Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251

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Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

Mango pectin quality as influenced by cultivar, ripeness, peel particle

size, blanching, drying, and irradiation
Christian Hubert Geerkens a, Andreas Nagel a, Kathrin Meike Just a, Petra Miller-Rostek a,
Dietmar Rolf Kammerer b, Ralf Martin Schweiggert a, *, Reinhold Carle a, c
a
University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology, Chair Plant Foodstuff Technology and Analysis, Garbenstrasse 25, 70599 Stuttgart,
Germany
b
WALA Heilmittel GmbH, Department of Analytical Development & Research, Section Phytochemical Research, Dorfstrasse 1, 73087 Bad Boll/Eckwa €lden,
Germany
c
King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Science, Biological Science Department, P. O. Box 80257, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Industrial recovery and application of valuable mango (Mangifera indica L.) peel constituents, such as
Received 26 January 2015 dietary fiber and pectins, require the conversion of the yet under-utilized and highly perishable by-
Received in revised form product into a stable commodity. Focusing on efficient pectin recovery, the impact of different culti-
20 April 2015
vars and ripeness degrees as well as various technological procedures on pectin quality by affecting
Accepted 2 May 2015
pectin yield, molecular size distribution of pectic polymers, galacturonic acid content, degree of esteri-
Available online xxx
fication, and content of interfering substances was analyzed. Cultivar and ripeness degree revealed a
significant effect on pectin quality. Preservation processes, i.e. oven drying and lyophilization each with
Keywords:
Galacturonic acid
and without previous blanching of integral fruits as well as gamma irradiation, notably influenced the
Neutral sugar quality of the obtained pectin. Blanching prior to drying reduced arabinogalactan and ash impurities,
Molecular weight distribution whereas galacturonic acid contents were increased. Most importantly, grinding of dried mango peels to
Gel obtain a particle size of ca. 42 mm (d43) significantly enhanced both extraction yield (þ70%) and gal-
Dietary fiber acturonic acid content (þ20%) without increasing the contents of the above mentioned impurities as
Mangifera indica L. compared to a peel particle size of 10 mm. Mango pectin produced from such peel powders with a
small particle size (120 mm) improved breaking and sugar binding capacities as well as gelling units (up
to 5476 GU). The production of mango peel pectin and its applications were favored by implementing the
proposed procedures into the valorization cascade of mango peels.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Due to its savory taste and high nutritive value (Tharanathan,
Yashoda, & Prabha, 2006), worldwide mango (Mangifera indica L.)
production has continuously increased to 46.7 million mt in 2012
(FAOSTAT, 2014). Besides their sale on fresh markets, value added
mango products such as juice, canned pulp, and chutneys are
produced at industrial scale. The accruing by-products, i.e. the
stones and peels, often generate a major disposal problem for
producers. While the fat of the stones can be recovered and utilized
as cocoa butter equivalent up to a maximum of 5% in certain EU
member states (Directive 2000/36/EC), a valorization process for
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 (0) 711 459 22995; fax: þ49 (0) 711 459 24110.
E-mail address: ralf.schweiggert@uni-hohenheim.de (R.M. Schweiggert).
the peels is still urgently needed. The recovery of valuable phyto-
chemicals, such as flavonol glycosides, monoterpenes, alkylre-
sorcinols, and, most importantly, mango pectin, has been proposed
previously (Neidhart, Sirisakulwat, Nagel, Sruamsiri, & Carle, 2009;
Schieber, Stintzing, & Carle, 2001; Sirisakulwat, Nagel, Sruamsiri,
Carle, & Neidhart, 2008). The high content in such valuable bio-
actives and techno-functional compounds as well as their excellent
digestibility has been shown in numerous studies (Engels et al.,
2009; Geerkens et al., 2013; Geerkens, Matejka, Carle, &
Schweiggert, 2015; Larrauri, Rupe rez, Borroto, & Saura-Calixto,
1996; Schieber et al., 2001), thus making mango peels a prom-
ising target for commercial valorization (Nagel, Neidhart, et al.,
2014; Panouille , Ralet, Bonnin, & Thibault, 2009). However, after
producing the primary mango product, e.g., juice or puree, the wet
peels are highly perishable and prone to microbial spoilage
and endogenic enzymatic degradation reactions. In particular,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.05.022
0268-005X/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
242 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251
endo- (EC 3.2.1.15) and exo-polygalacturonases (EC 3.2.1.67) as well
as pectin methyl esterases (EC 3.1.1.11) represent a serious obstacle
for pectin recovery, unless these deteriorative enzymes are inacti-
vated (Ali, Chin, & Lazan, 2004). Although Sirisakulwat, Sruamsiri,
Carle, and Neidhart (2010) reported only insignificant degrada-
tion of the mango peel pectin within 5 h after peeling, middle- and
long-term storage of the peels is impeded due to enzymatic decay
and microbial spoilage. Hence, post-processing treatments preser-
ving the peels and retaining their valuable constituents were pre-
viously recommended (Sirisakulwat et al., 2008). In the EU, the
galacturonic acid content of food grade pectins shall be not less
than 65% according to EU regulation No 231/2012. While pectins
obtained from citrus peel and apple pomace commonly meet this
requirement, lower galacturonic acid levels are important quality
defects of mango “pectin”. In contrast to food use, there are no
regulations for feed use (Regulation 68/2013/EU). However, the
application of modified technological procedures has previously
been shown to afford galacturonic acid contents greater than 65%
(Nagel, Neidhart, et al., 2014).
The first objective of the present study was the stabilization of
wet peels by blanching the integral fruits and subsequent drying
of the manually obtained peels. By these means, inactivation of
pectin-degrading enzymes and prevention of microbial decay
should be achieved. Furthermore, the influence of peel particle
size reduction for pectin extraction on pectin quality and yield
should be analyzed. In addition to blanching, drying, and particle
size reduction, the effect of gamma irradiation on mango peel
pectin was analyzed, since India is obliged to irradiate fresh
mango fruits destined for the US market in order to extend their
shelf-life and improve their phytosanitary status (Alothman,
Bhat, & Karim, 2009). Moreover, gamma irradiation may exert
potential effects on chemical and physical product properties
(Chung & Liu, 2009). Beyond investigating the influence of tech-
nological procedures, pectin quality and yield from peels of three
monoembryonic and a polyembryonic cultivar was compared.
Peels from two of these cultivars were obtained in unripe and ripe
condition in order to elucidate the effect of fruit ripeness on
pectin quality and yield. The chemical and techno-functional
properties of all pectins obtained were characterized in detail.
Carbohydrate composition including contents of galacturonic and
glucuronic acid and seven neutral sugars was analyzed. Further-
more, the degree of esterification (DE), molecular weight distri-
bution, and gelling properties were analyzed. Besides pectin, the
total dietary fiber content of the peels was examined, since
mango peels were previously shown to contain valuable amounts
of total dietary fiber (Ajila & Prasada Rao, 2013; Nagel, Neidhart,
et al., 2014).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw material and chemicals
Mimicking industrial pectin extraction by processing fruits of
different ripeness degrees, mangoes (M. indica L.) of the cultivars
Tommy Atkins, Kent, Palmer, and Nam Dokmai were purchased
from a local market in Stuttgart, Germany having different matu-
rity, and stored at 13  C until processing. Peels of cv. Kaew were
obtained from Chiang Mai (Thailand), while peels of cv. Totapuri
were from Uttar Pradesh (India) and stored in sealed vacuum bags
at the University of Hohenheim until used.
The neutral sugar reference standards L-(þ)-arabinose, L-
()-fucose, D-(þ)-glucose, D-(þ)-galactose, D-(þ)-mannose, L-
(þ)-rhamnose, and D-(þ)-xylose, and the uronic acids D-(þ)-gal-
acturonic acid and D-(þ)-glucuronic acid were purchased from
SigmaeAldrich (Steinheim, Germany). The dietary fiber test kit
Bioquant® was from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). 2-(N-morpho-
lino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES) was from VWR International
(Darmstadt, Germany), and 2-amino-2-hydroxymethyl-propane-
1,3-diol (TRIS) was obtained from Pharmacia Biotech AG (Uppsala,
Sweden). Sodium hydroxide solution (50%, w/w) was from J.T.
Baker (Avantor Performance Materials, Griesheim, Germany). All
other reagents or solvents (analytical or HPLC grade) were pur-
chased from SigmaeAldrich (Steinheim, Germany) and VWR In-
ternational (Darmstadt, Germany). Ultrapure water was used
throughout. Anhydrous methanolic 2 M hydrochloric acid (HCl)
was prepared as described previously (Nagel, Sirisakulwat, Carle, &
Neidhart, 2014).
2.2. Mango processing
The ripening index (RPI) of mango fruits was analyzed according
squez-Caicedo, Heller, Neidhart, & Carle (2006). After manual
to Va
peeling, convective oven drying of peels was carried out for 8 h at
60  C using a UT 6120 drying cabinet (Hanau, Germany) with and
without previous steam blanching of integral fruits for 3 min at
100  C. Lyophilization of mango peels for 90 h was performed after
grinding with liquid nitrogen with and without the above
mentioned steam blanching prior to peeling using a Lyovac GT 4
(Oerlikon Leybold Vacuum, Cologne, Germany). Gamma irradiation
of mango peels of cv. Totapuri was accomplished with 60Co for 3 h,
reaching a final dose of 10 kGy as detailed recently (Geerkens,
Matejka, et al., 2015).
The dried peels of all cultivars were milled and sieved with a ZM
1 grinder (Retsch, Haan, Germany) equipped with a 0.25 mm ring
sieve. Regarding peels from cv. Kaew, greater particle sizes were
obtained by sieving the milled peels with a 0.5 mm ring sieve and
manual cutting (10 mm) of the integral peels with a stainless steel
knife, respectively. The Sauter mean diameter (d43) of dried mango
peel powders was analyzed using a Mastersizer 2000 (Malvern
Instruments, Worcestershire, UK).
2.3. Pectin extraction
Hot-acid pectin extraction was performed with 20 g dried and
ground or cut peels and 380 g water under continuous stirring at
boiling temperature. The slurry obtained was cooled to room
temperature in an ice bath, adjusted to pH 1.5 with aqueous
sulfuric acid (2 N), and heated at 90  C for 2.5 h followed by re-
cooling to room temperature. The solution was filtered and
pressed manually using a nylon cloth. The solid residue retained
by the cloth was washed with 200 mL water and pressed. The
combined filtrates were added to 3 L of 2-propanol to precipitate
alcohol insoluble solids (AIS). The AIS were filtered and pressed
using the nylon cloth, washed with 2-propanol, and pressed
again. Finally, the AIS were dried at 60  C for 14 h using a
convective oven dryer, milled, and sieved with a ZM 1 grinder
(Retsch, Haan, Germany) equipped with a 0.25 mm ring sieve.
Pectin extraction was conducted in duplicate for each cultivar
and ripeness degree, respectively, according to Geerkens, Miller-
Rostek, et al. (2015).
2.4. Quantitation and characterization of dietary fiber
For the determination of total (TDF), soluble (SDF), and insoluble
dietary fiber (IDF), the enzymatic-gravimetric AOAC Official
Methods 985.29 and 991.43 (1997) were conducted in duplicate
using the MES/TRIS buffer solution.
The swelling (SC), water holding (WHC), and oil holding
capacities (OHC) were analyzed in duplicate according to Nagel,
Neidhart, et al. (2014).
 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251 243

