Philosophy of Social Science Research

Concept of Ontology and Epistemology

Ontology
Ontology and epistemology are two different ways of viewing the research
philosophy. Ontology can be defined as “the science or study of being” and it deals with
the nature of reality. Ontology is a system of belief that reflects an interpretation of an
individual about what constitutes a fact. In simple terms, ontology is associated with a central
question of whether social entities need to be perceived as objective or subjective. Accordingly,
objectivism (or positivism) and subjectivism can be specified as two important aspects of
ontology.
• Objectivism “portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social
actors concerned with their existence”. Alternatively, objectivism “is an ontological
position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is
independent of social actors”.
• Subjectivism (also known as constructionism or interpretivism) on the contrary,
perceives that social phenomena is created from perceptions and consequent actions of
those social actors concerned with their existence. Formally, constructionism can be
defined as “ontological position which asserts that social phenomena and their
meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors”.

Identification of ontology at the start of the research process is critically important as it

determines the choice of the research design. The figure below illustrates the consequent
impact of ontology on the choice of research methods via epistemology, research approach,
research strategy and methods of data collection and data analysis.
Epistemology
Epistemology as a branch of philosophy deals with the sources of knowledge. Specifically,
epistemology is concerned with possibilities, nature, sources and limitations of knowledge in
the field of study. Alternatively, epistemology can be branded as the study of the criteria by
which the researcher classifies what does and does not constitute the knowledge. Epistemology
is the researcher’s view regarding what constitutes acceptable knowledge.

In research philosophy there are many different sources of knowledge. Sources of knowledge
related to social research can be divided into the following four categories:
▪ Intuitive knowledgeis based on intuition, faith, beliefs etc. Human feelings plays
greater role in intuitive knowledge compared to reliance on facts.
▪ Authoritarian knowledge relies on information that has been obtained from books,
research papers, experts, supreme powers etc.
▪ Logical knowledge is a creation of new knowledge through the application of logical
reasoning.
▪ Empirical knowledge relies on objective facts that have been established and can be
demonstrated. Empiricism accepts personal experiences associated with observation,
feelings and senses as a valid source of knowledge, whereas according to rationalism
relies on empirical findings gained through valid and reliable measures as a source of
knowledge.
Research process may integrate all of these sources of knowledge within a single study. For
example, intuitive knowledge can be used in order to select a specific problem to be explored
within a selected research area, whereas authoritative knowledge is gained during the process
of literature review. Moreover, logical knowledge is generated as a result of analysing primary
data findings, and conclusions of the research can be perceived as empirical knowledge.
Main Philosophical Approaches
a. Interpretivism (interpretivist) Research Philosophy

Interpretivism, also known as interpretivist involves researchers to interpret elements of the

study, thus interpretivism integrates human interest into a study. Accordingly, “interpretive
researchers assume that access to reality (given or socially constructed) is only through social
constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, experiences and
instruments”. Development of interpretivist philosophy is based on the critique of positivism in
social sciences. Interpretivism is “associated with the philosophical position of idealism, and
is used to group together diverse approaches, including social constructivism, phenomenology
and hermeneutics; approaches that reject the objectivist view that meaning resides within the
world independently of consciousness”. According to interpretivist approach, it is important
for the researcher as a social actor to appreciate differences between people. Moreover,
interpretivism studies usually focus on meaning and may employ multiple methods in order to
reflect different aspects of the issue.

Important Aspects of Interpretivism

Interpretivist approach is based on naturalistic approach of data collection such
as interviewsand observations. Secondary data research is also popular with interpretivism
philosophy. In this type of studies, meanings emerge usually towards the end of the research
process.
The most noteworthy variations of interpretivism include the following:

▪ Hermeneutics refers to the philosophy of interpretation and understanding.

