, giving both increased yields and better response to
nitrogenous fertilizer.
Wild grasses in the genus Triticum and related genera, and grasses such as rye have been a
source of many disease-resistance traits for cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s.[44]
Heterosis, or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize), occurs in common (hexaploid)
wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale (as is done
with maize) because wheat flowers are perfect and normally self-pollinate. Commercial hybrid
wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents; these chemicals selectively
interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems.
Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France), the United
States and South Africa.[45] F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with the standard
method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then
selfing or inbreeding the progeny many (ten or more) generations before release selections are
identified to be released as a variety or cultivar.
Synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor Aegilops tauschii and
various durum wheats are now being deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of
cultivated wheats.[46][47][48]
Stomata (or leaf pores) are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere
and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration. Basic physiological investigation
of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are
used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water-use efficiency. These varieties can
improve crop productivity in rain-fed dry-land wheat farms. [49]
In 2010, a team of UK scientists funded by BBSRC announced they had decoded the wheat
genome for the first time (95% of the genome of a variety of wheat known as Chinese Spring line
42).[50] This genome was released in a basic format for scientists and plant breeders to use but
was not a fully annotated sequence which was reported in some of the media. [51]
On 29 November 2012, an essentially complete gene set of bread wheat was published.
[52]
 Random shotgun libraries of total DNA and cDNA from the T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring
(CS42) were sequenced in Roche 454 pyrosequencer using GS FLX Titanium and GS FLX+
platforms to generate 85 Gb of sequence (220 million reads), equivalent to 5X genome coverage
and identified between 94,000 and 96,000 genes. [52]

Wheat field in Punjab

This sequence data provides direct access to about 96,000 genes, relying on orthologous gene
sets from other cereals. and represents an essential step towards a systematic understanding of
biology and engineering the cereal crop for valuable traits. Its implications in cereal genetics and
breeding includes the examination of genome variation, association mapping using natural
populations, performing wide crosses and alien introgression, studying the expression and
nucleotide polymorphism in transcriptomes, analyzing population genetics and evolutionary
biology, and studying the epigenetic modifications. Moreover, the availability of large-scale
genetic markers generated through NGS technology will facilitate trait mapping and make
marker-assisted breeding much more feasible.[53]
Moreover, the data not only facilitate in deciphering the complex phenomena such as heterosis
and epigenetics, it may also enable breeders to predict which fragment of a chromosome is
derived from which parent in the progeny line, thereby recognizing crossover events occurring in
every progeny line and inserting markers on genetic and physical maps without ambiguity. In due
course, this will assist in introducing specific chromosomal segments from one cultivar to
another. Besides, the researchers had identified diverse classes of genes participating in energy
production, metabolism and growth that were probably linked with crop yield, which can now be

13 | P a g e
 utilized for the development of transgenic wheat. Thus whole genome sequence of wheat and
the availability of thousands of SNPs will inevitably permit the breeders to stride towards
identifying novel traits, providing biological knowledge and empowering biodiversity-based
breeding.[53]

Plant breeding[edit]

Sowing seed at the Wheat Research Institute, Canterbury Agricultural College, 1948

In traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces, informal farmer-
maintained populations that often maintain high levels of morphological diversity. Although
landraces of wheat are no longer grown in Europe and North America, they continue to be
important elsewhere. The origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century, when
single line varieties were created through selection of seed from a single plant noted to have
desired properties. Modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth century
and was closely linked to the development of Mendelian genetics. The standard method of
breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or
inbreeding the progeny. Selections are identified (shown to have the genes responsible for the
varietal differences) ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar. [54]
The major breeding objectives include high grain yield, good quality, disease and insect
resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses, including mineral, moisture and heat tolerance. The
major diseases in temperate environments include the following, arranged in a rough order of
their significance from cooler to warmer climates: eyespot, Stagonospora nodorum blotch (also
known as glume blotch), yellow or stripe rust, powdery mildew, Septoria tritici blotch (sometimes
known as leaf blotch), brown or leaf rust, Fusarium head blight, tan spot and stem rust. In tropical
areas, spot blotch (also known as Helminthosporium leaf blight) is also important.
Wheat has also been the subject of mutation breeding, with the use of gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet
light, and sometimes harsh chemicals. The varieties of wheat created through these methods are
in the hundreds (going as far back as 1960), more of them being created in higher populated
countries such as China.[55] Bread wheat with high grain iron and zinc content was developed
through gamma radiation breeding.[56] Modern bread wheat varieties have been cross-bred to
contain greater amounts of gluten,[57] which affords significant advantages for improving the
quality of breads and pastas from a functional point of view. [58] Gluten is appreciated for its
unique viscoelastic properties.[58] It gives elasticity to dough and is responsible for dough's gas-
retaining properties.[58]
International wheat breeding is led by CIMMYT in Mexico. ICARDA is another major public sector
international wheat breeder, but it was forced to relocate from Syria in the Syrian Civil War. The
world record wheat yield is about 17t/ha, reached in New Zealand in 2017. [59] A project in the UK,
led by Rothamsted Research has aimed to raise wheat yields in the country to 20t/ha by 2020,
but in 2018 the UK record stood at 16t/ha, and the average yield was just 8t/ha. [60][61]
Hybrid wheat[edit]
Because wheat self-pollinates, creating hybrid varieties is extremely labor-intensive; the high cost
of hybrid wheat seed relative to its moderate benefits have kept farmers from adopting them
widely[62][63] despite nearly 90 years of effort. [64] F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused
with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding. Heterosis or hybrid vigor (as in the
familiar F1 hybrids of maize) occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce
seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are
perfect in the botanical sense, meaning they have both male and female parts, and normally self-
pollinate.[54] Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing
agents, plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally
occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial
success in Europe (particularly France), the United States and South Africa.[65]

14 | P a g e
 Hulled versus free-threshing wheat[edit]

Left: Naked wheat, Bread wheat Triticum aestivum; Right: Hulled wheat, Einkorn, Triticum monococcum.
Note how the einkorn ear breaks down into intact spikelets.

The four wild species of wheat, along with the domesticated varieties einkorn,
[66]
 emmer[67] and spelt,[68] have hulls. This more primitive morphology (in evolutionary terms)
consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains, and (in domesticated wheats) a
semi-brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing. The result is that when threshed, the wheat
ear breaks up into spikelets. To obtain the grain, further processing, such as milling or pounding,
is needed to remove the hulls or husks. In contrast, in free-threshing (or naked) forms such as
durum wheat and common wheat, the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough. On threshing, the
chaff breaks up, releasing the grains. Hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the
toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain. [66]
There are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate
article on wheat taxonomy. The name of a wheat species from one information source may not
be the name of a wheat species in another.
Within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms
of:

 Growing season, such as winter wheat vs. spring wheat.[69]

 Protein content. Bread wheat protein content ranges from 10% in some soft
wheats with high starch contents, to 15% in hard wheats.
 The quality of the wheat protein gluten. This protein can determine the suitability
of a wheat to a particular dish. A strong and elastic gluten present in bread wheats
enables dough to trap carbon dioxide during leavening, but elastic gluten interferes
with the rolling of pasta into thin sheets. The gluten protein in durum wheats used for
pasta is strong but not elastic.
 Grain color (red, white or amber). Many wheat varieties are reddish-brown due to
phenolic compounds present in the bran layer which are transformed to pigments by
browning enzymes. White wheats have a lower content of phenolics and browning
enzymes, and are generally less astringent in taste than red wheats. The yellowish
color of durum wheat and semolina flour made from it is due to a carotenoid pigment
called lutein, which can be oxidized to a colorless form by enzymes present in the
grain.

Major cultivated species of wheat[edit]

Hexaploid species

 Common wheat or bread wheat (T. aestivum) – A hexaploid species that is the most

widely cultivated in the world.
 Spelt (T. spelta) – Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities. [quantify] Spelt is
sometimes considered a subspecies[by whom?] of the closely related species common wheat (T.
aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be T. aestivum ssp. spelta.
Tetraploid species

15 | P a g e
  Durum (T. durum) – A tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most
widely cultivated wheat.
 Emmer (T. dicoccon) – A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in
widespread use.
 Khorasan (T. turgidum ssp. turanicum, also called T. turanicum) is a tetraploid wheat
species. It is an ancient grain type; Khorasan refers to a historical region in modern-day
Afghanistan and the northeast of Iran. This grain is twice the size of modern-day wheat and
is known for its rich nutty flavor.
Diploid species

 Einkorn (T. monococcum) – A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants.

Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat.
Classes used in North America[edit]
The named classes of wheat in English are more or less the same in Canada as in the US, as
broadly the same commercial cash crop strains can be found in both.
The classes used in the United States are :[70][71]

 Durum – Very hard, translucent, light-colored grain used to make semolina flour

for pasta & bulghur; high in protein, specifically, gluten protein.
 Hard Red Spring – Hard, brownish, high-protein wheat used for bread and hard baked
goods. Bread Flour and high-gluten flours are commonly made from hard red spring wheat. It
is primarily traded at the Minneapolis Grain Exchange.
 Hard Red Winter – Hard, brownish, mellow high-protein wheat used for bread, hard
baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein in pastry flour for pie
crusts. Some brands of unbleached all-purpose flours are commonly made from hard red
winter wheat alone. It is primarily traded on the Kansas City Board of Trade. One variety is
known as "turkey red wheat", and was brought to Kansas by Mennonite immigrants from
Russia.[72]
 Soft Red Winter – Soft, low-protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits,
and muffins. Cake flour, pastry flour, and some self-rising flours with baking powder and salt
added, for example, are made from soft red winter wheat. It is primarily traded on
the Chicago Board of Trade.
 Hard White – Hard, light-colored, opaque, chalky, medium-protein wheat planted in dry,
temperate areas. Used for bread and brewing.
 Soft White – Soft, light-colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas.
Used for pie crusts and pastry. Pastry flour, for example, is sometimes made from soft white
winter wheat.
Red wheats may need bleaching; therefore, white wheats usually command higher prices than
red wheats on the commodities market.

Wheat is used in a wide variety of foods.

Raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground
into semolina; germinated and dried creating malt; crushed or cut into cracked wheat; parboiled
(or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats.[citation needed] If the raw
wheat is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be used
several ways
Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods
as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, Muesli, pancakes, pasta and noodles, pies, pastries, pizza, 
polenta and semolina, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, beer, vodka, boza (a ferm
ented beverage), and breakfast cereals.[73]

16 | P a g e
 In manufacturing wheat products, gluten is valuable to impart viscoelastic functional qualities
in dough,[74] enabling the preparation of diverse processed foods such as breads, noodles, and
pasta that facilitate wheat consumption.[75][10]
Nutrition[edit]
In 100 grams, wheat provides 327 kilocalories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily
Value, DV) of multiple essential nutrients, such as protein, dietary
fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin (table). Several B vitamins and other dietary
minerals are in significant content. Wheat is 13% water, 71% carbohydrates, and 1.5% fat. Its
13% protein content is mostly gluten (75-80% of the protein in wheat).[74]
Wheat proteins have a low quality for human nutrition, according to the new protein quality
method (DIAAS) promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization.[14][76] Though they contain
adequate amounts of the other essential amino acids, at least for adults, wheat proteins are
deficient in the essential amino acid, lysine.[10][77] Because the proteins present in the
wheat endosperm (gluten proteins) are particularly poor in lysine, white flours are more deficient
in lysine compared with whole grains.[10] Significant efforts in plant breeding are being made to
develop lysine-rich wheat varieties, without success as of 2017. [78] Supplementation with proteins
from other food sources (mainly legumes) is commonly used to compensate for this deficiency,
[13]
 since the limitation of a single essential amino acid causes the others to break down and
become excreted, which is especially important during the period of growth. [10]
Worldwide consumption[edit]
Wheat is grown on more than 218,000,000 hectares (540,000,000 acres), [84] a larger area than for
any other crop. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. With rice,
wheat is the world's most favored staple food. It is a major diet component because of the wheat
plant's agronomic adaptability with the ability to grow from near arctic regions to equator, from
sea level to plains of Tibet, approximately 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. In addition to
agronomic adaptability, wheat offers ease of grain storage and ease of converting grain into flour
for making edible, palatable, interesting and satisfying foods. Wheat is the most important source
of carbohydrate in a majority of countries.[citation needed]
The most common forms of wheat are white and red wheat. However, other natural forms of
wheat exist. Other commercially minor but nutritionally promising species of naturally evolved
wheat species include black, yellow and blue wheat. [6][85][86]
Health effects[edit]
Consumed worldwide by billions of people, wheat is a significant food for human nutrition,
particularly in the least developed countries where wheat products are primary foods.[2][10] When
eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a healthy food source of multiple nutrients and dietary
fiber recommended for children and adults, in several daily servings containing a variety of foods
that meet whole grain-rich criteria.[10][75][87][88] Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and
therefore help with a healthy weight. [89] Further, wheat is a major source for natural
and biofortified nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber, protein and dietary minerals.[90]
Manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed
a health claim for marketing purposes in the United States, stating: "low fat diets rich in fiber-
containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types
of cancersoluble fiber[91][92]European Food Safety Authority
In genetically susceptible people, gluten – a major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac
disease.[74][94] Coeliac disease affects about 1% of the general population in developed countries.[95]
[94]
 There is evidence that most cases remain undiagnosed and untreated. [94] The only known
effective treatment is a strict lifelong gluten-free diet.[94]
Comparison with other staple foods[edit]
The following table shows the nutrient content of wheat and other major staple foods in a raw
form.[102]