2.5. Pectin characterization
AIS hydrolysis and carbohydrate analysis of the hydrolyzed AIS
was carried out by HPAEC-PAD according to Nagel, Sirisakulwat,
et al. (2014) in quadruplicate. The degrees of methylation (DMe)
and acetylation (DAc) were simultaneously determined as detailed
by Sirisakulwat et al. (2008). The starch content of the AIS was
analyzed according to the instructions of the enzymatic-
photometric starch determination kit (Art. No. 10207748035) by R-
Biopharm (Darmstadt, Germany). The molecular size distribution of
the AIS was analyzed by high-performance size exclusion chroma-
tography (HPSEC) as described previously (Sirisakulwat et al., 2008).
2.6. Characterization of technofunctional pectin properties
The breaking capacity of pectin-sucrose gels with total soluble
solid contents of 65  Brix at pH 3.0 ± 0.5 was determined using a
Herbstreith pectinometer Mark III for two different pectin con-
centrations (0.25% and 0.30%) according to a previously described
method (Neidhart, Hannak, & Gierschner, 2003). Additionally, the
gelling units (GU) were determined for evaluating the commercial
usability according to Schilling et al. (2008).
CIE-L*a*b* color values of the gels (0.30%) were examined by a
CR-300 colorimeter (Konica Minolta Sensing, Osaka, Japan),
measuring 10 points across the gels' surfaces (gel height approx.
3 cm). A white standard was used for calibration (Konica Minolta
Sensing). Breaking capacity, GU, and color values were analyzed
from three independently produced gels.
2.7. Statistics
Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 20 (IBM,
Armonk, NY, USA). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted,
and Tukey's HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) test was carried
out for the determination of significantly different means
(P < 0.05).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Yield of mango peels and stones from different cultivars
The polyembryonic fruits (cv. Nam Dokmai) were slightly
smaller (284 ± 16 g) than the monoembryonic ones from cvs.
Palmer, Kent, and Tommy Atkins (415e581 g). The higher surface-
to-volume ratio of cv. Nam Dokmai significantly resulted in the
highest relative yield in peels (13.6 ± 0.4% of total fruit weight),
while yields from the above mentioned monoembryonic fruits
were slightly inferior (9.1e11.9%). Stone weight accounted for ca.
8e10% of the total fruit weight. The total percentage of by-products
(peels and stones) ranged from 17.9 to 23.3% (Table 1).
3.2. Dietary fiber characterization
3.2.1. Influence of cultivar
Total dietary fiber (TDF) contents of mango peels from different
cultivars were in the range of 29e42 g/100 g DM. The poly-
embryonic cv. Nam Dokmai contained the highest TDF (42.4 g/100 g
DM) content as compared to the monoembryonic cultivars
(29e36 g/100 g DM). Comparable results were previously reported
by Nagel, Neidhart, et al. (2014), describing TDF values of 27e51 g/
100 g DM. However, higher TDF contents were reported for lemon
(60e68 g/100 g DM) and apple pomace (61e90 g/100 g DM), being
the most usual starting materials for pectin extraction (Figuerola,
Hurtado, Este vez, Chiffelle, & Asenjo, 2005). Nevertheless, due to
their TDF contents, mango peels were previously shown to repre-
sent a valuable source of ruminant feed (Geerkens et al., 2013).
As shown in Table 2, TDF was subdivided into soluble (SDF) and
insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), ranging from 16 to 22 g/100 g DM and

Table 1
Fruit weight and accruing by-products, i.e. peels and stones of different mango cultivars.

