EMC 4003

Turbomachinery

Lecture 6

Thermodynamics of fluid flow

through turbo machines

(Outcome 3)

Learning outcomes:
• Basic thermodynamic and fluid mechanics
• Sonic velocity and Mach number
• Work done and efficiencies of the compression process in compressors

1
 3.1 BASICS THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID MECHANICS:
DEFINITIONS OF EFFICIENCY
The equation of continuity

In case of a one-dimensional steady flows where the velocity and density are
regarded as constant across each section of a duct or passage. If An1 and An2 are
the flow areas at stations 1 and 2 along a passage respectively, then the mass flow
rate is
𝑚̇ = 𝜌! 𝑉! 𝐴"! = 𝜌# 𝑉# 𝐴"# = 𝜌𝑉𝐴"

since there is no accumulation of fluid within the control volume. Here 𝜌 is the
density of the fluid, 𝑉 is the component of the fluid velocity that is perpendicular to
the surface of area An.

Problem 1
Steam flows adiabatically at a rate 𝑚̇ = 0.01 kg/s through a
diffuser, shown in the figure, with inlet diameter D1 = 1.0
cm. Specific volume at the inlet v1 = 2.4 m3/kg. Exit
diameter is D2 = 2.5 cm, with specific volume at the outlet v2
= 3.8 m3/kg. Find the velocities of the steam at the inlet and
outlet of the diffuser. What is the purpose of a diffuser?

Answer: 𝑉! = 305.6 𝑚/𝑠; 𝑉# = 77.4 𝑚/𝑠

2
 The steady flow energy equation

The figure shows a control volume representing a turbomachine, through which fluid
passes at a steady rate of mass flow 𝑚̇ entering at position 1 and leaving at position
2.
Energy is transferred from the fluid to the blades of the turbomachine and positive
work being done (via the shaft) at the rate 𝑊̇ . In the general case 𝑄̇ is the rate of
heat transferred from the surroundings to the control volume.

Inputs in the system

𝑄̇ =rate of heat transferred to the system
!
#
𝑚̇𝑉!# = rate of kinetic energy of the fluid at the inlet
𝑚̇ℎ! =rate of enthalpy of the fluid at the inlet
𝑚̇𝑔𝑧! = rate of potential energy of the fluid at the inlet
Outputs of the system
𝑊̇ = power transferred out of the system
!
#
𝑚̇𝑉## = rate of kinetic energy of the fluid at the outlet
𝑚̇ℎ# =rate of enthalpy of the fluid at the outlet
𝑚̇𝑔𝑧# = rate of potential energy of the fluid at the outlet
Thus, with this sign convention the steady flow energy equation is
1 1
𝑄̇ + 𝑚̇𝑉!# + 𝑚̇ℎ! + 𝑚̇𝑔𝑧! = 𝑊̇ + 𝑚̇𝑉## + 𝑚̇ℎ# + 𝑚̇𝑔𝑧#
2 2
1 #
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ ;(ℎ# − ℎ! ) + (𝑉# − 𝑉!# ) + 𝑔(𝑧# − 𝑧! )>
2
where ℎ is the specific enthalpy and 𝑘𝑒 and 𝑝𝑒 are respectively the kinetic energy
and potential energy of the fluid per unit mass. This equation can be written for the
two states 1 and 2,
In this equation quantities can be expressed per unit mass as follows,
1
𝑞 − 𝑤 = (ℎ# − ℎ! ) + (𝑉## − 𝑉!# ) + 𝑔(𝑧# − 𝑧! )
2
where 𝑞 is the specific heat transferred [J/kg] and 𝑤 is the specific work [J/kg] done
by the machine. Apart from hydraulic machines, the contribution of the potential
energy is small and usually ignored. (∆𝑧 = 0)
Stagnation state (for 𝑧 = 0) is defined by the equations
1
ℎ$ = ℎ + 𝑉 # and 𝑠% = 𝑠
2
At a stagnation point the speed of the fluid is zero and all of the kinetic energy has
been converted to internal energy (adiabatically) and is added to the local static
enthalpy ℎ. Enthalpy ho is called the stagnation enthalpy.

