Engineering Applications of Botany-2016

Engineering Applications
Of
Ancient Indian Botany
Edited By
Dr. A.S. Nene
Former Professor of Civil Engineering, VNIT

Nagpur
1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 1

CONTENTS
Chapter Topic Page

0-Contents i
0.1-List of Figures iii
0.2-List of Sanskrit Verses iii
03-List of Tables iv
1-Prologue 01
2-Architecture & Civil Engineering
2.1-Rainfall Predictions 17
2.2-Water Purification. 17
2.3-Adobe Construction 19
2.4-Mud Pottery 25
2.5-Lime Mortars and Lime Plasters 27
2.6-Colors and Pigments 31
2.7-Water Divining 35
2.8-Adamantine Glues 42
3-Miscellaneous
3.1 Breaking of stone blocks 60
3.2 Detection Of Defects In Rocks 60
3.3 Wood Varnishes 61
3.4 Preservation of ropes 62
4- Mining & Metallurgy
4.1-Gold plating of copper. 63
4.2- Foundry soils for metal casting 64
4.3- Tempering of Steel Implements 66
5-Aeronautics
5.1-Air Balloons 67
5.2-Light weight wood 67
6-Epilogue 68
7-References
7.1-Ancient References 69
7.2-Modern References 70
8-Annexure
8.1 Terms related to adamantine glues 71
8.2 Ingredient for Lime mortar & plasters 71
8.3 Botanical names of trees mentioned in 72
Shilpashastra(s)
9-About the Editor 77
***.***

1-List of Figures
SN Title of Figures Page

Fig1.01 Five parts of trees 11
Fig2.01 Flowering of Amaltash tree 17
Fig2.02 Clay palettes 18
Fig2.03 Nirmali seeds and Khus grass 19
Fig2.04 Wood block and Seeds 19
Fig2.05 Fruits 21
Fig2.06 Natural fibers 22
Fig2.07 Natural Polymers 23
Fig2.08 Hand molded bricks 23
Fig2.09 Brick Floating on Water 24
Fig2.10 Clay idols 24
Fig2.11 Mud floor 25
Fig2.12 Mud fort 27
Fig2.13 conches and oysters 30
Fig2.14 Ingredients for white color 31
Fig2.15 Ingredients for yellow color 32
Fig2.16 Ingredients for red color 32
Fig2.17 Ingredients for blue color 33
Fig2.18 Organic Colors for textile printing 33
Fig2.19 Restoration of cave painting 34
Fig2.20 Cave painting restoration 34
Fig2.21 Water Diviner 38
Fig2.22 Ingredient of herbal Mehandi 40
Fig2.23 Hide Glue (Sirus) 47
Fig2.24 Laxman Temple Sirpur 50
Fig2.25 Lime flooring of palace 50
Fig.3.0 Ingredients of herbal paint 61
1
Fig.3.0 Wood varnish 62
2
Fig.3.0 Preservation of ropes 62
3
Fig.4.0 Palash and Hartal 64
1
Fig.4.0 Metal statue 64
2
Fig.4.0 Ingredients for metal casting 65
3
2-List of Tables

SN Title of Table Page
Table1. Indian Botanical Classification 02
1
Table1. Classification by Gender 04
2
Table1. Unsuitable Trees 05
3
Table1. Worshiped Trees 07
4
Table1. Ancient Botanical Classification 09
5
Table2. The ingredients for water purification 18
1
Table2. Lime mortar & plasters : ingredient 29
2
Table2. Research Details 35
3
Table2. Ground symptoms for water 37
4
Table2. Constituents of herbal paste 39
5
Table2. Ingredients for Adamantine glues 43
6
Table2. Terminology 45
7
3-List of Sanskrit verses
SN Subject of Sanskrit verses Page

SV1.01 Biological Sciences 12
SV1.02 Indian Botanical Classification 12
SV1.03 Tree Classification by Gender 13
SV1.04 Seasoning of Trees 13
SV1.05 Felling the tree 14
SV1.06 Frames and door shutters 14
SV1.07 Preservation of Wood 14
SV1.08 Botanical Classification 14
SV1.09 Sentiments of Plants 15
SV1.10 Selection of trees for wood 16
SV1.11 Female trees for beams 16
SV1.12 Neutral trees for fire wood 16
SV1.13 Trees for low cost houses 16
SV1.14 Hatched roof 16

SV2.01 Treatment of Well water 51
SV2.02 Purification of drinking water 51
SV2.03 Bricks and Roofing tiles 51
SV2.04 Clay Mortar 52
SV2.05 Earthen pots 52
SV2.06 Glazing of earthen pots 52
SV2.07 Coloring of Clay pots 52
SV2.08 Ceramic pots 53
SV2.09 Sunla or Lime Putty 53
SV2.10 Leveling coat of lime plaster 53
SV2.11 Materials for Lime Plasters 53
SV2.12 Materials for Lime Plasters 54
SV2.13 Lime mortar for terrace 54
SV2.14 Basic four colors 54
SV2.15 White color 55
SV2.16 Yellow color 55
SV2.17 Red color 55
SV2.18 Black color 56
SV2.19 Blue color 56
SV2.20 Composite colors 56
SV2.21 Natural Colors 57
SV2.22 Ingredients of herbal foot paint 57
SV2.23 Uses of adamantine glues 57
SV2.24 Brihat Samhita formula 58
SV2.25 Mayamatam formula 58
SV2.26 Shilparatnakar Formula 59
SV2.27 Hide glue 59
SV2.28 Vajrasanghata 59
SV2.29 Utpala’s formula 59
SV2.30 Stone softening 60
SV3.01 Detection of cracks in stone 63
SV3.02 Wood varnish 63
SV3.03 Preservation of Ropes 63
SV4.01 Tempering of tools 66
SV5.01 Waterproof cloth 67
SV5.02 Light weight wood 67
***.***

1 PROLOGUE
Ancient Indian Botany: As per Sage Parashar Krushi Shastra or Biological
sciences include study of trees, animal and human, because all these have
to undergo three stages of life i.e. birth, grown and death. Ref SV1.1
Indians had deep knowledge about the trees since ancient time. Unlike
western botany, one can find very appropriate names for trees. Wood was
used since ages for chariots, carts and columns and beams of houses. Ancient
texts like Mayamat, Brihat Samhita Sakaladhikar etc contain names and
description of more than 250 names of tree which are still available in many
parts of India.
1.1 Indian Botanical Classification: Western Botanist divide trees into two
classes viz.; 1) Endogenous or growing from inside and 2) Exogenous or
growing from outside. Former is harder outside while latter is harder in the
central core.
Ancient Indian texts (Mayamat, Manushyalaya chandrika etc) however

mention four classes of trees viz.
1. Nissar – Trees having no hard core. Nissar trees are Ashwathha,

