BBA-103 PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING

UNIT - 1  Factorial Notation

 The Fundamental Counting Principle

1  Mathematical Induction

 Sequence and Series

 Concept of Function
 MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION
2
 DEFINITION: MATHEMATICAL
INDUCTION
Mathematical induction is a legitimate method of proof
for all positive integers n.

 Principle:
Let Pn be a statement involving n, a positive integer. If

1. P1 is true, and

2. the truth of Pk implies the truth of Pk + 1

for every positive k, then Pn must be true for all positive

3
integers n.
 EXAMPLE: FIND PK+1

 Example:
3(2k  1)
Pk : Sk  .
k 1

 Find Pk + 1 for
3[2(k  1)  1] Replace k by k + 1.
Pk 1 : Sk 1 
k 1 1
3(2k  2  1)
 Simplify.
k
3(2k  3)
 Simplify. 4
k
 EXAMPLE: USING INDUCTION TO
PROVE A SUMMATION
Example:
Use mathematical induction to prove
Sn = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + . . . + 2n = n(n + 1)
for every positive integer n.

Show that the formula is true when n = 1.

S1 = n(n + 1) = 1(1 + 1) = 2 True

Assume the formula is valid for some integer k. Use this assumption to prove
the formula is valid for the next integer, k + 1 and show that the formula
Sk + 1 = (k + 1)(k + 2) is true.
Sk = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + . . . + 2k = k(k + 1) Assumption 5
 EXAMPLE CONTINUED
Sk + 1 = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + . . . + 2k + [2(k + 1)]
= 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + . . . + 2k + (2k + 2)
= Sk + (2k + 2) Group terms to form Sk.
= k(k + 1) + (2k + 2) Replace Sk by k(k + 1).
= k2 + k + 2k + 2 .
Simplify
= k2 + 3k + 2
= (k + 1)(k + 2)
= (k + 1)((k + 1)+1)

The formula Sn = n(n + 1) is valid for all positive integer values of 6

n.
 SUMS OF POWERS OF INTEGERS
Sums of Powers of Integers :
n
n(n  1)
1.  i  1  2  3  4   n 
i 1
2
n
n(n  1)(2n  1)
2.  i
i 1
2
 12
 2 2
 32
 4 2
  n2 
6
n 2
 2


n (n 1)
3. i 3
 13
 23
 33
 43
  n3 
i 1
4
n
  2
 3n  1)

n(n 1)(2n 1)(3n
4. i 4
 14
 2 4
 34
 4 4
 n 
4

i 1
30
7
n 2
 2 2
 2n  1)

n (n 1) (2n
5. i 5
 15
 25
 35
 45
 n 
5

i 1
12
 EXAMPLE: USING INDUCTION TO
PROVE SUM OF POWER
n
n(n  1)(2n  1)
 i 2

i 1
 12
 2 2
 32
 4 2
  n2 
6
.

(  1)(2(1)  1) 1(2)(2  1) 6
11
S1    1 True
6 6 6
k (k  1)(2k  1)
Sk  1  2  3  4   k 
2 2 2 2 2
Assumption
6
Sk 1  12  22  32  42   k 2  (k  1)2
 Sk  (k  1) 2
 Sk  k 2  2k  1 Group terms to form Sk.
8
k (k  1)(2k  1)
  k 2  2k  1 Replace Sk by k(k + 1).
6
  2k 3
 3k 2
 k  6k 2
 12k  6 Simplify
6 6
 2k 3
 9k 2
 13k  6
6
(k 2  3k  2)(2k  3)

6
(k  1)(k  2)(2k  3)

6
(k  1)[(k  1)  1][2(k  1)  1]

6
The formula Sn  n(n  1)(2n  1) is valid for all positive 9
6
integer values of n.
 FINITE DIFFERENCES

n: 1 2 3 4 5 6
an: 1 4 9 16 25 36
First
differences: 3 5 7 9 11

Second 2 2 2 2
differences:
Quadratic Model

10
Finite Differences

 The first differences of the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, 25,

36 are found by subtracting consecutive terms.

 The second differences are found by subtracting

consecutive first differences.

11
 QUADRATIC MODELS

When the second differences are all the same nonzero

number, the sequence has a perfect quadratic model.
Find the quadratic model for the sequence
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, . . .
an = an2 + bn + c
a1 = a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 1 a+ b+c=1
a2 = a(2)2 + b(2) + c = 4 4a + 2b + c = 4
a3 = a(3)2 + b(3) + c = 9 9a + 3b + c = 9
Solving the system yields a = 1, b = 0, and c = 0.
12
an = n2
 EXAMPLE: FIND THE
QUADRATIC MODEL
Example: Find the quadratic model for the sequence with
a0 = 3, a1 = 3, a4 = 15.
an = an2 + bn + c
a0 = a(0)2 + b(0) + c = 3
a1 = a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 3
a4 = a(4)2 + b(4) + c = 15
c= 3 Solving the system
a+ b+ c= 3 yields a = 1, b = –1,
16a + 4b + c = 15 and c = 3. 13

an = n2 – n + 3