3
If the fluid is an ideal gas and we assume that the specific heats have constant
values, we can express the stagnation enthalpy as follows.
1 1
ℎ$ = 𝐶& 𝑇% and ℎ$ = ℎ + 𝑉 # + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶& 𝑇 + 𝑉 # + 𝑔𝑧
2 2
We can use a stagnation temperature to express the stagnation enthalpy.
1
𝐶& 𝑇% = 𝐶& 𝑇 + 𝑉 # + 𝑔𝑧
2
1 𝑉 # 𝑔𝑧 1 𝑉#
𝑇% = 𝑇 + + or 𝑇% ≈ 𝑇 +
2 𝐶& 𝐶& 2 𝐶&
&
We denote by the stagnation pressure Mℎ = ' + 𝑢O
1
𝑝% = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 #
2

The transformation of the static state (𝑝, 𝑇) into a stagnation state (𝑝% , 𝑇% ) is a
reversible isentropic process. Hence we can write the equation of this process
( ()!
𝑝 𝑇 ()! 𝑇 𝑝 ( 𝑐&
=Q R and = Q R , where 𝑘 =
𝑝% 𝑇% 𝑇% 𝑝% 𝑐*

Example 1
Carbon dioxide at 300 K is flowing in a duct at a velocity of 1, 10, 100, 1000 m/s.
Determine the temperature that stationary probe inserted into the duct will read for
each case.(assumption: Cp is constant; Cp =845 J/kg.K)
Solution The definition of the stagnation point
# fixes to each static state in the flow a
1𝑉
𝑇% = 𝑇 + corresponding unique stagnation state.
V 2 𝐶&
1 300.0006 The stagnation state is arrived at by a
10 300.0592 thought experiment in which the flow is
100 305.9172 decelerated isentropically to zero
1000 891.716 velocity while it descends or ascends
_______________________________ to a reference elevation.
!
Assuming 𝑔(𝑧# − 𝑧! ) ≈ 0, we get ℎ$ = ℎ + # 𝑉 #
𝑣## − 𝑣!#
W𝑄̇+" − 𝑄̇$,- X + W𝑊̇+" − 𝑊̇$,- X = 𝑚̇ Yℎ# − ℎ! + [
2
1 1
W𝑄̇+" − 𝑄̇$,- X + W𝑊̇+" − 𝑊̇$,- X = 𝑚̇ ;Qℎ# + 𝑉## R − Qℎ! + 𝑉!# R> = 𝑚̇(ℎ%# − ℎ%! )
2 2
W𝑄̇+" − 𝑄̇$,- X + W𝑊̇+" − 𝑊̇$,- X = 𝑚̇(ℎ%# − ℎ%! )
Most turbomachinery flow processes are adiabatic (or very nearly so) and it is
allowed to write 𝑄̇ = 0.
𝑊̇+" − 𝑊̇$,- = 𝑚̇(ℎ%# − ℎ%! )
For work producing machines (turbines) 𝑊̇ > 0, so that
̇ = 𝑚̇(ℎ − ℎ )
𝑊̇ - = 𝑊̇$,- %! %#

For work absorbing machines (compressors) 𝑊̇ < 0, so that

𝑊̇. = 𝑊̇+" = 𝑚̇(ℎ%# − ℎ%! )

4
Example 2
For the diffuser given in problem 1 find the change in static enthalpy of the steam
flowing adiabatically (isentropic process) between sections 1 and 2, neglecting any
change in potential energy.
Solution
The steady flow energy equation states that
1
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇ ;(ℎ# − ℎ! ) + (𝑉## − 𝑉!# ) + 𝑔(𝑧# − 𝑧! )>
2
As the flow is isentropic (𝑄̇ = 0) and no work is done (𝑊̇ = 0) we can write
1
0 = 𝑚̇ ;∆ℎ + (𝑉## − 𝑉!# )>
2
The change in enthalpy is
1 1
∆ℎ = − (𝑉## − 𝑉!# ) = − (77.4# − 305.6# ) = 43.7 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2 2

Example 3
Air is compressed from 100 kPa and 250C to 600 kPa (stagnation values) by a
centrifugal compressor. Assuming an isentropic compression, determine the power
input to the compressor if the mass flow rate is 0.05 kg/s.(𝑐& = 1005 𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾; 𝑘 = 1.4)

Solution
Let us denote the inlet to the compressor by (1) and the outlet by (2), and assuming
isentropic compression, the work required is
𝑊̇. = −𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇(ℎ%# − ℎ%! ) = 𝑚̇W𝑐& 𝑇%# − 𝑐& 𝑇%! X
As the compression is isentropic,
( ()!
𝑝%! 𝑇%! ()! 𝑇%! 𝑝%! (
=Q R 𝑜𝑟 =Q R
𝑝%# 𝑇%# 𝑇%# 𝑝%#
𝑇%! 25 + 273
𝑇%# = ()! = !.0)! = 497.2 𝐾
𝑝%! ( 100 000 !.0
M𝑝 O M600 000O
%#

The power supplied to the compressor is

𝑊̇. = 𝑚̇W𝑐& 𝑇%# − 𝑐& 𝑇%! X = (0.05)(1005)(497.2 − 298) = 10 000𝑊 = 10 𝑘𝑊

5
The second law of thermodynamics – entropy

An important and useful corollary of the second law of thermodynamics, known as

the Inequality of Clausius, states that for a system passing through a cycle involving
heat exchanges,
𝑑𝑄
b ≤0
𝑇

where 𝑑𝑄 is an element of heat transferred to the system at an absolute temperature