Nyagroth and Udumber. However thick these trees grow they form
no core. Their flowers are closed. Fruits are bunch of flowers
2. Antassar- Trees having hard core inside. Antassar trees (Exogenous
trees as per western Botanist), are Aamra, Panus, Nimb tree and
other trees.
3. Bahhissar – Trees having hard core outside. Bahhissar trees,
Endogenous trees as pre western Botanist, are Nadwat, Nariker,
Poog and others of this class.
4. Sarvassar- Trees having core throughout their cross-section.
Sarvassar trees are hard throughout the cross-section. Tintini,

Shak, Shirish and Bhallatak tree are the examples of this class. Ref
SV1.2
Ssar or core / pith is the hard portion of tree composed of cells, which have
ceased to live or carry juice, and therefore those trees which have no such
core or portion composed of dead cells, are called immortal trees (Amar).
Table 1.1 - Indian Botanical

Classification
Class of trees
Nissar Antassa Bahhiss Sarvassar

r a
Ashwath Aamra Nadwat Bakul
Bilwa Nimb Nariker / Shirish

Ker
Udumbar Panus Tintini
Poog or
Nyagrot kramuk
h or Vat
Tāl
Out of these four classes, trees having a core either on outside or inside are
suitable for engineering works. As these trees have some portion of the
section harder than other. Thus failure of softer part gives an indication that
tree is failing and sudden collapse and danger to life is avoided. Trees having
no harder portion are useless for engineering works. Trees having hard
section throughout, deteriorate simultaneously, a sudden collapse is therefore
possible. Ancient Indian texts specify that such trees should not be used for
building purposes but should be preserved for firewood. Trees with no cores
(Nissar) should be used as shade giving trees or sacrificial trees. These trees

are very altruistic and any other tree can be planted on them without any
injury to them. Thus following trees are Unsuitable for building purposes
1.2 Ancient Classification Systems of trees
The trees were classified in accordance to age, imperfections (gray shades)

and gender.
The timbers obtained from trees having age between 16 to 50 years are
considered good for construction.
To ascertain the stage of life of a tree, a bore through the stem, at 60 cm

above ground is made. This test is called formation test. The age of the tree
is indicated by,
1. color of the core,

2. hardness,
3. Juice oozing from the bore.
If a tree is already cut, instead of juice, the sound produced by tamping with
a heavy rod, will the stage of age.
B- Gray shades
 The signs such as a flag, umbrella, cone, sphere etc. found on the cut
cross-section of tree, were considered good.
 But signs such as a women, spiral, snake, headless person, partridge,

vulture etc. were considered bad indication for construction
(Vishwakarma Prakash .91.116-120)
 Timber should be free from pores.
Pores on wood it were termed as,
 Nishkut - big pores

 Kol- medium pores
 Dhushtinetra- pores circular or elliptical (like eyes)
 Vatsak- pores of irregular shapes
 Kalabandhak - pores made by insects
 Sushir- micro-pores (like those in an earthen pot)
The timber with pores is not suitable for building construction.
C- On the basis of gender
The on the basis of gender trees were classified as Male, Female, or Neutral.
Ref Mayamat & Shilparatna This type of classification is explained below.
1. Masculine-Trees have uniform cross-section from top to bottom,

strong vertically or in compression. These trees have deep roots,
fragrant flowers, and leafs smooth to touch. Masculine trees should
be used as columns
2. Feminine - Trees have broad and narrow cross-sections at bottom
and top respectively. Such trees have very fragrant flowers or
fruits, Leafs are cool when touched and rich in fluids. These are
strong laterally or in tension. Feminine trees should be used as
beams.
3. Neutral- Trees have broad and narrow cross-sections at top and
bottom respectively and have weak roots or branches
List of Masculine or feminine trees as per Mayamat, Manushyalaya Chandrika
and Yuktikalpataru is as below, SV1.3
Table 1.2 - Classification by Gender
Male Trees
Ajkarni,Dhanwan,Pishit,Shishap,Arjun,Khadir,P
unnag,Simha

Ashok,Kshirni,Rajadan,Statak,Bakul,Padma,Sal,
Vanhi
Chandan,Pindi,Saptak,Deodar,Pindi,Shami,
Female Trees
Aasan, Gawakshi, Likunch,Saptaparna,

Bhouma,Kak, Neem, Shirish, Ek, Katfal
,Panus,Timis, Tishrit
For pegs of tents etc, following trees, shown in Table1.6, are recommended.
Any hard wood is allowed
The timbers of masculine trees are best, feminine are of medium quality and
neuter are of least quality.
Table 1.3 -Unsuitable Trees
Bilwa ,Chinchini , Kadamb,Kovider,Kutaj ,Lodhra, Mahadrum,Nyagridh or

Vata,Palash or Kinshuk , Parijatak, Pilu, Ashwath , Plaksh Saptaparna ,
Shirish , Shlemantaka ,Udumbar
Selection of trees
A- General -As already noted above, a tree consists of hard and soft
portions. In this connection the engineer has to take following precautions.
 Bottom of the tree, which has accustomed to bear the weight of the
upper portion and being older than rest of the tree, is always stronger.
Therefore bottom portion of tree should be used as bottom of the post.
The bottom of one tree should be joined with upper portion of another
tree to increase the length.

 The bottom portion should be used as lower portion of the post. The
harder portion should be in compression and softer portion should be
in tension.
 The portion expected to weather, should be on the outside and used
for mortise. The non exposed portion should be used in tenon.
 All pegs, nails or dowels should be of harder wood. Only wooden pegs
should be used in wood work.
 The lightweight variety of wood should be used for boats, balloon and
such other things
 In carts and other works where sudden jerks have to be borne, the
stronger variety should be used.
 In joinery similar woods should be used to avoid unequal expansion or
contraction.
 Seasoned and un-seasoned, old and new wood should not be used.
 Iron nails should not be used in wood sap. Nails should not be used in
sea going boats.
 A tree grows for eight months and rests for four months which are
suitable for cutting of a tree.
 To differentiate bottom portion of tree from top portion, the wood is
allowed to float on water. The portion which sinks is bottom portion.
 In mortises the hole should be smaller than the tendon to avoid
loosing of joint by contraction of tendon during drying with age.
B - Rejection of trees: Texts such as Rajvallabha, Shilpadipak, Goubhil
Gruhyasutra, Paraskar Gruhyasutra, Sukhananda Vastu and Brihatsamhita
gives various symptoms of trees which should NOT selected for construction.
Brihat Samhita 58.54-58) specifies that following trees should not be used in
engineering works. A Tree;
 in the vicinity of religious place