17 | P a g e
 Raw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be
sprouted, or prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked
form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably
different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table.
In cooked form, the nutrition value for each staple depends on the cooking method (for example:
baking, boiling, steaming, frying, etc.).

Livestock[edit]
Main article: Animal husbandry in Pakistan
According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan,[14] the livestock sector contributes about half of the
value added in the agriculture sector, amounting to nearly 11 per cent of Pakistan's GDP, which
is more than the crop sector. The leading daily newspaper Jang reports that the national herd
consists of 24.2 million cattle, 26.3 million buffaloes, 24.9 million sheep, 56.7 million goats and
0.8 million camels. In addition to these there is a vibrant poultry sector in the country with more
than 530 million birds produced annually. These animals produce 29.472 million tons of milk
(making Pakistan the 4th largest producer of milk in the world), 1.115 million tons of beef, 0.740
million tons of mutton, 0.416 million tons of poultry meat, 8.528 billion eggs, 40.2 thousand tons
of wool, 21.5 thousand tons of hair and 51.2 million skins and hides. [15]

China
1. China. China is the largest wheat producing country in terms of global wheat
production by country with an estimated annual output of around 130 million
tons at the end of 2017.

Pakistan wheat production up in 2017-18

Good growing conditions help country reach wheat
output of 26.3 million tonnes.
ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN — Good growing conditions have led to an increase in
Pakistan’s wheat production in 2017-18, up 800,000 tonnes to 26.3 million tonnes,
according to an Aug. 3 Global Agricultural Information Network report from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.

The Pakistani government procured nearly 6 million tonnes of wheat from the
recently concluded harvest, the USDA noted.“At a procurement price of $310
per tonne, producers who receive the government support price are among the
better compensated wheat growers globally,” the USDA said. “In spite of the lower-
than-targeted procurement, the government now holds 10.8 million tonnes of
wheat at the start of the local marketing years, one of the highest beginning
stock levels on record.”

Wheat exports in 2017-18 were around 1.2 million tonnes, unchanged from the
previous USDA estimate. Exports for the coming crop season are forecast slightly
lower at 1 million tonnes, reflecting 800,000 tonnes of subsidized exports plus
200,000 tonnes of wheat-equivalent flour to Afghanistan.

18 | P a g e
 “Exports of flour to Afghanistan have slowed as border security and oversight have
increased in recent months,” the USDA said.

8. Pakistan (26,674,000 Tonnes)

Wheat in Pakistan acts as the leading food grain, and a staple food in
the diets of the Pakistani people. The area cultivated from wheat
cultivation increased by 4.4% between 2013 and 2014. Wheat is
cultivated in all parts of Pakistan, with maximum yields being
obtained from the Punjab and Sindh provinces. The alluvial deposits
by the Indus River contributes to the fertility of the soil in these
provinces, and encourages the cultivation of cereal crops, including
wheat, on a massive scale.