T. If all the processes in the cycle are reversible then 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑄1 and the equality
holds true, i.e.
𝑑𝑄1
b =0
𝑇

The property called entropy, for a finite change of state, is then defined as
#
𝛿𝑄
𝑆# − 𝑆! = 𝑚(𝑠# − 𝑠! ) = f
𝑇
!
Here 𝑆# and 𝑆! are the entropies, and 𝑠# and 𝑠! are the specific entropies at states 2
and 1.
For a flow which is adiabatic 𝛿𝑄 = 0 and 𝑠# = 𝑠! . If the process is reversible as well
𝑠# = 𝑠! .
The ideal process will be one in which the entropy remains unchanged during the
process (the condition of isentropy). Processes that are both adiabatic and
internally reversible are isentropic processes.

Consider two processes of an ideal gas shown in T-s diagrams in the figure above.
The first one is a compression process and the second one is an expansion. The
entropy change in both cases is given by
𝑇# 𝑝#
𝑠# − 𝑠! = 𝑐& ln Q R − 𝑅 ln Q R
𝑇! 𝑝!
The process 1-2s is called isentropic. It occurs in particular when a process is
reversible and adiabatic. This means that there is no heat transfer to or from the fluid
(adiabatic process) and no internal heat generation due to friction (reversible process).

6
Properties of steam
It has been found that a useful way to present properties of steam is to construct a
chart, with entropy on the abscissa and temperature on the ordinate.
On the heavy line water exists as a saturated liquid on the descending part on the
left and as saturated vapor on the right.
Away from this vapor dome, on the right side is superheated vapor, that is to say
steam; and to the left, water exists as a compressed liquid.
The state at the top of the vapor dome is called a critical state, with pressure pc =
220.9 bar and temperature Tc = 374.14°C. At this condition entropy is sc = 4.4298
kJ/(kg . K) and enthalpy is hc = 2099.6 kJ/kg.
Below the vapor dome water exists as a two-phase mixture of saturated vapor and
saturated liquid. Such a state may exist in the last stages of a steam turbine where
the saturated steam is laden with water droplets. Temperature and pressure are not
independent properties in the two-phase region. To specify the thermodynamic state
in this region, a quality denoted by x is used. It is defined as the mass of vapor

divided by the mass of the mixture.

mass of vapor
𝑥=
mass of mixture
In terms of quality, thermodynamic properties of a two-phase mixture are calculated
as a weighted average of the saturation properties. Thus, for example
ℎ − ℎ2 ℎ − ℎ2 𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑠 − 𝑠2
𝑥= = and 𝑥 = =
ℎ3 − ℎ2 ℎ23 𝑠3 − 𝑠2 𝑠23
in which ℎ2 denotes the enthalpy of saturated liquid, ℎ3 that of saturated vapor. Their
difference is called as latent heat and is denoted by ℎ23 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 . Hence
ℎ = ℎ2 + 𝑥ℎ23 and 𝑠 = 𝑠2 + 𝑥𝑠23
and the specific volume is
𝑣 = 𝑣2 + 𝑥𝑣23
The amount of heat transferred to a fluid flowing at constant pressure, as it is
evaporated from its saturated liquid state to saturated vapor state, is
𝑞 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = ℎ23 = 𝑇W𝑠3 − 𝑠2 X = 𝑇𝑠23

7
Ideal gas
An ideal gas model assumes that internal energy is only a function of temperature
𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑇) and the equation of state relates pressure and specific volume to
temperature by
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
in which 𝑅 is an ideal gas constant. It follows that enthalpy for an ideal gas can be
written in the form
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑐* 𝑇 + 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑐* + 𝑅) = 𝑐& 𝑇,
and this shows that enthalpy is also a function of temperature only.
The specific heats at constant pressure cp and at constant volume cv are related by
𝑘𝑅 𝑅
𝑐& = and 𝑐* =
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
.!
where 𝑘 = ."
.

Incompressibility
A fluid is incompressible if its specific volume remains an absolute constant. If this
fluid has a reversible and adiabatic flow, there is no change in its internal energy and
the first law of thermodynamics states that
𝑝! 1 # 𝑝# 1
+ 𝑉! + 𝑔𝑧! = + 𝑉## + 𝑔𝑧# + 𝑤
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
where 𝑤 is the specific work done.

8
 DEFINITIONS OF EFFICIENCY

3.2 FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Nozzle efficiency
In a large number of turbomachinery components the flow process
can be regarded as a purely nozzle flow in which the fluid receives
an acceleration as a result of a drop of pressure.
Such a nozzle flow occurs at entry to all turbomachines and in the
stationary blade rows in turbines. In axial machines the expansion at entry is
assisted by a row of stationary blades (called guide vanes in compressors and
nozzles in turbines) which direct the fluid on to the rotor with a large swirl angle.
Centrifugal compressors and pumps, on the other hand, often have no such
provision in flow guidance but there still is a velocity increase obtained from a
contraction in entry flow area.