 struck by lightning (The tree lose its strength after the stroke)
 scorched by fire.( Fire softens the wood)
 Grown in covered area or grown along the roadside (It gives shelter to
passengers) or grown in unhygienic conditions.
 Broken by wind or impact of animals (vehicles).
 entangled by other trees or wound by creepers
 Grown in anthills or supporting honey beehive or grown on cremation
ground or which harbors vultures or owls.
C- Selection of trees for timber- Following trees are suitable
 Strong, fat trees, and having age neither more nor less, straight,
sacred mountain, forest and timber found in remote worship places
etc.
 Having enchanting appearance those timber are better for making

poles.
 The timbers obtained from trees having inside portion white in

appearance are best and if red, yellow, black colors then they are
lesser good. Straight, strong, desired
 Not affected by rain also where there is plenty of water then, the
timber obtained from trees growing in that area are good.
 If water or milk like fluid comes out, after cutting the tree then the
timber obtained that tree is good if the fluid reasonable red in color
then the tree is worth abandoning.
Table 1.4 - Worshiped Trees - Not for construction
Aamalak,Dunduka,Patali,Abhayaksha,Kantaka,Pindi,Agaru,Kapi

ttha,
Putrajeev,Aribhed,Karanj,Tilak,Ashwamari,Badari,Bakul,Karpur
, Karskar,Padmak,Varun
References
Mayamat 15.108-113, Shilparatna 14.81-84,
Vishnudharmottar Purana 2.29.50-52 & 3.89.7-10,
Samarangana Sutradhara 16.19020,Vishwakarma

Vastushastra 4.8
Seasoning of Trees For seasoning of wood, as per Mayamat, it should be

placed on sand with bottom portion facing wind blowing from west or south
direction.
Felling the tree - Mayamat mentions that before felling a tree, its branches
should be cut first to avoid unusual strains.
The wood deteriorates due to loss of oily substance. Hence Bhrugu Samhita
specifies that the wood should be painted to avoid the losses. An oil coat
should be applied every year after rainy season. After the wood is well dried
it may stored for preservation. SV1.5
Frames and door shutters - Manushyalaya Chandrika specifies that the

frames and shutters of doors/ windows should be of same type wood so that
the action of weather may be same on both. Unequal action produces
unequal strains and it is detrimental to architecture. SV1.6
Water retarding substances- As per Agastha Samhita or Brihat Samhita,

juice of coreless trees contains water retarding substances (lakh) and hence
the juice was used in preparing gas holders made of silk cloth in ancient

India. The last coating was given with the decoction of mash. The names of
such trees are Amalaki, Aamra, Bibhitak, Gawakshi, Haritaka, Kshirdrum,
Kadamb etc.
In tempering of steel, juices of various trees were used. Particular juice for a
particular tool was specified. Use of herbal plants for tempering of steel is
not discussed here
Timber Preservation
During discussions with some Sthapati (architects specialized in ancient

Shilpa Shastra), it was gathered that Gomutra (Cow's urine) and solution of
(Haridra) turmeric powder in water, were used to protect wood from attack
of termites. All wooden parts of Sphurti Aashram (at Godhani, on Nagpur
Koradi road) were treated as per this method, fifteen years ago and it is a
standing proof of the effectiveness of the method.SV1.7
Botanical Classification: In 1735 Carolus Linnaeus, in his book "Systema

Natrrae, classified plants". But according to Sushruta Samhita (6th Century
BC) plants are called Sthawar (non-movable) and grouped under four
heading, Ref. Table 1 below.
Table 1.5- Ancient Botanical Classification
Sanskrit Exact Explanation

Name Meaning
Vanaspa Lord of Large Trees which bear fruits

ti Forest without flowering
Vrukshy One that Trees, which bears both flowers

a gets cut and fruits.
Virudha that Herbs, which are stem less and

which spread out (bushes)

spreads
Oushadh Basis of Medicinal Plants which wither away

i digestion once their fruits ripen
Five senses of perception: As per Indian knowledge system all creatures

are divided into two categories -Living and moving. Any being which has
five basic senses of perception (hearing, touching, seeing, smelling and
tasting) is termed as living. The plants are living creatures as these posses
the five senses of perception. This is described in verses 11 to 18, chapter
184, of Mahabharata (3000BC), as a dialogue between two sages Bhrugu
and Bharadwaja. The meaning of the dialogue is as under;
 Leaf, bark, fruit and flower fade due heat. Because it (the
plant) fades and decays there is sense of touch.
 By sounds of wind, fire and lightening fruit and flower decay
rapidly. Sound is received by ear. Therefore plants hear.
 A creeper surrounds a tree; from all sides it moves. Unseen,
path does not exists; therefore plants see.
 Similarly, by a variety of good or bad smells (aroma) plants
blossom disease free, hence plants smell.
 By the drinking of water with their feet (roots), by exhibitions
of disease, sense of taste exists in plants.
 From the grasping of happiness and unhappiness, from the
healing of wounds I see life. Plants have sentiments.
 The heat and light digest the water drawn by the plant; the
digested water is converted into juices necessary for the growth.
As one sips water upward through a lotus stalk (straw), plant endowed with
air, drinks with its feet.

Mayamat specifies wood of certain trees suitable for making wooden beams
(as the wood is strong in bending).
Wood, stones and bricks are used to construct pillars, beams and roofs.
Trees, whose wood is durable, are described above.
As per Mayamatam trees which are suitable for low cost housing are given
below;
Ancient Indian engineering philosophy, comprise of ten sciences, thirty-two

techniques and sixty-four skills of engineering. All these sciences are
interlinked in one way or other. Hence one can find hundreds of references
of botany related to engineering.
Many ancient texts, describes engineering applications of various

components (Panchanga) of trees, plants, and creepers.
Fig.1.1 - Five parts of trees
The Engineering applications of botany can be grouped under following

heads.
 Adobe construction- brick earths, mud plasters, pottery, mud floorings

etc.