Top Wheat Producing Countries

Rank Country Wheat Produced (Tonnes)

1 China 134,340,630

2 India 98,510,000

3 Russian Federation 85,863,132

4 United States of America 47,370,880

5 France 36,924,938

6 Australia 31,818,744

7 Canada 29,984,200

8 Pakistan 26,674,000

9 Ukraine 26,208,980

10 Germany 24,481,600

Wheat is world
The wheat is sown the world over on an area touching 220 million hectares producing 600
million tons with an average of 2700 kg. of grain per hectare. The Main land China brings 30
million hectares the largest are in the world followed by Russian Federation, India, USA,
Australia, Canada, Turkey and Pakistan.Oct 15, 2017

19 | P a g e
 Pakistan 2019 population
 is estimated at 216,565,318 people at mid year according to UN data. Pakistan
population is equivalent to 2.81% of the total world population. Pakistan ranks number 5
in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population.

Contribution of major crops in agriculture sector

25.6% and contribution of major crops in GDP is almost 5.4% according to the economic
survey of Pakistan.

Wheat
participate in contribution of agriculture is approximately 10.3% and in l GDP is 2.2%.
Rice is cash plus a food crop.

20 | P a g e
 The total geographical area of Pakistan
According to agricultural statistics of Pakistan 1998-99 is 79.61 million hectares (mha)
(about 197 million acres),
of which only 25 % or 19.82 million hectares (about 48.96 million acres) are currently
under cultivation.

Wheat Production Technology in

Punjab
May 15, 2017, 9:24 am 5018

WHEAT PRODUCING ZONES 

21 | P a g e
 A-       IRRIGATED
Cotton zone, Central/ mixed zone & Rice zone
B-       RAIN FED
Rain-fed Zone
A- IRRIGATED AREAS
I) COTTON ZONE
Total wheat area: 6.719 million acres
i) Districts
Sahiwal, Khanewal, Vehari, Lodhran, Muzaffargarh, Rajanpur, Layyah, D.G.
khan, Bahawalpur, Bahawalnager and Rahimyar khan
ii)           Cropping pattern
Cotton-wheat, Mung-wheat, Sugarcane-wheat, Kharif fodder/maize-wheat
iii)          Commercial wheat varieties 
Name of Varieties Time of planting Remarks

Inqilab-91 Nov.10 –Dec.15 High yielding disease resistant, lodging resistant and genera
suitable for rich soils under normal and late planting

Punjab.96 Nov.1 –Nov.30 High yielding variety having durable resistance against rust
suitable for early to normal planting with good performance

M.H.97 Oct.25– Nov.30 High yielding variety with better adaptability, and good tille
suitable for early to normal planting

Pasban.90 Nov.1 – Nov.30 High yielding slow rusting variety suitable for saline areas

Bwp.97 Nov.15– Dec.15 Recommended for irrigated areas of south Punjab for late p

Augab.2000 Nov.01- Dec.15 Recommended for early and late planting in irrigated areas

Iqbal.2000 Nov.15-Dec.15 Recommended for late planting in irrigated areas of the Pun

Chenab-2000 Oct.25-Nov.30 Recommended for early and normal planting in the irrigated
Note: Maximum planting should be completed by 30th November and in no case
should be extended
beyond mid December.

iv) Seed treatment and seed rate. Healthy and clean seed of
recommended varieties should be used
@ 50-60 Kg/ac. Seed should be treated with appropriate systemic
fungicide.

iv)          Planting method

                        Rabi drill or ‘Kera’ should be practiced to ensure better yields.

1. v)                                                      FERTILIZER APPLICATION PER
ACRE  
Type of soil (KG) Bags

22 | P a g e
 N P K DAP UREA

POOR 52 46 25 2.0 1.75

MEDIUM 42 34 25 1.50 1.50

FERTILE 30 23 25 1.0 1.25

Note:- All the NPK fertilizer should be applied at the time of sowing

in case of late planting in December (NP ratio 1.5:1 or 1:1).

Common weeds: Phalaris minor (Dumbi sitti), Avena fatua (Wild oats),

                          Chenopodium (Bathu) & Convolvulus (Lehli).
            vi)                   Weed control

          Cultural: Double bar harrow should be practiced.