The purpose of a nozzle is to increase the velocity

of a flowing fluid.
Nozzles convert energy in the form of 𝑝𝑣 work into
kinetic energy. They are:
• Nearly adiabatic (𝑄̇ = 0)
• Involve no shaft work (𝑊̇ = 0)
• Result in little or no change in potential energy
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = 𝑚̇(ℎ%# − ℎ%! ) = 0
ℎ%# = ℎ%!
From the T-s or h-s diagram the maximum amount
of transformation will result when we have an
isentropic process between the pressures at the
entrance and exit of the nozzle. Such a process is
illustrated as the path 1–2s. Now, when nozzle flow
is accompanied by friction, the entropy will
increase. As a result, the path is curved as
illustrated by line 1–2. It is assumed that the process is steady.

The nozzle adiabatic efficiency or nozzle efficiency is defined as

1 #
Actual KE at exit 𝑉# ℎ%! − ℎ# 𝑇%! − 𝑇#
𝜂" = =2 = =
Isentropic KE at exit 1 # ℎ%! − ℎ#4 𝑇%! − 𝑇#4
2 𝑉#4

9
Example 4
Gas enters the nozzle of a turbine stage at a stagnation pressure and temperature of
4.0 bar and 1200 K. The gas leaves the nozzle with a velocity of 572 m/s and a static
pressure of 2.36 bar. Determine the nozzle efficiency assuming the gas has the
average properties over the temperature range of the expansion of 𝑐& = 1160 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙
𝐾 and 𝑘 = 1.33.
Solution
5
Given: 𝑝%! = 4.0 𝑏𝑎𝑟; 𝑇%! = 1200 𝐾; 𝑉# = 572 4 ; 𝑝# = 2.36 𝑏𝑎𝑟. 𝐶& = 1160 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾;
𝑘 = 1.33
The nozzle efficiency is
1 # 1 #
2 𝑉# 2 𝑉#
𝜂" = =
ℎ%! − ℎ#4 𝐶& (𝑇%! − 𝑇#4 )
The flow in the nozzle is assumed to be adiabatic, hence ℎ%! = ℎ%# and 𝑇%! = 𝑇%# .
The process from state 01 to state 2s is isentropic and 𝑃# = 𝑃#4 .
()!
𝑇#4 𝑃# (
=Q R
𝑇%! 𝑃%!
()! !.66)!
𝑃# ( 2.36 !.66
𝑇#4 = 𝑇%! Q R = (1200) Q R = 1052.4 𝐾
𝑃%! 4.0
1
(572# )
𝜂" = 2 = 0.955
(1160)(1200 − 1052.4)

Problem 2
Steam from a steam chest (𝑉! ≅ 0) of a single-stage turbine with the enthalpy ℎ! =
3359.16 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and negligible velocity expands reversibly and adiabatically through a
nozzle to the enthalpy ℎ# = 3039.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. Find the velocity of the steam at the exit
knowing that the work done in a nozzle is zero and also find the efficiency of the
nozzle. Assume that the steam velocity at the steam chest is negligible.
5
Answer: 𝑉# = 800 4 ; 𝜂 = 100%

10
Compressible flow in nozzles - Mach number and the speed of sound

Sound is a weak pressure wave. It can travel through a gas having pressure 𝑝 and
absolute temperature 𝑇 with a velocity 𝑐 that is expressed by
𝑝
𝑐 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = •𝑘
𝜌
7
For air 𝑅 = 287 (3.8 , 𝑘 = 1.4 the speed of sound at 𝑇 = 300 𝐾 is 𝑐 = 347 m/s.
Mach number is defined as the ratio of the Mach number Type of flow
local fluid velocity and the local sound 𝑀𝑎 < 0.8 Subsonic flow
speed. 1.2 < 𝑀𝑎 < 5 Supersonic flow
𝑉
𝑀𝑎 = 5 < 𝑀𝑎 < 10 Hypersonic flow
𝑐 0.8 < 𝑀𝑎 < 1.2 Transonic flow

Mach number relations

A gas at the stagnation state has the parameters 𝑝% , 𝑇% , 𝜌% corresponding to the static
parameters 𝑝, 𝑇, 𝜌. They are related by the relations
( ()! !
𝑝% 𝑇% ()! 𝑇% 𝑝% ( 𝜌% 𝑇% ()!
=Q R or = Q R and = Q R
𝑝 𝑇 𝑇 𝑝 𝜌 𝑇
The stagnation state parameters can be expresses as
non-dimensional ratios with respect to the Mach number.
𝑇% 𝑘−1
=1+ 𝑀𝑎#
𝑇 2
(
𝑝% 𝑘−1 ()!
= Q1 + 𝑀𝑎# R
𝑝 2
The throat of a nozzle is that cross section where Ma=1.
The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach
number is unity (the throat) are called critical properties,
and the ratios are called critical ratios. It is common
practice in the analysis of compressible flow to let the
superscript asterisk (*) represent the critical values.