Hermeneutics mainly focuses on biblical texts and wisdom literature.
▪ Phenomenology is “the philosophical tradition that seeks to understand the world
through directly experiencing the phenomena or people’s subjective experiences of
social reality, events or situations”. Phenomenology studies focus on experiences,
events and occurrences with disregard or minimum regard for the external and physical
reality. Accordingly, phenomenology studies ideas are generated from rich amount of
data by the means of induction and human interests, as well as stakeholder perspective
may have their reflection on the study.
Advantages associated with phenomenology include better understanding of meanings
attached by people and its contribution to the development of new theories. Its
disadvantages include difficulties with analysis and interpretation, usually lower levels
of validity and reliability compared to positivism, and more time and other resources
required for data collection.

▪ Symbolic interactionism accepts symbols as culturally derived social objects having

shared meanings. According to symbolic interactionism symbols provide the means by
which reality is constructed. Main disadvantages associated with interpretivism relate
to subjective nature of this approach and great room for bias on behalf of researcher.
Primary data generated in interpretivist studies cannot be generalized since data is
heavily impacted by personal viewpoint and values. Therefore, reliability and
representativeness of data is undermined to a certain extent as well. The advatntge
associated with interpretivism with primary data generated via Interpretivism studies
might be associated with a high level of validity because data in such studies tends to
be trustworthy and honest.
 b. Positivism Research Philosophy
As a philosophy, positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained through
observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy. In positivism studies the role
of the researcher is limited to data collection and interpretation through objective approach and
the research findings are usually observable and quantifiable.
Positivism depends on quantifiable observations that lead themselves to statistical analysis. It
has been noted that “as a philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the empiricist view that
knowledge stems from human experience. It has an atomistic, ontological view of the world as
comprising discrete, observable elements and events that interact in an observable, determined
and regular manner”.
Moreover, in positivism studies the researcher is independent form the study and there are no
provisions for human interests within the study. Crowther and Lancaster (2008) inform that as
a general rule, positivist studies usually adopt deductive approach, whereas inductive research
approach is usually associated with a phenomenology philosophy. Moreover, positivism
relates to the viewpoint that researcher needs to concentrate on facts, whereas phenomenology
concentrates on the meaning and has provision for human interest.

The five main principles of positivism philosophy can be summarized as the following:
▪ There are no differences in the logic of inquiry across sciences.
▪ The research should aim to explain and predict.
▪ Research should be empirically observable via human senses. Inductive reasoning
should be used to develop statements (hypotheses) to be tested during the research
process.
▪ Science is not the same as the common sense. The common sense should not be allowed
to bias the research findings.
▪ Science must be value-free and it should be judged only by logic.

Science as an Underlying Ground for Positivism

Positivism often involves the use of existing theory to develop hypotheses to be tested during
the research process. Science can be specified as a cornerstone in positivism research
philosophy. Specifically, positivism relies on the following aspects of the science.
▪ Science is deterministic. Scientific approach is based on assumption that X causes Y
under certain circumstances. The role of researcher when following the scientific
approach is to discover specific nature of cause and effect relationships.
▪ Science is mechanistic. Mechanical nature of scientific approach can be explained in
a way that researchers develop hypotheses to be proved or disproved via application of
specific research methods.
▪ Science uses method. Chosen methods are applied mechanically in order to
operationalize theory or hypothesis. Application of methodology involves selection of
sample, measurements, analysis and reaching conclusions about hypotheses.
▪ Science deals with empiricism. In other words, science only deals with what can be
seen or measured. From this perspective, science can be assessed as objective.
Different Sources of Knowledge

• Informal observation: Occurs when we make observations without any systematic process
for observing or assessing accuracy of what we observed.
• Selective observation: Occurs when we see only those patterns that we want to see or when
we assume that only the patterns we have experienced directly exist.
• Overgeneralization: Occurs when we assume that broad patterns exist even when our
observations have been limited.
• Authority: A socially defined source of knowledge that might shape our beliefs about what is
true and what is not true.
• Research methods: An organized, logical way of learning and knowing about our social
world.