          Chemical: i) Selective weedicides for broad and narrow  leaved weeds should
be used.
1. ii) Wide spectrum weedicides can be used when both types of weeds are
problem.

READ MORE:  China’s hybrid wheat successfully grown on large scale in

Pakistan

Note:–          i) Weedicides should be applied after Ist irrigation in good moisture

condition
                   when weeds are at 2-3 & wheat crop at 3-4 leaf stages.

1. ii) Herbicides belonging to the same group or family should not be repeated in
the same field,
the following year.
iii) Irrigations: Three irrigations are necessary at the critical stages

after ‘rauni’ as given below.

1. Ist irrigation 20-25 days after sowing.

2. 2nd     ”                   At boot stage.
3. 3rd     ”                   At milk stage of grain development.
II).      CENTRAL/MIXED CROP ZONE
            Total wheat area          3.639 million acres
1. i)            Districts:
                        Jhang, Faisalabad, Okara, T.T. Singh, Sargodha, Khushab and parts
of Mianwali and Bhakkar.
1. ii)             Cropping pattern
23 | P a g e
 Sugarcane – Wheat, Cotton – Wheat, Kharif fodder/maize – Wheat, Rice – Wheat,
Wheat – Fallow – Wheat & Guar – Wheat

            iii)             Varieties
Inqlab-91, Pasban-90, MH-97, Punjab 96, Auqab-2000 and Iqbal 2000

            iV)             Planting time
Nov.Ist to Nov.25 for obtaining optimum yields and for late planting by Dec.15.

1. V)             Seed treatment and seed rate

                        Seed treated with recommended fungicides be used at
the                        following rate
                    Normal sowing 50 kg/ac

                    Late sowing           60 kg/ac

          Vi)             Planting method
Line sowing with Rabi drill or ‘Kera’ method should be practiced.

Vii)             Fertilizer application (Kg/ac)                               

Type of soil (KG) Bags

N P K DAP UREA POT

POOR 52 46 25 2.0 1.75 1.0

MEDIUM 42 34 25 1.50 1.50 1.0

FERTILE 30 23 25 1.0 1.25 1.0

Note:- All the NPK fertilizer should be applied at the time of sowing in case of late
planting in December
(NP ratio 1.5:1 or 1:1).
Viii)     Weed control
                        Cultural         ‘Daab’ and double bar harrow.
                    Chemical       Same as mentioned earlier  for Cotton zone.

ix)       Irrigations

                        Four to five at critical stages of wheat plant growth.

STAGE NO OF DAYS AFTER SOWING

Crown root initiation 20-25

Jointing stage 50-58

Boot stage 90-105

24 | P a g e
 Pollination stage 110-120

Dough stage 125-135

III).     RICE ZONE
            Total wheat area          3.132 million acres
1. i)        Districts
Gujranwala, Hafizabad, Sheikhupura, Sialkot, Lahore and Kasur

1. ii)       Cropping pattern
Rice – wheat (Major), Potato – Wheat,      Sugarcane – wheat, Kharif Fodder/Maize
– Wheat, Mash –
Wheat, Sunflower – Kharif fodder – Wheat

iii)      Varieties
Inqilab-91, Pasban-90, Punjab 96, Auqab 2000,Iqbal 2000 and Durum 97 and
Chenab 2000.

1. iv)      Planting time

READ MORE:  Punjab fails to achieve wheat purchase target

November 10 to 25 for optimum yields; late planting should be completed by

December 15.

1. v)        Seed treatment and seed rate

Healthy and clean seed of recommended varieties should be used @ 50-60 Kg/ac.
Seed
should be treated with recommended systemic fungicides.

1. vi)      Planting method
Planting with automatic Rabi drill or zero tillage drill is recommended.

vii)     Fertilizer application
Depending upon the type of soil and fertility level as given in case of cotton zone.

viii)     Weed control
As mentioned in case of cotton zone.

1. ix)       Irrigations
Three irrigations at the following crop stages are enough depending upon rainfall.

1st irrigation 35-45 days after Sowing.

2nd irrigation          at boot stage.
3rd irrigation          at dough stage of grain formation.

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 Note:  Rainwater should not be allowed to stand in wheat field but be drained out to

low lying areas.