 Tempering of steel implements
 Water purification.
 Rainfall predictions.
 Gold plating of copper and silver
 Crack detection by herbal paints.
 Adamantine Glue.
 Lime Mortars and lime plasters
 Basic colors and pigments.
 Herbal paste for water divining.
The subsequent parts of this book contain engineering applications of
ancient Indian Botany.
Sanskrit Verses
वक्ष
ृ ाप्रसवारोषण क्रमादिक्रिया कृषी ॥ कृषी पाराशर
SV1.1 - Biological Sciences
अंत:साराश्च वक्ष
ृ ाः पनसतरूमुखाः सर्वसारश्च शक्कचिंचाद्या
स्तालकेरक्रमुकयबफलाद्या बहिःसार वक्ष
ृ ाः।
निःसाराः शिग्र्सप्तच्छ्दशुकतरवः किंशक
ु ाद्याश्च कार्यास्तेष्वाद्या
मध्यभागे बहिरपिच ततः सर्वसारास्ततोऽन्ये॥
मनुष्यालयचंद्रिका
स्निग्धसारा महासारा वध्ृ दास्तरूणेतराः ।
अवक्रानिर्व्रणा सैवग्रही॥ मयमत
SV1.2 - Indian Botanical Classification
पुरूषः खदिरः सालो मधुकः स्ततकस्तथा ।
शिशंपार्जूनाजकर्णी क्षीरणी पद्मचंदनौ ॥
पिशितोधंवनः पिंडी सिंहो राजादनः शमी ।
परू
ु षः बकुलः वन्हिक्षीरिणीत्येकमाद्याः ।

सध्दि
ु विमलसारास्थपि
ु कोकाः प्रसिध्दः
SÇI
inMbasnizir;aí @k> kakí kq)l>
itimsae ilku<cíEv pns> sPtp[Rk>
ÉaEma cEv gva]I ceTyady> SÇImhIéh>
mymt A 15
oidr> oaidríEv mxuk> ]Iir[I twa,
oatz<kuÐuma àae´ayeca<be sardarv>. mymt
d<t<c c<dn< cEv oidr> kidr> zmI
zakí it<dukíEv z<ku v¨]a %idSta> yui´kLpté
SV1.3 - Tree Classification by Gender
कर्ममंडपकेन्यस वालक
ु े परिशायतेत ् ।
प्रागंघ्न चात्तराग्र वा प्याशुश्कं रक्षसेत्पुनः ॥
मयमत
SV 1.4 Seasoning of Trees
शालाश्मर्थजकर्णी उर्ध्वाश्च पतनंशभ

ु ं ॥
मयमत
SV1.5- Felling the tree
एक जाति तरूभिः प्रकल्पितं व्दार

पादफलकादिकं शभ
ु ं ।
SV1.6- Frames and door shutters
द्रव्यनाशस्तु कालेन स्नेहनाशात्प्रजायते ।

तस्मात्तैलं सदालेप्यं हे मत
ं े शिशिरे ऽयवा॥

कर्ममंडपेचैव काष्ठं स्याद्रक्तरजितं ।
किवाग्नेदग्धतत्कुर्दंगारा वत
ृ हे तन
ु ा ॥ भग
ृ स
ु ंहिता
SV1.7- Preservation of Wood
तासां स्थावराश्चतुर्विधाः
वनस्पतयो वक्ष
ृ ा वीरूधा औषधय इति।
तासु अपुष्पा फलवंतो वनस्पतयः ।
पष्ु पफलवंत्यः वक्ष

ृ ाः ।
प्रतानवत्यःस्तम्बिन्यश्च वीरूधाः ।
फलपाकनिष्ठा औषधय इति ॥
सुश्रुत संहिता अध्याय १ परिच्छे द २९
SV1.8- Botanical Classification
उष्मतो म्लायते पर्णं त्वक् फलं पस

ु पमेव च ।
म्लायते शीर्यते चापि स्पर्शस्तेनात्र विध्यते ॥११॥
वाय्वग्न्यशनिनिनिघोषैः फलं पुष्पं विशीर्यते ।
श्रोत्रेण गह्ृ यते शब्दस्तस्माच्छृण्वंति पादपाः ॥१२॥
वल्ली वेष्ठयते वक्ष

ृ ं सर्वतश्चैव गच्छति ।
ना ह्यद्दष्टे श्च मार्गोऽस्ति तस्मात ् पादपाः ॥१३॥
पण्
ु यापण्
ु यैस्तथा गंधैधर्पै
ू शच विविधैरपि।
अरोगाः पुष्पिताः सान्ति तस्माज्जिघ्रंति पादपाः ॥१४॥
पादै ः सलिलपानाच्च व्याधीनां च दर्शनात ्।

व्याधीप्रतिक्रियत्वाच्च विद्यते रसनं द्रम
ु े ॥१५॥
सुखदःु खयोश्च ग्रहणाच्छिन्नस्य च विरोहणात ्।
जीवं पश्चामि वक्ष

ृ ाणामचैतन्यं न विद्यते ॥१६॥
तेनतज्जल्मादत्तं जरयग्नि मरूतौ ।
आहारपरिणामच्च स्नेहो वध्दि

ृ श्च जायते ॥१७॥
वक्त्रेणोत्पलनालेन यथोध्र्व जलमाददे त ्।
तथा पवनसंयुक्तः पादै ः पिबति पादपः ॥१८॥
महाभारत शांतीपर्व अ १८४
SV1.9 - Sentiments of Plants
पुरुषः खदिरः सालो मधुकः स्ततकस्तथा
शिशंपार्जुनाजकर्णी क्षीरणी पद्मचंदनौ ॥
पिशितोधन्वन: पिंडी सिंहो राजादनः शमी ।
तिलकश्च दृमा ह्येते स्तंभवक्ष

ृ ाः समीरिताः ॥
मयमत
SV1.10- Selection of trees for wood
निम्बासनशिरिषाश्च एकः काकश्च कटफलः
तिमिसो लिकंु च पनसः सप्तपर्णकः
भौमा चैव गवाक्षी चेत्यादयःस्त्रीमहीरुहः
मयमत अ १५
SV1.11-Female trees for beams
खदिरः खादिरो वन्हिनिंबः सालः शिलींद्रकः पिशितः ।

तिंदक
ु मथराजादनहोममधक
ु ाश्च पादपादपकाः
मयमत अ २५
SV1.12-Neutral trees for fire wood
पिशितस्तिंदकवक्ष
ृ ो निंबो राजादनो मधुकश्च ।
तालंच नारिकेरं क्रमुकं वेणुश्च केतकी चैव ॥
शीलिंद्रः स्तंभरूजा वैश्यानां चापि शूद्राणांम ॥
मयमत अ २५
SV1.13-Trees for low cost houses
तण
ृ ैस्तु मण्ृ मयं छाद्यमिष्टकाभिर्मृण्मयं च ॥ मयमत अ
२७
SV1.14-Hatched roof
**.**