Cultivar RPI [] Fruit weight [g] Peel Stone Total by-products

Weight [g] Mass proportion [% w/w] DM [%] Weight [g] Mass proportion [% w/w] Mass proportion [% w/w]

Tommy AtkinsM 8.8 415 ± 6b 41 ± 1a 9.8 ± 0.2a 23 ± 2 34 ± 6ab 8.1 ± 1.5a 17.9 ± 1.3a
KentM 7.3 518 ± 21c 62 ± 4b 11.9 ± 0.2b 28 ± 2 43 ± 5b 8.3 ± 1.3a 20.2 ± 1.1a
PalmerM 5.4 581 ± 39d 53 ± 6b 9.1 ± 0.6a 29 ± 1 55 ± 5c 9.5 ± 1.4a 18.6 ± 1.2a
Nam DokmaiP 9.0 284 ± 16a 39 ± 2a 13.6 ± 0.4c 26 ± 1 28 ± 2a 9.8 ± 0.5a 23.3 ± 0.4b
M
Monoembryonic, Ppolyembryonic, RPI ripening index.
Statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) between mango cultivars are marked with lower case letters.

Table 2
Dietary fiber and physical properties of mango peels of different cultivars and influenced by processing.

Cultivar/treatment RPI [] Dietary fiber WHC [g/g DM] OHC [g/g DM] SC [mL/g DM]

Total Soluble Insoluble Ratio []

[g/100 g DM]

Influence of cultivar
Tommy Atkins 8.8 36.3 19.7 16.6 1:0.84 4.2 ± 0.1bc 2.8 ± 0.1b 9.6 ± 0.1c
Kent 7.3 36.0 18.4 17.7 1:0.96 4.5 ± 0.0d 3.0 ± 0.2b 7.1 ± 0.0b
Palmer 5.4 28.7 15.9 12.8 1:0.80 3.8 ± 0.1b 2.2 ± 0.0a 10.3 ± 0.0d
Nam Dokmai 9.0 42.4 21.7 20.7 1:0.96 2.7 ± 0.2a 2.8 ± 0.1b 6.4 ± 0.0a

Influence of mango processing

Palmer 5.4
Oven drying 28.7 15.9 12.8 1:0.80 3.8 ± 0.1A 2.2 ± 0.0AB 10.3 ± 0.0B
Lyophilization 29.8 15.6 14.2 1:0.91 3.9 ± 0.1A 2.5 ± 0.1B 7.8 ± 0.3A
Blanching þ oven drying 31.2 15.0 16.2 1:1.08 5.2 ± 0.9B 2.1 ± 0.0A 8.6 ± 0.3A
Blanching þ lyophilization 31.1 14.9 16.2 1:1.09 3.4 ± 0.0A 2.9 ± 0.0C 10.2 ± 0.3B

RPI ripening index, WHC water holding capacity, OHC oil holding capacity, SC swelling capacity.
Statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) between cultivars are marked with lower case letters and between treatments with upper case letters.
244 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251

13e21 g/100 g DM, respectively. SDF:IDF ratios varied from 1:0.80
to 1:0.96. Since a balanced SDF:IDF ratio of ca. 1:1 has been rec-
ommended for human diet (Larrauri, 1999), mango peels might
represent a valuable source of dietary fiber in food supplements.
TDF contents decreased with progressing fruit ripeness (Table 2). In
agreement, degradation of dietary fiber during ripening was shown
to be caused by endogenous enzymes, ultimately contributing to
fruit softening (El-Zoghbi, 1994). At the same time, the dietary
fiber-degrading activity of polygalacturonase, b-galactosidase, and
(1 / 4)-b-glucanase as well as the pectolytic activity of pectines-
terase and polygalacturonase increased with advanced maturity
(Aina & Oladunjoye, 1993; Ali et al., 2004; Labib, El-Ashwah,
Omran, & Askar, 1995; Mitcham & McDonald, 1992).
The water holding (WHC) and oil holding capacities (OHC) of
dried and ground mango peels from different cultivars were in the
range of 2.7e4.5 g/g DM and 2.2e3.0 g/g DM, respectively (Table 2).
Larrauri et al. (1996) observed a similar OHC and a significantly
greater WHC for peels of cv. Hayden (11.4 g/g). Koubala, Kansci,
Garnier, Thibault, & Ralet (2013) reported a WHC of 6.1 g/g DM
for peels from cv. Mango. Applying identical analytical procedures,
Nagel, Neidhart, et al. (2014) reported a similar OHC (2.1e2.7 g/g),
while WHC was increased to 4.2e7.1 g/g by technological pro-
cessing steps, such as blanching and subsequent pressing of peels.
Swelling capacity (SC) was superior for peels from ripe fruits of
cv. Palmer (10.3 mL/g DM) and inferior for those from unripe fruits
of cv. Nam Dokmai (6.4 mL/g DM, Table 2). A similar SC (9.1 mL/g)
was reported by Nagel, Neidhart, et al. (2014). Maximum SC of
20.7 mL/g was previously reported by Koubala et al. (2013), who
additionally washed the peels with ethanol studying a peel particle
size of 0.5 mm. Ethanol washing notably reduced the content of
sucrose, lipids, pigments, and phenolic compounds in the peels
and, thus may be responsible for the increased SC.
For comparison, WHCs of 2.7, 5.2, and 1.6e1.9 g/g and SCs of 7.8,
13.8, and 6.6e8.3 mL/g were reported for Ambarella (Spondias
cytherea Sonn.) peels, lime (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) peels, and apple
pomace, respectively (Figuerola et al., 2005; Koubala et al., 2013),
being in a similar range like the WHCs and SCs of mango peel
powders. Thus, its properties turn mango peel into a potential di-
etary fiber supplement allowing to enrich the WHC of foods. For
instance, mango peels were previously supplemented to wheat
flour for dough biscuits production, yielding biscuits with increased
TDF and WHC (Ajila, Leelavathi, & Prasada Rao, 2008).
3.2.2. Influence of drying method and blanching
As shown in Table 2, similar dietary fiber yields were achieved
by oven drying and lyophilization. Irrespective of the drying
method, blanching of integral fruits slightly reduced the SDF and
simultaneously increased IDF contents, ultimately leading to
greater TDF contents (Table 2). Blanching reduced the proportion of
pulp adherent to the peel after peeling and, obviously, resulted in
leaching of soluble fiber, low-molecular weight carbohydrates, and
other water-soluble pulp constituents. Consequently, decreased
SDF as well as increased IDF and TDF contents were observed after
blanching. Hence, SDF:IDF ratio of 1:<1 for the drying processes
without previous blanching was changed to 1:>1 for the drying
processes with previous blanching. In agreement, Jagtiani, Chan, &
Sakai (1988) described a facilitated debonding of pulp from the peel
after blanching, thus increasing pulp yields during industrial de-
pulping of mangoes.
3.3. Pectin characterization
3.3.1. Influence of cultivar and ripeness
In order to assess the influence of the cultivar and ripeness on
pectin quality, only the results of oven dried peels will be discussed
(Table 3). The degree of methylation (DMe) of the pectin from
monoembryonic cultivars was in the range of 56e62%, while the
DMe of the polyembryonic cvs. ranged from 53 to 79%. Nam Dok-
mai provided the AIS with the greatest DMe of 79%. In agreement
with our findings of consistently high esterified pectins
(DMe > 50%) from mango peels, DMe ranging from 70 to 81% for
several polyembryonic cultivars and from 56 to 66% for mono-
embryonic cultivars have been reported previously (Berardini,
Fezer, et al., 2005; Nagel et al., 2015; Sirisakulwat et al., 2010).
In good agreement with previous results (Berardini, Fezer, et al.,
2005; Kratchanova, Be nemou, & Kratchanov, 1991; Sirisakulwat
et al., 2008; Srirangarajan & Shrikhande, 1979), the AIS yields ob-
tained from mango peels varied between 19 and 27 g/100 g DM
(Table 3).
When comparing AIS yields from different cultivars, their highly
variable starch contents (1.1e27.7% w/w DM) were deceiving when
evaluating their potential for pectin production. For instance, high
AIS yields were determined for both peels from ripe cv. Tommy
Atkins (25.2%) and peels from unripe cvs. Palmer (25.4%) and Nam
Dokmai (26.4%). However, after correcting the AIS values for their
starch levels, only the AIS values of the cvs. Tommy Atkins (24.6%)
and Nam Dokmai (24.3%) remained high, while the starch-
corrected AIS contents of unripe Palmer peels were found to be
the lowest of all peels investigated (18.3%).
As starch degradation occurs during ripening, the galacturonic
acid content of cv. Nam Dokmai increased from ca. 36 to 48 g/100 g
AIS with progressing ripeness, mostly at the expense of glucose in