B- RAINFED ZONE

Total wheat area          1.770 million acres

1. i)         Districts
Rawalpindi, Attock, Jehlum, Chakwal, Narowal and Parts of Sialkot, Gujrat,Layyah,
D.G.Khan, Muzaffargarh, Bhakkar, Mianwali and Khushab.

1. ii)             Cropping Pattern
Wheat – Fallow – Wheat,     Wheat – Groundnut – Wheat, Wheat – Kharif fodder –
Wheat

iii)               Commercial varieties  
VARIETIES TIME OF PLANTING REMARKS

Chakwal-86 Oct.20 – Nov.15 For all Barani areas

Rawal-87 Oct.20 – Nov.15 For all Barani areas

Kohistan-97 Oct.20 – Nov.15 For all Barani areas

Chakwal-97 Oct.20 – Nov.15 For all Barani areas

Inqilab-91 NOV.01 – DEC.10 For high rainfall & partially irrigated b

1.  iv)             Seed treatment and seed rate
Healthy and clean seed of recommended varieties should be used

@ 40-50 Kg/ac. Seed should be treated with recommended systemic fungicide.

Note:  In case of low moisture soils, seed should be soaked in water for 8-10 hours
before sowing.
1. v)             Planting methods
Planting with Rabi drill, Pore or Kera should be practiced.

1. vi) Fertilizer application (Kg/Ac)

NNUAL RAINFALL (KG) Bags

N P K DAP UREA POTASH

OW RAINFALL 350 mm 23 23 25 1.0 0.75 1.0

EDIUM RAINFALL 350-500 mm 34 23 25 1.0 1.25 1.0

GH RAINFALL ABOVE 500mm 46 34 25 1.5 1.50 1.0

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 Note: All the fertilizer should be applied at the time of sowing

vii) Weeds:          
Chenopodium(Bathu), Medicago spp. (Maina) Lathyrus spp. (Matri), Asphodelus
tenuifolius
(Piazi), Carthamus oxycantha (Pohli) etc. All weeds be removed through mechanical
means/manual labour and can be used as fodder for live-stock. The Pre-emergence
weedicides can be used in barani area in  good moisture condition.

READ MORE:  230 wheat procurement centres set up

KEY POINTS FOR OBTAINING GOOD WHEAT CROP.

1. Proper seed bed preparation for crop growth and development. Moisture
preservation through
deep ploughing followed by Monsoon rains in Barani areas.
2. Use of pure and healthy seed of recommended varieties with seed rate of 50
kg/acre for normal
planting and 60 kg/acre for late planting.
3. Seed treatment with proper fungicides before planting increases yield by 5-
6%.
4. Planting must be completed by the end of November and for late planting upto
15th of December.
5. In Barani areas planting should be done with pore or automatic Rabi drill
whereas for irrigated areas
automatic Rabi drill should be preferred.
6. Use of phosphatic fertilizers along with nitrogen is very essential both under
irrigated and rain fed
conditions. The N:P ratio of 1:1 or 1.5:1 be maintained.
7. Application of Potash to the wheat crop on tubewell irrigated soils or sandy
type soils or crop sown
after rice, sugarcane etc is essential.
8. Late planting should be completed by 15 December and all fertilizers be
applied at planting time.
9. Irrigations to wheat at critical stages of crop growth be ensured viz; 12-18
days after germination,
at booting, milk and dough stages. In rice zone the first irrigation should be
applied 30-40 days after
germination.
10. Weed eradication through Daab, double bar harrow or spray of weedicides is
very important.
It should be practiced on vast areas in collaboration with extension services &
private herbicide companies.

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 11. In sick soils and in Barani areas planting of barley and Wadanak wheat should
be preferred. In partially
affected saline soils wheat variety Pasban-90 can be successfully grown.
12. Extension service and electronic media should be consulted for improved
wheat production.
13. Supply of inputs must be ensured before planting season at reasonable prices
and without adulteration.
14. Wheat varieties, Pasban 90, MH 97 and Uqab 2000 should not be sown in
northern parts of the
Punjab due to their moderately susceptible reaction against stripe rust.
 

WHEAT RESEARCH INSTITUTE FAISALABAD

Dr. Muhammad Aqil Khan

Director

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