2 ARCHITECTURE & CIVIL ENGINEERING
2.1 Rainfall prediction
Ancient text Kadambini mentions certain precursors of rainfall. It mentions

few precursors of rainy season.
 Flowering of certain trees can be linked to onset of rainy season. Rainy

season starts 45 days after Amaltash flowers bloom. Ref Fig. below.
 If creeper grows upwards or buds of small flowering plants decay without
flowering indicates immediate rains.
Fig.2.1 Flowering of Amaltash tree
2.2 Water Purification
1-Brihat Samhita (6th century A.D.): The chapter 54 describes surface

indicators for underground water springs. It also describes certain herbs for
water purification. Refer Table and Figure below.
2- Abhilishartha ChintamaNi (10th Century A.D.): This text mentions a

process of raw water purification. The ingredients needed are Khus,
Chandan, pippali, Nagarmotha, cardamom, and Multani Mitti for cover. All
ingredients are mixed and encapsulated in Multani Miiti dove. Peanut size

pallets are prepared and heated to 600 degrees in a furnace. See figure
below. One such palette is used for purification of 5 liters of water.
Experiments were conducted at VNIT Nagpur, to verify the information and it
was observed that;
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) increase from 5 to 11,

 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) increase from 51 to 220 ,
 MPN decrease from 2400 to 14.
The process patented by Dr. Deopujari & Dr.Mandavgane, 2011.
The figure 2.2.2, contains the original reference verse and the table gives
the ingredients used.
Fig. 2.2-Clay palette
Table 2.1-The ingredients for water purification as per B.S.

and A.C.
Sanskrit Name and part to be used English Name
Arjun (tree fruits) Arjun tree
Mushta (bulb of plant) Cypriol plant
Ushir (roots of plant) Khus grass
Chandvel (stem) Arvensis -A small climber
Amalaki (dry powder of fruits) gooseberry frruits
Kanakphul (fruits of) Mexican prickly poppy
Chandan (paste of core) Sandal wood
Pippli (fruits) Long pepper

3-Scientific research has proved that;
 Powder of Nirmali seeds removes the turbidity of water.

 Roots of Khus plant gives pleasant smell to drinking water
 Use of Basil plant (Tulsi) or Holy tree (Bael) leaf increase shelf life potted
water.
 Core of Jamul tree wood acts as algaecide, it destroys the algae in 24 hours.
 Seeds of drumstick tree also act as coagulant for turbidity removal.
Fig.2.3- Nirmali seeds and Khus grass roots
Fig.2.4- Core of Jamul tree wood and Seeds of drumstick tree
2.3 Adobe construction
General: Soil stabilization includes soil selection, treatment with organic

additives. Such soil is used for brick earth, mud walls, plastering, and outer
coat of idols, pottery, base coat of cave paintings and other purposes.
Functions of soil plasticizers are; to increase
1. workability with optimum water content
2. water repellent property

3. strength by increasing the density
4. Impart glazing to pottery products.
Ancient plasticizers can be grouped as
A) Extracts of herbs, fruits and tree barks: Trifala- Aamla, Hirda and
Behada,Wood apple, Holy tree fruit ,Barks- Khadir4, Arjun trees
B) Natural fibers: Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton or jute
C) Natural polymers: Cow Dung, Jiggery, Coconut water, Eggs, Green Algae,
rice husk, burnt coconut shell.
The Sanskrit alternate name for clay is “Dharmi” which means a material
changes its properties according to the requirement. The procedures for
manufacture of different clay products are described below.
1a Bricks and Roofing tiles: Yajurvedsamhita mentions about method of

preparation bricks and a special type of pot (Ukha). The soil was stabilized
by adding hairs of goat, fine sand, iron slag and stone dust. Shatapatha
Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag for soil
stabilization.
Mix extracts of barks of trees (Pipal and Agar) in wet clay. Knead the clay
daily for 30 day and the use for bricks or roofing tiles. Trifala is mixed with
water .and boiled till the solution is reduced to one fourth of original volume.
It is called Trifala-Kashaya. (Ref. Shilparatna).
The suitable soil is mixed with Trifala-Kashaya. The soil is kneaded for a long
period. The soil such prepared was used for plastering of walls.
Vastu Vidya Savyakhya describes the soil preparation as below,

• Add extracts of barks of milky trees, knead for one to ten days
• Add extracts of barks of Shirish tree, knead for one to ten days
• Add decoction (Kashaya), knead for 3 to 30 days
1b-soil stabilization for idol making: Additives- milk, yogurt, ghee, stone
dust; iron slag. Decoctions made from barks of Khdir or Arjun trees.
turpentine oil, resinous exudation of Sal tree, grass of kandru plant. Ref.
Tantrasamuchhyaya and Vastu Vidya
Preparation of soil by mixing various ingredients and the process of mud

plastering for idols is described in details in Sakaladhikar.
Suitable soil (white, red or yellow) is mixed with cow’s milk and tawny color,
linseed oil, floor of wheat and barley. A decoction is prepared by boiling
barks of Kshir and bakul in water
Clay balls are prepared and allowed to dry. Further lime and gum is added to
dry pulverized clay balls are allowed to mature for one month. Lime in 1:2
pats is added and the mixer is used for coating the idols. Ref.
Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD)
Fig.2.5-Fruits
2-Natural fibers are;
Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton, jute, spider’ web etc.

Fig.2.6- Natural fibers
3-Natural polymers
Cow Dung, Jiggery, Coconut water, Eggs, Green Algae, rice husk, burnt
coconut shell etc.
Fig.2.7- Natural Polymers

Fig.2.8- Hand molding of bricks
Shatapatha Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag for soil
stabilization.
Trifala (three fruits-Aamla, Hirda and Behda) are boiled in water till the
solution is reduced to one fourth of original volume. This decoction is called
Trifala-Kashaya. (Ref. Shilparatna).
The suitable soil is mixed with Trifala-Kashaya. The soil is kneaded for a long
period. The soil such prepared was used for plastering of walls.
Vastu Vidya describes the soil preparation as below,
• Add extracts of barks of milky trees, knead for one to ten days
• Add extracts of barks of Shirish tree, knead for one to ten days
• Add decoction (Kashaya), knead for 3 to 30 days
Case Study
13th Centaury Floating Bricks are still available at Ter and Dhoki Village on
Kurduwadi Latur Road, Maharashtra. These bricks are supposed to be
made by Saint Gora Kumbhar. The properties of these floating bricks are;
• Sizes in mm: 100 x 75 x 62.5 Min to 300 x 150 x 75.
• Weight in kg: 0.75 min to 3.15 Max.
• Density ratio (Std Brick/ Ter brick): 1.88 to 2.37
• Floating period prior to sinking in water: 4 to 40 hours .
• Probable Ingredients: Rice Husk creating partially inter-connected

pores.