Table 3
Alcohol insoluble solids, starch, ash, and moisture content and degree of esterification of pectin produced from peels of different cultivars including the influence of peel
particle size.

Cultivar/peel RPI [] Visual & haptic Particle AIS AISStarch-corr. Starch Ash Moisture DMe [%] DAc [%]
particle size inspection size d43 [mm] [g/100 g DM] [g/100 g DM] [g/100 g AIS] [g/100 g AIS] [g/100 g AIS]

Tommy Atkins 8.8 Ripe 33 ± 1a 25.2 ± 0.2bc 24.6 ± 0.8b 2.3 ± 0.1b 6.4 ± 0.0b 5.5 ± 0.1ab 56.3 ± 1.1a 2.5 ± 0.4b
Kent 7.3 Ripe 54 ± 2 cd 21.1 ± 0.2a 20.5 ± 0.8a 2.7 ± 0.0bc 5.8 ± 0.1b 5.7 ± 0.1ab 61.7 ± 1.4b 2.9 ± 0.4c
Palmer 10.0 Unripe 36 ± 2ab 25.4 ± 1.2c 18.3 ± 1.2a 27.7 ± 0.2e n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
5.4 Overripe 44 ± 2bc 19.2 ± 0.1a 18.9 ± 0.5a 1.1 ± 0.0a 12.5 ± 0.5c 4.9 ± 0.8a 58.0 ± 2.6a 1.1 ± 0.3a
Nam Dokmai 9.0 Unripe 59 ± 6d 26.4 ± 0.2c 24.3 ± 1.3b 8.1 ± 0.6d 3.4 ± 0.1a 6.7 ± 0.0b 79.1 ± 1.1c 3.9 ± 0.5d
6.3 Ripe 47 ± 4c 21.3 ± 0.2ab 20.5 ± 0.3a 3.7 ± 0.0c n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Kaew n.a.
0.25 mm sieve 42 ± 3A 26.6 ± 0.2C 24.1 ± 0.0C 8.9 ± 0.4 6.2 ± 0.3 3.5 ± 0.3A 66.4 ± 1.6C 3.6 ± 0.2B
0.5 mm sieve 117 ± 1B 20.7 ± 0.5B 18.8 ± 0.6B 9.2 ± 0.2 6.1 ± 0.0 6.0 ± 0.1B 53.3 ± 2.9A 3.0 ± 0.0A
10 mm 10 mmCa 15.6 ± 0.2A 14.3 ± 0.1A 9.4 ± 0.2 5.8 ± 0.1 6.0 ± 0.0B 59.8 ± 0.9B 3.8 ± 0.0C

RPI ripening index, AIS alcohol insoluble solids, DMe degree of methylation, DAc degree of acetylation. n.a. not analyzed.
Statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) between cultivars are marked with lower case letters and between peel particle sizes with upper case letters.
a
Particle size as obtained after manual cutting.
 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251 245

the AIS (Table 4). The same relationship was observed for cv.
Palmer, showing 41 g galacturonic acid in 100 g AIS from unripe and
54 g/100 g AIS from ripe fruits. When calculating on an ash-free and
dry matter basis, the galacturonic acid content for cv. Palmer
increased to 64.9 g/100 g AIS. These findings are of major impor-
tance for pectin production, since a galacturonic acid level of 65 g/
100 g AIS on an ash-free and dry matter basis (JECFA, 2007) is a
prerequisite for acceptable gelling properties and, most impor-
tantly, to meet legal pectin specifications. It has to be noted that the
high galacturonic acid content in AIS from cv. Palmer was only
observed for overripe fruits of this cultivar. Generally, the ash-
corrected galacturonic acid contents of other cultivars and ripe-
ness degrees ranged from 34.2 to 54.6 g/100 g AIS. Nevertheless, a
careful selection of cultivars and the use of peels from ripe fruits are
of utmost importance for improving the galacturonic acid content
in the obtained AIS.
However, the use of peels from ripe fruits might be hampered, if
ripening-induced endogenic pectinases degraded the polymeric
pectin chains. Therefore, the molecular weight distribution of the
AIS was analyzed (Fig. 1A1 and A2). The high-molecular pectin
fraction (integration zone I) of oven dried mango peels of different
cultivars accounted for 48% (cv. Nam Dokmai) to 64% (cv. Palmer) of
the total peak area. The shape and peak maximum of the pectin
peak (integration zone I) presumably depended on both the cultivar
and ripeness, thus affecting its molecular weight (Table 4). As
illustrated by Fig. 1A1 and Table 4, the peak molecular weight MP of
the high-molecular weight fraction of unripe cv. Nam Dokmai
(MP 735k) was considerably greater than that of ripe cv. Palmer
(MP 235k). Accordingly, cv. Palmer has previously been described as
a fruit containing soluble polysaccharides of a lower molecular
weight than other cultivars (Olle , Lozano, & Brillouet, 1996).
Furthermore, the average molecular weight of the high-molecular
weight fraction was reduced in the AIS of more ripened cultivars
(1049ke1841k) compared to the AIS of the unripe cv. Nam Dokmai
(1904k), indicating cultivar specific molecular weight differences
and/or enzymatic pectin degradation during fruit ripening. Pectin
degradation in mango fruits was previously ascribed to the depo-
lymerization of the homogalacturonan backbone by greater poly-
galacturonase activity at advanced ripeness (Ali et al., 2004; El-
Zoghbi, 1994).
Besides starch and low-molecular pectin degradation products,
an arabinogalactan has previously been shown to represent an
often overlooked impurity of mango pectin, reducing the gal-
acturonic acid content (Nagel et al., 2015). The characteristic ara-
binogalactan peak (integration zone II) had a molecular weight MP
of 14e19k at the peak maximum (Table 4), previously reported to
be composed of a molar ratio of 82/10/4/4 of its monomers galac-
tose/arabinose/rhamnose/glucuronic acid (Nagel et al., 2015). The
respective arabinogalactan peak was found in all mono- and poly-
embryonic cultivars analyzed. In contrast to the variable size dis-
tribution of the high-molecular weight fraction, the molecular
weight distribution of the arabinogalactan (Fig. 1A1 and A2 and