11
Example 5
At a certain location in a flow of air static pressure has been
measured to be 𝑝 = 2.4 bar and stagnation pressure, 𝑝% = 3
bar. Measurement of the stagnation temperature shows it to be
𝑇% = 400 K. Find Mach number and flow rate per unit area.
Take k=1.4, R=287 J/kg.K, cp =1005 J/kg.K
Solution
If we can evaluate the sound speed at temperature T, we can determine the flow
velocity.
𝑐 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
The process from the static state to the stagnation state is isentropic. Hence we can
write
()!
𝑇 𝑝 (
= Q R
𝑇$ 𝑝%
()! !.0)!
𝑝 ( 2.4 !.0
𝑇 = 𝑇% Q R = (400) Q R = 375.29 𝐾
𝑝% 3
𝑐 = „(1.4)(287)(375.29) = 388.32 𝑚/𝑠

The flow speed can be found from the static and stagnation values of the
temperature.
1 #
𝑇% = 𝑇 + 𝑉
2𝐶&
𝑉 = …2𝐶& (𝑇% − 𝑇) = „(2)(1005)(400 − 375.29) = 222.86 𝑚/𝑠
The Mach number can be now evaluated,
𝑉 222.86
𝑀𝑎 = = = 0.574
𝑐 388.32
The flow rate per unit area is
𝑄
= 𝑉 = 222.86 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴
Problem 3
At a certain location in a nozzle air flows at a static pressure equal to 𝑝 = 3.8 bar and
a stagnation pressure, 𝑝% = 4.25 bar. Measurement of the stagnation temperature
shows it to be 𝑇% = 380 K. Find Mach number and flow rate per unit area. 𝑐& =
1160 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾, 𝑘 = 1.33.
Answer: Ma=0.413; V=155.4 m/s

12
Isentropic flow with area change

Consider a one-dimensional isentropic

gas flow in a converging-diverging nozzle
as shown in the figure.
The mass flow rate is constant,
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉𝐴
If we differentiate this equation, we get
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴
+ + =0
𝜌 𝑉 𝐴
The change in density is related to Mach number. Hence the change in flow velocity
and change in cross-sectional area will be related to Mach number by
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴
(𝑀𝑎# − 1) =
𝑉 𝐴
𝑀𝑎 < 1 (subsonic flow): an increase in area decreases the flow velocity. Thus walls
of a subsonic diffuser diverge downstream the throat.
𝑀𝑎 > 1 (supersonic flow): an decrease in area decreases the flow velocity
(diffusion).
Since a nozzle increases the flow velocity,
• nozzles working in a subsonic regime will have a decreasing area and
• nozzles working in a supersonic regime will have an increasing area.

In a continuously accelerating flow, 𝑑𝑉 > 0. At the throat, 𝑑𝐴 = 0 and 𝑀𝑎 = 1. To

keep the accelerated motion to a supersonic speed, the cross-sectional area of the
nozzle must increase downstream the throat. This nozzle is called a converging-
diverging nozzle (Laval nozzle).
Assumptions made: the flow is steady and one-dimensional.

Example 6
Air flows through a circular duct of diameter D = 10 cm at the rate of 𝑚̇ = 1.5 kg/s. At
a certain location, static pressure is p = 120 kPa and static temperature is T = 300 K.
At this location, find the values for (a) static density, (b) velocity and (c) Mach
number. R=287 J/kg.K, k=1.4.
Solution
(a) The cross-sectional area of the circular duct is
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴 = 𝐷# = (0.1)# = 0.00785 𝑚#
4 4
The static density can be found through the state equation of air at the given
location.
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝑝 120000
𝜌= = = 1.394 𝑘𝑔/𝑚6
𝑅𝑇 (287)(300)
(b) The mass flow rate is given by
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
We can evaluate the air velocity,
𝑚̇ 1.5
𝑉= = = 137 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝐴 (1.394)(0.00785)
(c) The sound speed at the given static temperature is
𝑐 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = „(1.4)(287)(300) = 347.19 𝑚/𝑠

13
This will give the Mach number.
𝑉 137
𝑀𝑎 = = = 0.395 < 1
𝑐 347.19
The flow is subsonic.

3.3 FLOW THROUGH DIFFUSERS

Diffuser efficiency

• The purpose of diffusion or deceleration is to convert the maximum possible

kinetic energy into pressure energy.
• The diffusion is difficult to achieve and is rightly regarded as one of the main
problems of turbomachinery design.