Fig.2.9 -Brick Floating on Water
1b-Clay idols
Fig.2.10- Clay idols
As per ancient texts such as Tantrasamuchhyaya,Sakaladhikar and Vastu

Vidya soil is stabilized by additives like milk, yogurt, ghee , stone dust and
iron slag . Decoctions made from barks of Khadir or Arjun trees, oil, resinous
exudation of Sal tree, grass of kundru plant is added to the soil to be used
for idol making.
As per Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD) suitable soil (white, red or yellow) is

mixed with cow’s milk, linseed oil, floor of wheat and barley. A decoction is

prepared by boiling barks of Kshir and Bakul in water. Clay balls are
prepared and allowed to dry. Further lime and gum is added to dry
pulverized clay balls are allowed to mature for one month. Lime in 1:2 parts
is added and the mixer is used for coating the idols.
1d-Adobe floors
Fig. 2.11-Isabgol plants, seeds and mud floor prepared with Isabgol
Floors are made from poured and toweled mud mixed with psyllium hulls
(Isabgol).The mud is easy to work and acts as a binder when the floor dries.
It reduces cracking and increases strength.
2.4 Pottery
A- Earthen pots: Prepare a mixture of Swesha, Guggul and Kunda grass

(one sixteenth of clay) and curd (one eleventh of clay). Apply this mixture
to clay pot before baking in a furnace.
Mix floor of Satu, powder of Amaksh , Tatwasi and coconut water to clay in a
proportion of 8 parts of clay and 1 part of admixtures. Ref. Shilparatna
1.14.48
B- Glazing of earthen pots: Apply a mixture of Ghee, honey and Herb

powder (Kapittha, Bilwa and Niryas) to clay pots. This process imparts
glazing to the china clay pots.

Apply a mixture of milk ghee, honey and Herb powder (churni, Pipli,Marichi
and Rasani ) to clay pots. This process imparts glazing to the ceramic pots.
Ref. Shilparatna 1.14.15
C- Coloring of Clay pots: Mix sesame powder and resins of Kapittha and
Beal trees. Add desired coloring agent (Kushta, Red ochre, orpiment etc).
Polish the pot with the mixture to impart suitable color. Alternatively take
equal parts of Sandlewood, Karpur, Gorochan and Agaru . Add clay 6 parts
to the mixture in linseed oil. Apply this oil paint to earthen pots.Ref.
Shilparatna 2.19.18
1g. Ceramic pots
Prepare a mixture of Shraveshat, Guggul and Kunda grass (one eleventh of

clay) and curd . Apply this mixture to clay pot before baking in a furnace.
Ref. Shilparatna 2.19.11
A. Gadhi soils –white soil

Fig.2.12- Mud fort in Rajasthan
The main constituents are local soil, fine sand, cow dung, quick lime,
extracts of Belphal , fibers of jute and water for mixing.
The mixture is allowed to mature for a minimum period of 30 days and

kneaded every day.
2.5 Lime Mortars
Shilparatna mentions different techniques for lime mortars. Annexure 2

shows additives for lime plasters.
a-Lime Mortar
Grind ripe bananas, fibers of cotton and pulp of cactus and mix in slaked
lime to make a good quality lime mortar. Alternatively add decoction of
barks of trees (Pipal. Amla, Kadamb) and paste of black gram are added to
the slaked lime.
b-Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing

Lime prepared by burning conches (Shankha) or oysters (Shipi) is called
Sudha. Fine sand, decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana powder is
added to lime.
The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4 parts, Fine sand- 2 parts,

Banana powder – 1 part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are mixed by
rolling again and again.
c-Sunla
Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and mango
pulp are added to slake lime. Plaster made of these materials is non-
shrinking .
d-Waterproof lime mortar
Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk,
curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and
11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime.
E -Base coat for Cave Paintings
 Ajanta caves: Clay, cow dung, stone powder, rise husk and lime.
 Sirgirea caves: Tempered kaolin clay, rice husk, Coconut shell fibers and
lime.
 Bagh caves: Red clay, green gram, lime and jute. Mansoullas recommends
use of powder of conchs, katha, pulses, molasses, and boiled bananas.
Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of powder of dry unripe banana. Add
water to make butter like mixture. Such leveling coat gives a marble finish
to the wall surface. Repeat the procedure and store the liquid color in an
earthen pot.
Shilparatna (Part 1 and 2) mentions different techniques for lime mortars.

Many natural polymers are mentioned in this text.

Table2.2- Natural Polymers - for Lime mortar & plasters
1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers
2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee
3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers Silk cotton 19 Mustard cake

tree
4 Bee wax 20 Linseed oil
12 Green gram (Moog)
5 Belgiri (aegle pulp) 21 Powder of Cattle horn
13 Guggul
6 Black gram (Udad) 22 Resin of Sal tree
14 Hemp fiber
7 Brick powder 23 Rice husk
15 Jaggery
8 Clay 24 Saaf flower oil
16 Juice of Cactus
b- Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing
Lime prepared by burning conches (Shankha) or oysters (Shipi) is called

Sudha. Fine sand, decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana powder is
added to lime.
The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4 parts, Fine sand- 2 parts,

Banana powder – 1 part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are mixed by
rolling again and again. Ref.Shilparatna 1.14.68-69
Fig.2.13- conches and oysters
c-Sunla

Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and mango
pulp are added to slake lime. Plaster made of these materials is non-
shrinking . Ref.Shilparatna 1.14.70
8d-Waterproof lime mortar
Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk,
curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and
11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime. Ref. Shilparatna 1.14.70
8f- Leveling coat of lime plaster
Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of powder of dry raw banana. Add
water to make butter like mixture. Such leveling coat gives marble finish to
the wall surface.
Shilpdeepak" Ref. Fig. 3.6 also gives procedure to prepare lime mortars. The
steps are;
1. Take two parts of coarse sand,

2. Take two parts each of honey, ghee, banana pulp, coconut water,
black gram power mixed in water, decoction of barks of Rudrakshya
trees, Jagaery and decoction of Trifala
3. Mix the above materials to 100 parts of white powdered lime.
4. The mortar thus prepared is kneeded and pounded to prepare lime
mortar
Briquettes of soil and lime mixture should be made. After four months these
briquettes should be fired and then powdered. Such mortar is useful for
waterproof plaster for terraces. Ref. Fig. 3.7
2.6 Colors and Paints

The main purpose of colors and paints is to enhance the aesthetics of any
structure and to improve the durability. The related ancient Indian texts are,
Vishnudharmottara Purana ,Chitrasutra and Manosollas.
Basic Colors: White, yellow, red, black and blue are five basic (pure) colors.
All other composite colors are made from these colors. Ref.
Vishnudharmottar PuraN, Ch.27.
White color: White color is prepared from lime made of shells or mother of
pearls or from white clay (pottery clay-Kaolin). White color is prepared by
mixing resins of Neem or Wood Apple tree with white soil or lime. The
mixture is pulverized and dissolved in hot water. Ref. Fig.2.6.2
Fig.2.14 - Ingredients for white color
Yellow color: Yellow color is prepared from pounding yellow wood trees
(Haridra) and yellow soil (from hills or river banks) together. The mixture is
poured in clear water for two hours. The top yellow solution is stored in
earth pot till it dries. The dry powder is used for preparing yellow color.
Fig.2.15- Ingredients for yellow color