Table 4
Neutral sugars, uronic acids, and molecular weight properties of mango pectin as influenced by the peel particle size, cultivar, and ripeness.

Cultivar Kaew Tommy Atkins Kent Palmer Nam Dokmai

Peel particle size Ripening index

d43 42 mm d43 117 mm 10 mm 8.8 7.3 10.0 5.4 9.0 6.3
Ripe Ripe Unripe Overripe Unripe Ripe

[g/100 g AIS]

Fuc 0.09 ± 0.00 0.04 ± 0.00 0.06 ± 0.00 0.09 ± 0.01 0.08 ± 0.01 0.01 ± 0.00 0.05 ± 0.00 0.06 ± 0.00 0.02 ± 0.00
Rha 1.33 ± 0.05 1.33 ± 0.07 1.17 ± 0.04 1.13 ± 0.01 1.64 ± 0.06 0.87 ± 0.02 0.81 ± 0.05 1.25 ± 0.02 1.29 ± 0.02
Ara 1.95 ± 0.08 0.99 ± 0.03 1.26 ± 0.01 1.63 ± 0.00 1.21 ± 0.02 0.38 ± 0.03 1.29 ± 0.06 1.27 ± 0.02 0.64 ± 0.00
Gal 15.53 ± 0.52 19.85 ± 4.40 18.23 ± 0.45 14.90 ± 0.23 14.08 ± 0.72 9.00 ± 0.20 14.14 ± 0.12 21.54 ± 0.47 22.21 ± 0.62
Glu 17.37 ± 0.77 14.63 ± 4.81 18.34 ± 0.23 3.95 ± 0.23 4.66 ± 0.11 25.39 ± 2.47 2.40 ± 0.07 8.56 ± 0.18 4.69 ± 0.06
Xyl 0.91 ± 0.04 0.39 ± 0.04 0.66 ± 0.04 0.83 ± 0.04 0.76 ± 0.06 0.30 ± 0.10 0.22 ± 0.02 0.63 ± 0.04 0.24 ± 0.02
Man 0.48 ± 0.01 0.23 ± 0.01 0.31 ± 0.01 0.28 ± 0.00 0.37 ± 0.02 0.00 ± 0.00 0.17 ± 0.01 0.36 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.00

ANS 37.65 ± 1.15 37.48 ± 2.27 40.03 ± 0.39 22.81 ± 0.32 22.79 ± 0.90 35.96 ± 2.56 19.09 ± 0.30 33.66 ± 0.69 29.08 ± 0.65

GalUA 36.25 ± 1.27 38.14 ± 2.57 30.20 ± 1.52 48.06 ± 1.67 44.74 ± 0.81 41.37 ± 2.34 53.58 ± 3.38 35.84 ± 0.39 47.86 ± 0.96
GlcUA 0.89 ± 0.03 2.28 ± 0.08 2.76 ± 0.09 2.33 ± 0.03 1.43 ± 0.05 0.46 ± 0.02 0.77 ± 0.04 2.35 ± 0.04 1.18 ± 0.04
UA 37.14 ± 1.30 40.43 ± 2.57 32.96 ± 1.59 50.39 ± 1.70 46.17 ± 0.86 41.83 ± 2.36 54.35 ± 3.41 38.19 ± 0.40 49.04 ± 0.99

ANS þ UA 74.79 ± 2.45 77.91 ± 4.84 72.99 ± 1.98 73.20 ± 2.02 68.96 ± 1.76 77.78 ± 3.58 73.44 ± 3.71 71.85 ± 1.03 78.11 ± 1.63

GalUAa 40.14 43.39 34.24 54.55 50.55 n.a. 64.87 39.87 n.a.

Molecular weight [1000]

High-molecular polymers fraction [1]
Mn 312 259 268 292 337 n.a. 166 351 n.a.
MW 2167 1435 1679 1629 1841 1049 1904
MP 747 475 490 551 618 235 735
D 6.94 5.54 6.26 5.58 5.46 6.33 5.40

Middle-molecular polymers fraction [2]

Mn 14 13 14 14 16 14 14
MW 21 19 20 20 22 18 20
MP 15 14 15 17 19 17 16
D 1.43 1.48 1.44 1.37 1.32 1.27 1.48

Fuc fucose, Rha rhamnose, Ara arabinose, Gal galactose, Glu glucose, Xyl xylose, Man mannose, ANS anhydro neutral sugars, GalUA galacturonic acid, GlcUA glucuronic acid, UA
uronic acids, n.a. not available, Mn number-average molecular weight, MW weight-average molecular weight, MP peak molecular weight, D polydispersity.
For cvs. Tommy Atkins, Kent, Palmer, and Nam Dokmai, a peel particle size of d43 < 60 mm (cf. Table 3) and oven drying was used.
a
Estimated on ash-free and dry matter basis.
246 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251

Fig. 1. Molecular size distribution and relative peak area of mango pectin. A1 and A2: Influence of the mango cultivars Palmer (RPI 5.4, ripe), Kent (RPI 7.3, ripe), Tommy Atkins
(RPI 8.8, ripe), Nam Dokmai (RPI 9.0, unripe), and an apple pectin. B1 and B2: Influence of peel particle size, C1 and C2: Influence of mango processing (cv. Nam Dokmai). Molecular
weight of integration zone I  51k, II  4k, III  0.9k, IV  0.2k. B blanching, L lyophilization, OD oven drying.