• This problem is due to the growth of boundary layers and the separation of the
fluid molecules from the diverging part of the diffuser. If the rate of diffusion is too
rapid, large losses in stagnation pressure are inevitable.

Diffuser efficiency is defined as

Isentropic enthalpy rise ℎ#4 − ℎ!
𝜂9 = =
Actual enthalpy rise ℎ# − ℎ!

The diffuser efficiency can be expressed in terms of static and stagnation pressures
of the fluid at the diffuser inlet and outlet, if constant specific heats are considered for
ideal gases.
𝑇#4 − 𝑇!
𝜂9 =
𝑇# − 𝑇!

14
Problem 4
Air at 10°C and 80 kPa (static values) enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with
a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the
diffuser with a velocity of 40 m/s.
Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the air, and (b) the temperature of the air leaving
the diffuser. Assume that 𝑐& = 1005 𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾; 𝑘 = 1.4.
Step 1. Use the state equation of the air at the inlet to evaluate the air density.

Step 2. Evaluate the mass flow rate of air.

Step 3. Use the stagnation enthalpies at the diffuser inlet and outlet to evaluate the
exit static air temperature.

(3
Answer: 𝑚̇ = 78.8 4
; 𝑇# = 302.1𝐾

15
Problem 5
Air at 80 kPa and 127°C (static values) enters an adiabatic diffuser steadily at a rate
of 6000 kg/h and leaves at 100 kPa. The velocity of the airstream is decreased from
250 to 30 m/s as it passes through the diffuser. Find (a) the Mach number at the
inlet, (b) the exit temperature of the air and (c) the diffuser efficiency.
𝑐& = 1005 𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾; 𝑘 = 1.4. R=287 J/kg.K
Answer: a) 0.624; b) 430.64 K; c) 0.859;

16
 EMC 4003

Turbomachinery

Lecture 7

Thermodynamics of fluid flow

through turbo machines

(Outcome 3)

Learning outcomes:
• Work done and efficiencies of the expansion process in turbines

17
 3.4 WORK DONE BY STEAM AND GAS TURBINES AND THEIR
EFFICIENCIES
The figure shows a Mollier diagram representing the
expansion process through an adiabatic turbine. Line 1-2
represents the actual expansion and line 1-2s the ideal or
reversible expansion.

The fluid velocities at entry to and at exit from a turbine

may be quite high and the corresponding kinetic energies
may be significant. On the other hand, for a compressible
fluid the potential energy terms are usually negligible.

Hence the actual turbine rotor specific work

𝑊̇ 1
𝑤= = ℎ%! − ℎ%# = (ℎ! − ℎ# ) + (𝑉!# − 𝑉## )
𝑚̇ 2
The ideal turbine rotor specific work between same two pressures is
𝑊̇ 1
𝑤5:; = = ℎ%! − ℎ%#4 = (ℎ! − ℎ#4 ) + (𝑉!# − 𝑉#4
#)
𝑚̇ 2

In the Mollier diagrams the actual turbine work/unit mass of fluid is the stagnation
enthalpy change between state points 01 and 02 which lie on the stagnation
pressure lines p01 and p02 respectively. The ideal turbine work per unit mass of fluid
is the stagnation enthalpy change during the isentropic process between the same
! #
two pressures. The kinetic energy of the fluid at the end of the ideal process # 𝑉#4 is
!
not, however, the same as that at the end of the actual process # 𝑉## .
• There are several ways of expressing efficiency, the choice of definition
depending largely upon whether the exit kinetic energy is usefully employed or is
wasted.

1) An example where the exhaust kinetic energy is not wasted is from one stage of
a multistage turbine where it is used in the next stage. For this case the stage
adiabatic efficiency 𝜂-- is the total-to-total efficiency and is defined as

𝑤 ℎ%! − ℎ%#
𝜂-- = =
𝑤5:; ℎ%! − ℎ%#4
2) When the exhaust kinetic energy is entirely wasted, the relevant adiabatic
efficiency is the total-to-static efficiency 𝜂-4 . In this case the ideal turbine work is
that obtained between state points 01 and 2s. Thus
ℎ%! − ℎ%# ℎ%! − ℎ%#
𝜂-4 = =
1 #
ℎ%! − ℎ%#4 + 2 𝑉#4 ℎ%! − ℎ#4

18
Example 7

Steam enters an adiabatic multistage turbine with the enthalpy h1 = 3447.8 kJ/kg and
velocity 50 m/s. It leaves the turbine with the enthalpy h2 = 2645.0 kJ/kg and velocity
200 m/s. Had the flow been isentropic, the enthalpy would be 2309.9 kJ/kg at the
exit. Find the total-to-total efficiency, total-to-static efficiency, and the actual specific
work done. Assume that 𝑉# ≈ 𝑉#4 .
Solution