Red color: Red color is prepared from Sindur (Vermilion), Gaierik (Red
ochre), Hingul (Cinnabar) or Laksharus (Shellac) to get light, medium, dark
and very dark shades respectively. Red ochre is finely pulverized and sieved
through a muslin cloth. The powder is cleaned by mixing with water.
Vermillion is mixed in water and stirred for 12 hours. All these colors are
mixed with resin of Neem.
Fig.2.16 - Ingredients for red color
Black color: -Oil lamp is ignited in a mud pot. Inner surface of another mud
pot is smeared with powder of dry cow dung. This pot is place on the first
pot such that lamp black is coated inside the top pot. The lamp black is
cleaned with water before application.
Blue color: Blue color is prepared by drying a mixture of blue minerals or

indigo and resin of wood apple.

Fig.2.17 - Ingredients for blue color
Composite colors: Composite colors are made by mixing two or more basic
colors.
Organic Colors for Textile printing: wood of suitable color is selected

from forest. It is crushed into clean water and the mixture is filtered. The
process is repeated till desired consistency is achieved. The liquid color is
stored in an earthen pot.
Fig.2.18 - Organic Colors for Textile printing
C-Ajantha paintings
Ancient techniques mentioned in Shilparatna was successfully used for

restoration of Ajantha paintings Ref. Singh & Arbad, 2014

Fig.2.19- Restoration of cave painting
a - ingredients for the preparation of mud mortar, b - preparation of

adhesive extract, c - Preparation of soil + lime + aggregates mixture, d -
final step showing the preparation of mud mortar)
Fig.2.20- cave painting before and after restoration
Consolidation of paintings with newly prepared mud mortar
Experimental Studies
Research workers in different parts of world conducted experimental studies

on natural polymers and found positive results as claimed in ancient Indian

literature. These are summarized below. (Ref. Satishchandra 2003, ch. 12,
page 537-567).
Table 2.3-Research Details
Year Name Product Purpose Ingredients
1983- Chandra & Aavik Cement plasticizers- Black Gram+

mortar linseed oil
1985 Gangopaddhyay Light weight Heat insulation - CNSL, Cinder

concrete
1986 Jain water water proofing Belgiri, black

repellant gram ,CNSL
1990 Singh et al Lime mortar Restoration
1990 Singh et al plasters and Restoration Belgiri, black

mortars gram, Jaggery
Brushes and Hide glue : Ancient texts also mention about preparation of
golden color, brushes and hide glue but it is not included here.
2.7 WATER DIVINING
2.7.1-By Surface Indicators
Varahmihir (505 C.E- 587 C.E), the famous astronomer, mathematician and
astrologer of India, compiled a treatise "Brihat Samhita". Many modern
translations and commentaries on this text are available. This text is based
on the text "Krishi Parashar" of Sage Parashar. The title of chapter 54 is
Dakargala. (Daka is short form of Udaka or water and Argal means
obstruction). This text describes how the presence of some surface
indicators can be used to predict presence of underground water both in
quality and quantity. The indicators are
 Specific trees, plants, herbs and grasses

 Hibernating animals (Enjoying winter sleep- frogs, lizards, snakes,
alligators and tortoises)
 Anthills (Terrariums)
The chapter 54 contains 124 verses. For example few verses are quoted
below;
 Verse 6: If a Rotang tree is seen flourishing in a waterless tract,

there will be water at a depth of 7.5 cubits at a distance of 3
cubits to the west of the tree.
 Verse 9: If a fish or blue soil is met at a depth of 2.5 cubits,

there will be abundant water source.
 Verse15: If there is a Nirgundi plant excessively grown near a

anthill, then there will be sweet water at a depth of 11.25 cubits.
 Verse.85: Among a group of termite mounds, a water vein is

sure to be found below the taller of the mounds.
The simple rules mentioned by sage Parashar are as below;
1. The surface water or its flow does not indicate the underground
water conditions.
2. Many ant hills in a particular area suggest of good source of
water.
3. If certain types of trees (Country Fig, Shami or Pipal) are grown
in close proximity, then good water storage at that spot can be
predicted.
4. No site is completely devoid of water, but depth of water table
changes from place to place. If a hard rock stratum is met

during the digging well, water table cannot be expected till
bottom of this stratum.
5. If a white clay or sand stratum is met, one can expect good source of
water'
There are certain ground symptoms which indicate availability of ground

water. Ref. Table 2.7.1
Table 2.4 - Ground symptoms and underground water
Type A B C
Branches Long Medium Small
Fruits Juicy Non juicy -
leaves Without holes Small -
Soil color White or bluish Black Red
Species of trees Date palm, - Teak,

Arjun,Guava Shisum
Types of grass Munj, kush - -
Water quantity Abundant Moderate Less, at

great depth
Water quality Sweet Salty Bitter
A place where five trees (Vat, Oudumber, Pipal, Shami and Bel) exist side by
side is termed as Panchwati (a place of five trees). Abundant water is
available at such site at a shallow depth. Ref. Table 5.3 for botanical names.

Fig.2.22-Panchwati (a place of five trees)
2.7.2-water divining by herbal paste
Fig.2.21- Water Diviner
Dowsing is a method to locate underground water sources. Dowsing

technique includes use of pendulums, Y rods etc, to find metals, ores,
gemstones, oils and lost articles.
Breach child: If during birth of a child, feet appear first, such child is called
Breach child. Such person possesses some magnetic powers which are

useful for water dowsing. A person born as a Breach child person possesses
some magnetic powers which are useful for water dowsing.
If such person (born as breach child) is not available, dowsing can be done
by any person with the help of herbs mentioned in ancient Indian text
Mantrashastra
An herbal paste is prepared by grinding ten types of seeds or roots in cow’s

urine. Such paste is applied to the feet of a person who wishes to do
dowsing. This paste helps in locating underground water. Ancient Indian text
“Mantrashastra” describes the constituents of this herbal paste. Ref.Table
below.
Table 2.5- Constituents of herbal paste

Sanskrit Name English/ Latin
1 Vanhi Marking nut Tree-Prosopis cineraria
2 Koshataki Wild ribbed gourd -Luffa operculata
3 Vajri / Snuhi Holy Milk Hedge-Euphorbia neriifolia Linn
4 Swetark White_variety of Madar plant
Calotropis_gigantea
5-Girikarnika/ Shankhapushpi Butterfly pea -Clitoria ternatea
6 Vacha Vacha- Calamus -root
7 Patha / Phadvel Patha creeper -False pareira brava
8 Nirgudi Nirgundi Vitex negundo
9 Katutumb Bitter Pumpkin- lagenaria siceraria
10 Nimba Lemon Citrus × lemon
11Keshar / Nagkeshar Mesua Ferrea
12 Gomutra Cow’s Urine
Figures below describe the ingredients.