Table 4) was more uniform among all samples analyzed, indicating
its conserved structure being independent of cultivar and ripeness
degrees. Arabinogalactans of mango fruits mainly occur in the
sap of peel resin ducts (Nagel et al., 2015), where their content may
considerably depend on the different desapping procedures
optionally conducted after harvest. A detailed description
of desapping procedures was compiled by Johnson & Hofman
(2009).
Since the arabinogalactan-rich sap content per fruit was re-
ported to range from 0.09 to 1.63 g/fruit depending on cultivar and
desapping procedures (Hassan, Irving, Dann, Coates, & Hofman,
2009; Johnson & Hofman, 2009), the contents of galactose, arabi-
nose, and rhamnose in the produced pectins is consequently highly
variable. When comparing the cultivars used in our study, the
arabinogalactan peak of cv. Nam Dokmai was the most pronounced
(integration zone II, Fig. 1A1 and A2). As expected, the greatest
proportions of galactose, arabinose, and rhamnose of up to 24 g/
100 g AIS were determined for cv. Nam Dokmai (Table 4).
Concomitantly high amounts of glucuronic acid, being a constituent
of the arabinogalactan (Nagel et al., 2015), were also determined
(Table 4). Consequently, the high amounts of the arabinogalactan
impurity contributed to the lowest galacturonic acid content (36 g/
100 g AIS, Table 4) in the AIS from cv. Nam Dokmai.
In brief summary, mango pectin analyses by HPSEC allowed
rough prediction of its qualitative composition. A higher share of
integration zone I (high-molecular weight fraction) implied higher
galacturonic acid contents, while a lower share of integration zone
II (middle-molecular weight arabinogalactan fraction) indicated
both lower glucuronic acid and galactose contents and vice versa. As
outlined below, the arabinogalactan content may be drastically
affected by peel processing. In contrast, the molecular weight of the
arabinogalactan (MW ca. 18e22k, cf. integration zone II) was similar
for all cultivars and ripeness degrees, and was independent of
processing.
In Fig. 1A1 and A2, peak areas in integration zone IV (MW  650)
showed a high correlation with the ash contents (3e13 g/100 g AIS,
Table 3) determined. While the AIS from unripe fruits of cv. Nam
Dokmai had the lowest ash content (3 g/100 g AIS), that from
overripe cv. Palmer was more than 3-fold higher (13 g/100 g AIS).
Accordingly, the peak in integration zone IV of cv. Nam Dokmai was
the smallest, whereas the peak of cv. Palmer was the highest
(Fig. 1A1 and A2). When compared to peels of unripe fruits,
maximum ash contents have been previously reported in peels of
ripened fruits (Sirisakulwat et al., 2008).
In brief summary, arabinogalactan, starch, and ash are recog-
nized as most important interfering substances affecting pectin
quality and, thus, should be removed. Recently, the importance of
specified peel processing was demonstrated by a process achieving
galacturonic acid contents of up to 83% on an ash-free and dried
basis (Nagel, Neidhart, et al., 2014).
 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251 247

3.3.2. Influence of peel particle size
Due to its potential effect on pectin yield, the influence of milling
and sieving the peels to obtain varying peel particle sizes prior to
pectin recovery was investigated. The particle size was shown to
significantly (P < 0.001) affect AIS yields of cv. Kaew. The AIS yield
increased remarkably by 71% from 16 to 27 g/100 g DM (starch-
corrected AIS yield increased from 14 to 24 g/100 g DM) after peel
particle size reduction from 10 mm to 42 mm (d43, Table 3). Un-
expectedly, the enhanced AIS yield was associated with increased
galacturonic acid contents (þ20%) from 30 to 36 g/100 g AIS
(Table 4). On an ash-free and dry matter basis, the galacturonic acid
contents increased from 34 to 40 g/100 g AIS. The smaller particle
size possibly facilitated the release of protopectin from the cell wall
as previously hypothesized for the enhanced pectin yield from
more finely ground apple pomace (Canteri-Schemin, Ramos
Fertonani, Waszczynskyj, & Wosiacki, 2005).
By analogy to the enhanced AIS extraction, the absolute starch
contents increased due to an improved accessibility of starch from
smaller peel particles, although differences in relative starch con-
tents were insignificant (Table 3).
Beyond higher AIS yields and constant relative starch levels, the
particle size also had a substantial impact on the extent of the
above mentioned arabinogalactan impurity. According to Nagel
et al. (2015), the ratio of pectin to arabinogalactan can be esti-
mated based on the ratio of galacturonic acid to glucuronic acid.
The molar ratio successively increased with a smaller particle size
from 10.9 (10 mm) to 16.7 (d43 117 mm), and ultimately to
40.7 mol mol1 (d43 42 mm). Accordingly, a smaller peel particle size
resulted in lower relative arabinogalactan contents and, thus,
improved pectin purity.
As highlighted by Fig. 1B1 and B2, the smaller peel particle size
improved extractability of the targeted high-molecular pectin
fraction (integration zone I) rising its proportion from 46%
(10 mm) to 55% (d43 42 mm) of the total peak area. At the same
time, the relative amount of the undesired arabinogalactan fraction
(integration zone II) was diminished from 49% (10 mm) to 39%
(d43 42 mm). In contrast to the cell wall-associated pectin, the ab-
solute extractability of non-cell wall constituents, such as the ara-
binogalactan, may not be strongly enhanced by reducing the peel
particle size. In good agreement with this hypothesis, higher rela-
tive galacturonic acid contents (Table 4) confirmed our findings of
an increased proportion of the high-molecular weight pectin frac-
tion (Fig. 1B2) in the AIS obtained from peels of smaller particle size.
Moreover, the number-average Mn (312k), weight-average MW
(2,167k), and peak molecular weight MP (747k) reached their
maximum values for AIS isolated from peels having the smallest
particle size. Since higher molecular weights were associated with
enhanced pectin gel quality parameters, using a smaller peel par-
ticle size for AIS isolation significantly improved pectin quality in
terms of the galacturonic acid content and molecular weight.
Our results were in agreement with previous studies, analyzing
the influence of the peel particle size on pectin quality parameters
after the extraction from lemon peels (Lerotholi, Carsky, & Ikhu-
Omoregbe, 2011) and watermelon rind (Rasheed, 2008). In addi-
tion, mango pectin recovery from finely ground pomace by pressing
was shown to be feasible. Remarkably, while particle size reduction
was shown to improve mango pectin extraction, this measure has
been found to be detrimental to pectin extraction from apple
pomace. During processing the latter, small particles rapidly lead to
an impermeable press cake during pressing (Heiss, 2004). In
contrast, a peel particle size reduction is highly recommended for
the mango pectin extraction as outlined above.
3.3.3. Influence of drying method, blanching, and irradiation
Irrespective of the cultivar, the extraction of lyophilized peel
powders increased AIS yields when compared to oven dried sam-
ples (Table 5 and S1). Despite applying the same grinding proce-
dure, the mean particle size of the lyophilized powders was found
to be smaller (d43 23 mm) than that of oven dried peel powders (d43
59 mm). In agreement with Section 3.3.2, extraction yield was
enhanced by smaller particle sizes. Enzymatic degradation appar-
ently played a minor role, since blanching insignificantly affected
AIS yields, independent of the drying method (Table 5). In agree-
ment, Sudhakar & Maini (2000) reported AIS yields to be unaf-
fected by blanching.
By analogy to AIS yields, slightly higher starch levels were
observed after pectin recovery from lyophilized powders
compared to oven dried powders (Table S1). Particularly, starch

Table 5
Alcohol insoluble solids, starch, neutral sugars, and uronic acid contents of pectin of cv. Nam Dokmai (RPI 9.0) influenced by mango processing.

cv. Nam Dokmai

Oven drying Blanching þ oven drying Lyophilization Blanching þ lyophilization

Particle size d43 [mm] 59 ± 6 56 ± 1 23 ± 1 26 ± 1

AIS [g/100 g DM] 26.4 ± 0.2 25.4 ± 0.1 30.1 ± 0.0 32.8 ± 0.1
Starch [g/100 g AIS] 8.1 ± 0.6 8.1 ± 0.2 9.5 ± 0.5 9.5 ± 0.6