Step 1. Finding the stagnation enthalpies

1 1
ℎ%! = ℎ! + 𝑉!# = (3447.8)(106 ) + 50# = 3449.1 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2 2
1 1
ℎ%# = ℎ# + 𝑉## = (2645)(106 ) + 200# = 2665 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2 2
1 # 1
ℎ%#4 = ℎ#4 + 𝑉#4 = (2309.9)(106 ) + 200# = 2329.9 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
2 2
It was assumed that 𝑉# ≈ 𝑉#4 .
Step 2. Evaluating the efficiencies
The total-to-total efficiency
ℎ%! − ℎ%# 3449.1 − 2665
𝜂-- = = = 0.7006
ℎ%! − ℎ%#4 3449.1 − 2329.9
The total-to-static efficiency
ℎ%! − ℎ%# ℎ%! − ℎ%# 3449.1 − 2665
𝜂-4 = = = = 0.6883
1 # ℎ − ℎ 3449.1 − 2309.9
ℎ%! − ℎ%#4 + 2 𝑉#4 %! #4

Step 3. Computing the actual specific work done

𝑊̇
𝑤= = ℎ%! − ℎ%# = 3449.1 − 2665 = 784.1 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇

19
Example 8
The inlet stagnation temperature to a multistage gas turbine is 1400 K, and the inlet
&
stagnation pressure is 1000 kPa. The stagnation pressure ratio &#$ = 10, and the
#%
total-to-total efficiency of the turbine is 0.89. Assuming that gases flowing through
the turbine have 𝑘 = 4/3 , 𝑐& = 1.148 kJ/kg.K and R = 287 J/(kg • K), find the loss of
specific stagnation enthalpy ℎ%# − ℎ%#4 during the non-isentropic expansion
assuming constant specific heats.
Solution
We need to evaluate ℎ%# − ℎ%#4 that can be expressed in terms of stagnation
temperatures.
ℎ%# − ℎ%#4 = 𝑐& (𝑇%# − 𝑇%#4 )
The isentropic stagnation temperature at the turbine outlet can be evaluated by the
process equation.
()!
𝑇%#4 𝑃%# (
=Q R
𝑇%! 𝑃%!
()! 0/6)!
𝑃%# ( 1 0/6
𝑇%#4 = 𝑇%! Q R = 1400 Q R = 787.28 𝐾
𝑃%! 10
The actual stagnation temperature at the turbine outlet is given by the total-to-total
efficiency of the turbine.
ℎ%! − ℎ%# 𝑇%! − 𝑇%#
𝜂-- = =
ℎ%! − ℎ%#4 𝑇%! − 𝑇%#4
𝑇%# = 𝑇%! − 𝜂-- (𝑇%! − 𝑇%#4 ) = 1400 − 0.89(1400 − 787.28) = 854.68 𝐾
Therefore
ℎ%# − ℎ%#4 = 𝑐& (𝑇%# − 𝑇%#4 ) = (1.148)(854.68 − 787.28) = 77.37 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Problem 6
Air enters a multistage turbine at a stagnation temperature 1250 K and a stagnation
pressure of 11 bar. The stagnation pressure at the outlet is 1.2 bar. The total-to-total
efficiency of the turbine is 0.88. Assuming that gases flowing through the turbine
have 𝑘 = 4/3 and R = 287 J/(kg • K), find the loss of specific enthalpy ℎ%# − ℎ%#4
during the non-isentropic expansion assuming constant specific heat 𝑐& =
1.148 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾. What fraction of the inlet stagnation enthalpy is that loss?
Answer: 73.2 kJ/kg; 5.1%

20
Example 9
Steam enters a stage of an adiabatic multistage turbine at static pressure of 80 bar,
static temperature 500°C, and velocity 50 m/s. It leaves the stage at pressure 0.5
bar, temperature 100° C, and velocity 200 m/s. Find the total-to-total efficiency, total-
to-static efficiency, and the specific work done.