[g/100 g AIS]
Fuc 0.06 ± 0.00 0.09 ± 0.01 0.07 ± 0.01 0.14 ± 0.01
Rha 1.25 ± 0.02 1.04 ± 0.07 1.09 ± 0.04 1.00 ± 0.02
Ara 1.27 ± 0.02 1.28 ± 0.07 1.24 ± 0.02 1.34 ± 0.03
Gal 21.54 ± 0.47 9.91 ± 0.37 17.51 ± 0.58 10.12 ± 0.25
Glu 8.56 ± 0.18 8.47 ± 0.30 15.38 ± 0.65 10.17 ± 0.31
Xyl 0.63 ± 0.04 0.81 ± 0.05 0.76 ± 0.05 1.45 ± 0.08
Man 0.36 ± 0.01 0.48 ± 0.03 0.42 ± 0.02 0.78 ± 0.05

ANS 33.66 ± 0.69 22.07 ± 0.88 36.47 ± 1.28 25.00 ± 0.66

GalUA 35.84 ± 0.39 38.29 ± 1.80 28.27 ± 0.42 33.84 ± 1.22

GlcUA 2.35 ± 0.04 0.97 ± 0.05 2.01 ± 0.02 1.04 ± 0.07
UA 38.19 ± 0.40 39.27 ± 1.83 30.28 ± 0.44 34.88 ± 1.27

ANS þ UA 71.85 ± 1.03 61.34 ± 2.66 66.74 ± 1.50 59.88 ± 1.75

AIS alcohol insoluble solids, Fuc fucose, Rha rhamnose, Ara arabinose, Gal galactose, Glu glucose, Xyl xylose, Man mannose, ANS anhydro neutral
sugars, GalUA galacturonic acid, GlcUA glucuronic acid, UA uronic acids.
248 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251

levels in AIS from peels of cv. Palmer revealed higher starch
contents after lyophilization (6 g/100 g AIS) than oven dried
samples (2 g/100 g AIS). The moisture content of AIS was not
affected by the different processes (5e7 g/100 g AIS), being below
the maximum legal requirement of 12% (JECFA, 2007). Ash con-
tents were diminished by 5e32% after blanching, most likely due
to leaching, e.g., of abundant and easily eluting potassium
(Puupponen-Pimia € et al., 2003).
Pectin purity, in terms of galacturonic acid content, was sub-
stantially influenced by peel processing. Considering economic
aspects, oven drying may be favored over lyophilization. Galactur-
onic acid contents in the AIS of oven dried peels (36e54 g/100 g
AIS) were higher than in lyophilized peels (28e44 g/100 g AIS, data
not shown) of all cultivars used. Neutral sugar and uronic acid
contents of blanched peels will be discussed for cv. Nam Dokmai
(Table 5). The galacturonic acid content of AIS from blanched peels
(34e38 g/100 g AIS) exceeded that from unblanched peels
(28e36 g/100 g AIS). A boost of the peak area of the pectin (inte-
gration zone I) was accompanied by a reduction of the arabinoga-
lactan peak area (integration zone II) when comparing the AIS from
blanched (MP  877k) and unblanched (MP  775k) peels. The ef-
fect of blanching was independent of the applied drying method.
Blanching lowered total neutral sugar contents by up to 35%, most
likely due to leaching of water soluble arabinogalactan as indicated
by the reduced peak area in integration zone II (Fig. 1C1 and C2).
Confirming this assumption, reduced contents of the arabinoga-
lactan constituents, i.e. galactose, rhamnose, and glucuronic acid
were determined (Table 5), finally leading to purer pectin. As a
consequence, the relative amount of hemicellulose constituents
such as fucose, mannose, and xylose was increased at the same
time. The significant reduction (P < 0.001) of glucuronic acid due to
blanching was independent of the drying method. As mentioned
above, the uronic acid ratio of galacturonic to glucuronic acid may
be used for the determination of the ratio of pectin to arabinoga-
lactans, and, thus, for assessing the pectin purity (Nagel et al., 2015).
Processing without blanching led to an uronic acid ratio of 15e16,
which was 33e40 after blanching, thus verifying the improved
purity. In brief summary, blanching represents a crucial step for the
recovery of premium quality mango pectin.
After gamma irradiation of mango peels (cv. Totapuri), AIS yield
(21.1e21.4 g/100 g DM), starch content (2.1e2.6 g/100 g AIS), and
neutral sugar content (21.8e22.8 g/100 g AIS) remained unaffected.
However, the galacturonic acid content of irradiated peels (50.5 g/
100 g AIS) was increased by ~10% compared to unirradiated peels
(46.0 g/100 g AIS). Similar findings have previously been reported
(Dennison & Ahmed, 1967; Zhao, Moy, & Paull, 1996), studying the
effect of gamma irradiation on pectin from the pulp of mango and
papaya. Since irradiation may cause a delay in mango ripening
(Dennison & Ahmed, 1967), cell wall degrading activities might be
delayed, possibly improving pectin stability.
3.4. Functional properties
3.4.1. Influence of cultivar
The gelling properties of pectic hydrocolloids are chiefly influ-
enced by their molecular weight, degree of esterification
(DE ¼ DMe þ DAc), and galacturonic acid content (Endress, 2004;
Harris & Smith, 2006). The highest molecular weight (MW 1904k),
highest DE (83%), and lowest galacturonic acid content (36 g/100
AIS) (Tables 3 and 4) were obtained from peels of cv. Nam Dokmai
(RPI 9.0). The resulting AIS revealed a breaking capacity of 0.31 g
AIS/100 g gel (Table 6). In contrast, AIS from cv. Palmer (RPI 5.4) had
the lowest molecular weight (MW 1049k), a considerably lower DE
(59%), and the highest galacturonic acid content (54 g/100 g AIS),
resulting in an inferior breaking capacity (0.40 g AIS/100 g gel)
when compared to AIS of cv. Nam Dokmai. AIS of cv. Kent (RPI 7.3)
produced the strongest mango gels with a breaking capacity of
0.28 g AIS/100 g gel. The gel made from the reference apple pectin
(galacturonic acid content 76.9 g/100 g AIS, MW 1563k, DE 59.8%)
was 1.8-fold stronger (0.16 g AIS/100 g gel) than that from cv. Kent.
The substantially different breaking capacities of apple and mango
pectin may be attributed to the non-purified mango pectins, still
containing hindering components such as starch, arabinogalactan,
and ash.
In addition to breaking capacity, the gelling units (GU) allow the
assessment of gelling properties and commercial applicability.
Maximum GU values were obtained for gels from cv. Nam Dokmai
(5476 GU), although possessing the lowest galacturonic acid con-
tent (36 g/100 g AIS). While pectin from cv. Palmer contained the
highest galacturonic acid content (54 g/100 g AIS), GU were sub-
stantially lower (3094 GU) than that of cv. Nam Dokmai. Consid-
ering all samples investigated, galacturonic acid contents neither
correlated with the GU values (R2linear ¼ 0.004) nor the breaking
capacities (R2linear ¼ 0.081). When multiplying the galacturonic
acid content with the molecular weight of the pectin fraction (MW)
and the DE, two known factors influencing gelling properties, we
were able to establish a correlation to GU (R2linear ¼ 0.816,
R2polynomial ¼ 0.917) and breaking capacity (R2linear ¼ 0.602,
R2polynomial ¼ 0.746), as depicted in Fig. 2. Clearly, the gelling
properties of the mango pectins obtained depended on their gal-
acturonic acid contents, molecular weights, and DEs. The GU value
of mango pectin (3094e5476 GU) is remarkable when compared to
pectin extracted from apple pomace (3635e3814 GU) as reported
by Schilling et al. (2008), thus demonstrating the potential of
mango pectin when produced from finely ground peels
(d43 < 120 mm).

Table 6
Gelling and color properties of mango pectin of different cultivars and influenced by the peel particle size.

Cultivar/peel particle size BC530HPE SBC530HPE Gelling units L* a* b* C* h

[g AIS/100 g gel] [g/g AIS] [g/100 g DM]

Tommy Atkins (RPI 8.8) 0.36 181 4543 45.9 ± 4.7 2.4 ± 0.4 10.8 ± 1.2 11.0 ± 1.1 77.4 ± 2.5
Kent (RPI 7.3) 0.28 229 4817 45.4 ± 5.0 2.1 ± 0.4 5.8 ± 0.9 6.2 ± 0.8 70.0 ± 6.2
Palmer (RPI 5.4) 0.40 161 3094 50.5 ± 4.0 1.3 ± 0.4 4.1 ± 0.5 4.3 ± 0.6 72.5 ± 5.2
Nam Dokmai (RPI 9.0) 0.31 207 5476 44.6 ± 5.5 2.0 ± 0.4 5.7 ± 0.9 6.1 ± 0.8 70.0 ± 4.9

Kaew
d43 42 mm 0.32 205 5446 50.2 ± 4.5 1.8 ± 0.3 7.9 ± 1.7 8.1 ± 1.6 76.2 ± 4.5
d43 117 mm 0.37 177 3667 56.5 ± 7.6 1.1 ± 0.5 5.2 ± 0.7 5.2 ± 0.7 77.5 ± 5.3
10 mm 0.52 126 1953 61.4 ± 8.2 0.9 ± 0.4 4.6 ± 0.8 4.6 ± 0.8 79.0 ± 3.5

Apple pectin (reference) 0.16 412 n.a. 52.9 ± 7.8 0.7 ± 0.4 5.6 ± 0.9 5.6 ± 0.9 83.1 ± 3.7

BC530HPE breaking capacity as AIS required for a gel of 530 Herbstreith-Pectinometer units (HPE), SBC530HPE sugar binding capacity of AIS in a gel of 530 HPE, gelling units (GU)
of mango peel dry matter (MPDM) as its sugar binding capacity in gram of sugar bound per 100 g MPDM in a gel of 530 HPE, n.a. not analyzed, RPI ripening index.
 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251 249

4. Conclusions

The economic production of pectin from mango peels appeared

to be most promising when ripe fruits were used. In addition to the
potential production of high-quality mango pulp, peels from ripe
fruits were shown to provide AIS of higher galacturonic acid con-
tents than those from unripe fruits. The implementation of a
blanching step is recommended, since it allows the complete
removal of pulp from the peels, thus increasing pulp yield and
pectin purity. Particularly, blanching resulted in leaching of inter-
fering arabinogalactans and minerals in the AIS, consequently
increasing its galacturonic acid content.
Since AIS yields and galacturonic acid contents were substan-
tially improved (þ70% and þ20%, respectively) when finely ground
peels (particle size 42 mm) were used for pectin extraction, we
highly recommend to assess the feasibility of extracting such finely
ground peels at pilot plant and industrial scale. By implementing
peel blanching and particle size reduction, the galacturonic acid
content of a sample of cv. Palmer was increased to 65%, reaching the
minimum legal requirement of pectin for food use. Noteworthy, the
galacturonic acid contents of identically obtained AIS from other
cultivars ranged from 34 to 55%. Finally, up to 5476 gelling units
were accomplished by utilization of mango peels for pectin re-
covery and gel production. The mentioned blanching and grinding
steps may be investigated by further systematic studies to optimize
their influence on pectin quality.
Considering the technological progress presented both in our
study and that previously reported by Nagel, Neidhart, et al. (2014),
mango peels may become a highly promising source of pectin,
representing an alternative to apple pectin, the latter being
threatened by enzymatic liquefaction of apple mash (Kammerer,
Kammerer, Valet, & Carle, 2014).

Abbreviations

AIS alcohol insoluble solids

cv. cultivar
DAc degree of acetylation
DE degree of esterification
Fig. 2. Correlation of the product of the galacturonic acid content (GalUA), molecular
weight (MW), and degree of esterification (DE) with gelling units (A) and breaking
DM dry matter
capacity (B), respectively. BC530HPE breaking capacity as AIS required for a gel of 530 DMe degree of methylation
Herbstreith-Pectinometer units (HPE), gelling units of mango peel dry matter (MPDM) as GU gelling units
its sugar binding capacity in gram of sugar bound per 100 g MPDM in a gel of 530 HPE. HPAEC-PAD high-performance anion exchange chromatography
with pulsed amperometric detection
HPSEC high-performance size exclusion chromatography
3.4.2. Influence of peel particle size
IDF insoluble dietary fiber
As mentioned above, peel particle size reduction substantially
MES 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid
improved pectin yield and quality. Furthermore, enhanced breaking
OHC oil holding capacity
and sugar binding capacities of the pectins were achieved by par-
RPI ripening index
ticle size reduction (Table 6). Additionally, GU values were remark-
SC swelling capacity
ably increased from 1953 GU (10 mm) to 5446 GU (d43 42 mm) at
SDF soluble dietary fiber
the same time, even surpassing GU of apple pectin (3635e3814 GU,
TDF total dietary fiber
Schilling et al., 2008). Previously, the GU of mango pectin were
TRIS 2-amino-2-hydroxymethyl-propane-1,3-diol
increased from 1864 to 4131 GU by pressing and blanching of the
WHC water holding capacity
peels (Nagel, Neidhart, et al., 2014). Therefore, a combination of
these measures together with peel particle size reduction may
further improve the techno-functionality of mango pectins. Acknowledgment
However, gels produced from peel powders of larger particle
sizes had a whiter color (L* ¼ 61) than those made from small We thank Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (Mumbai, India) for
particles (L* ¼ 50, Table 6). The latter gels were also more brownish the irradiation of mango peels, and Dr. Sanjay Nene (National
as reflected by higher redness (þa*) and yellowness (þb*) values. Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India) for the logistics. This project was
The color may have been affected by co-extracted and, subse- supported by funds of the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture
quently, oxidized polyphenols (Berardini, Kno €dler, Schieber, & (2813803810) (BMEL) based on a decision of the Parliament of the
Carle, 2005), which were more efficiently extracted from smaller Federal Republic of Germany via the Federal Office for Agriculture
particles. and Food (BLE) under the innovation support program.
250 C.H. Geerkens et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 51 (2015) 241e251

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