Using steam tables static enthalpy and entropy

of steam at the inlet and exit are
ℎ! = 3399.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔,
𝑠! = 𝒔𝟐𝒔 = 6.7266 𝑘𝐽/(𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾)
ℎ# = 2682.4 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔,
From the steam tables we get the entropy and
the enthalpy of the saturated liquid and
saturated vapor at the outlet at the pressure
0.5 bar:
𝑠2 = 1.0912 kJ/(kg. K) ,
𝑠23 = 6.5019 kJ/(kg. K kJ/(kg∙K); ℎ2 = 340.54 kJ/kg; ℎ23 = 2304.7 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Stagnation enthalpies are
! !
ℎ%! = ℎ! + # 𝑉!# = 3399.5 ∙ 106 + # 50# = 3400.75 kJ/kg
! !
ℎ%# = ℎ# + # 𝑉## = 2682.4 ∙ 106 + # 200# = 2702.4 kJ/kg

State 2s
𝑠#4 − 𝑠2 6.7266 − 1.0912
𝑥= = = 0.867
𝑠23 6.5019

ℎ#4 = ℎ2 + 𝑥ℎ23 = 340.54 + (0.867)(2304.7) = 2338.71 kJ/kg

! !
ℎ%#4 = ℎ#4 + # 𝑉## = 2338.71 ∙ 106 + # 200# = 2358.71 kJ/kg

The total-to-total efficiency is

ℎ%! − ℎ%# 3400.75 − 2702.4
𝜂-- = = = 0.67 = 67%
ℎ%! − ℎ%#4 3400.75 − 2358.71
ℎ%! − ℎ%# 3400.75 − 2702.4
𝜂-4 = = = 0.657 = 65.7%
ℎ%! − ℎ#4 3400.75 − 2338.71
The specific work done
𝑤 = ℎ%! − ℎ%# = 3400.75 − 2702.4 = 698.35 kJ/kg

21
Problem 7

Steam enters a turbine at a static pressure of 4.5 MPa, a static temperature of 500
℃ and a velocity of 200 m/s. At the turbine exit, the static pressure is 100 kPa, static
temperature is 150℃ and the velocity is 200 m/s. Neglecting the heat transfer during
the expansion process, calculate: (a) the total-to-total efficiency, (b) the total-to-static
efficiency, (c) the specific work done by the fluid, (d) the enthalpy loss in the turbine,
(e) the change in entropy of the expansion process due to the irreversibilities.

Answers: (a) 74.8%; b) 73.2%; c) 663.8 kJ/kg; d) 223.37 kJ/kg, e) 0.583 kJ/kg.K

22
 Efficiency of compressors and pumps
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is
defined as
useful energy input per unit of time
𝜂. =
power input to rotor

The power input to the rotor (or impeller) is always

less than the power supplied at the coupling
because of external energy losses in the bearings
and glands, etc. Thus, the overall efficiency of the
compressor or pump is

useful energy input per unit of time

𝜂$ =
power input to coupling of shaft
Hence the mechanical efficiency is
𝜂$
𝜂5 = or 𝜂$ = 𝜂5 𝜂.
𝜂.
We consider the compression process of a gas in a Mollier diagram. The actual
compression process is represented by the state change 1-2 and the corresponding
ideal process by 1-2s. For an adiabatic compressor the only meaningful efficiency is
the total-to-total efficiency which is

"#$%&'()*+ -('. 3!"# 43!$ 5!"# 45!$

𝜂! = /+&012 -('.
= 3!" 43!$
= 5!" 45!$

Small stage efficiency

The energy transfer in turbomachinery is established
by means of the stages. A turbomachinery stage
comprises a row of fixed, guide vanes called stator
blades, and a row of rotating blades termed rotor.
In a compressor, stages are used to partially convert
the mechanical energy into potential energy by rising
the pressure of the flowing fluid. The relative motion of
the blades to the fluid adds velocity or pressure or both
to the fluid as it passes through the rotor. The fluid
velocity is increased through the rotor, and the stator
converts kinetic energy to pressure energy. Some
diffusion also occurs in the rotor in most practical designs. The increase in velocity of
the fluid is primarily in the tangential direction (swirl) and the stator removes this
angular momentum.

The pressure rise results in a stagnation temperature rise.

23
In a turbine, a set of static guide vanes or nozzles accelerates the fluid and directs it
to the next row of turbine blades mounted on the turbine rotor.

• Isentropic efficiency as described previously can be misleading if used for

compression and expansion processes in several stages. Turbomachines may be
used in large numbers of very small stages irrespective of the actual number of
stages in the machine.
• If each small stage has the same efficiency, then the isentropic efficiency of the
whole machine will be different from the small stage efficiency, and this difference
is dependent upon the pressure ratio of the machine.

This has led to the concept of polytropic efficiency which is defined as the
isentropic efficiency of a small stage in the process such that it is constant
throughout the entire process.

The isentropic efficiency has one significant drawback in that there is no way to
separate the fluid dynamic losses from the total (fluid dynamic + thermodynamic)
losses. This means that devices having different pressure ratios will have different
isentropic efficiencies even though they may both be of similar fluid dynamic quality.
An example would be two compressors of different pressure ratios. The higher
pressure ratio compressor will have a lower isentropic efficiency because of
thermodynamic losses. This property can make it difficult to comparatively evaluate
different compressor designs. A similar argument applies to turbine design.

24
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