Fig.2.22a- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
Fig.2.22b- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
Fig.2.22c- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

Fig.2.22d- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
Fig.2.22e- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi

Fig.2.22f- Ingredient of herbal Mehandi
2.8 Adamantine Glues Ashtabandha and Vajralepa
The subject of preparation of adamantine glue is closely connected with that

of construction of temples, mansions etc., because that was very essential
for fixing idols, in constructing walls and the like when cement and other
modern materials were unknown. Even now these glues known as
Ashtabandha are prepared in temple premises for fixing or re-fixing images
of Gods. Only one authority viz. Maya, is mentioned by our author
Take the unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittha , flowers of silk cotton, seeds
of Sallaki , bark of Dhanvana, and Vaca ; boil all of them in a Drona (256
Palas )and reduce the decoction to an eighth of its original volume (i.e. 32
Palas). Mix the sediments with the following substances, viz. Sriviisaka (a
secretion of a tree used as incense, Turpentine?), Raktabola, Guggulu
,Bhallataka, Kundurilka, resin, Atasi and Bilva fruit . The resulting paste is
termed Adamantine Glue.
When this glue, being heated, is used in the construction of temples,
mansions, windows, walls and wells as well as in fixing Siva's Emblems and

idols of Gods, it will last for ten million years. Next he gives another
composition of this glue.
A bonding agent mortar or glue was very essential for fixing idols, in wall
construction, when cement and other modern materials were unknown.
Even now these glues, known as Astabandha, are prepared in temple

premises for fixing or re-fixing images of gods. Five prescriptions for such
glues are described in Shilpashastra
Ancient Indian texts such as Brhatsamhita of Varaha-Mihira and Mayamatam

of Sage Maya describes the materials and methods of cementing material in
chapter Vajralepa.
First formula:
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittaka, flowers of silk
cotton seeds of Sallaki, barks of Dhanavana and Vaca root. (Refer Table 1)
Table 2.6 - Ingredients for Adamantine glues
First formula mentioned in Brihat Samhita
SN Sanskrit English/ Latin
1.1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
1.2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
1.3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
1.4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
1.5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
1.6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
1.7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
1.8 Raktabola Myrrh
1.9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
1.10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium

1.11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
1.12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
1.13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos
All these ingredients (SN 1.1 to 1.6) are boiled 256 parts of water till the
decoction reduces to an eighth of its original volume (i.e.32 Parts).
The sediments are mixed with substances, such as. Shrivasaka , Raktabola,
Guggulu, Bhallataka, Kunduruka resin , Atasi and Bilva fruit.(SN 1.7 to 1.13)
The resulting paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated and
then used in construction of temple, and fixing Siva’s emblems and idols of
gods. It was expected to last for a million years. Ref. Brihatsamhita ch.56.
v-210-213
Second Variety -Adamantine Glue
Mayamatam
Ingredients-Lac, Kunduru, soot (lamp black), Guggulu, wood-apple,

Manjiostha resin, Bilva fruit kernel, fruits of Naga, neem,Tinduka , Madana ,
Madhuka, myrrh and Ambalaka.
Formula Explained in Shilparatnakar
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka (Diospyros malabarica) and

Kapittaka (Feronia elephantum), flowers of silk cotton (Morus Acedosa)
seeds of Sallaki (Boswellia serrata), barks of Dhanavana and Vaca (Orris
root).
Table gives the ingredients for adamantine glue.

Table 2.7-Terminology
Sanskrit name Botanical Common

name name/parts
used
Gruhdhooma - Soot
Amlaka Emblica Amla, anwla
officinalis (fruit)
Atasi Linum Linseed oil
usikatissimum
Bhallataka Semecarpus Marking ink
anacardium tree
Bilva Aegle Holy tree fruit

marmeJos
Dhanvana Dhawda Tree
Drona A leaf cone
Guggulu Commiflora Guggul
mukul (resin)
Kapittha tree Feronia Wood apple
elephantum
Kundurilka exudation of
Deodar
Laksha Lakh, lac
(resin)
Madanfal Randia Madan fala
spinosa (fruit)
Madhuka Cynometra Mahua, Moha
ramiflora (fruit)
Manjistha Rubia Manjistha
cordifolia (stem)
Nagfala Canthium Bagbala (bark
parviflorum of the shrub)
Neemba Azadirachta Neem
indica (leaves)
Rasa Raktabol,
Hirabol
(resin)
Sallaki Boswellia tree
serrata
Sarjarasa

Shalmali Morus silk cotton
acedosa tree
Sriviisaka a tree-resin
Tinduka Diospyros Tendu tree
paniculata fruit
Vaca Orris root Aris root
One of the disciplines in Brhatsamhita is adamantine glue called Vajralepa.

Brhatsamhita describes several preparations of Vajralepa, which means
coatings as strong as thunder bolt. The subject of preparation of adamantine
glue is closely connected with that of construction of temples, mansions, etc.
as it was very essential for fixing idols, and in constructing walls when
cement and other modern materials were unknown. Even now, the glue
known as Astabandha is prepared in temple premises for fixing images of
God. The ancient scripture on engineering and technology refers three main
formulations of adamantine glue, i.e. using metals and alloys, animal
matters and herbal.
There is another adamantine glue of excellent qualities already mentioned

which is also used for the same purpose. It is composed of lac, Kunduru,
Guggulu, soot (collected in the house), wood-apple , Bilva Kernel, fruits of
Naga Neem, Tinduka and Madana, Madhuka , Manjistha, resin, myrrh and
Amalaka.
[There is another reading Nagabalatinduk in the place Nagaphalnimb. The
method of preparation is the same as before
third variety of glue Hide Glue
A hide glue (Sirus or Shirus) is prepared from fresh skin of a buffalo cooked
in water till it becomes soft as butter. Water is allowed to evaporate. The
material is cut into small pieces are dried in sunlight. When needed the dried
piece is boiled in water. This is a substitute for resins of tree. This glue is
called Vajralep.

Adamantine glue using animal matter:
This type of glue is called as Vajratala (Adamantine Surface), which is

constituted by horns of cows, buffaloes and goats, hair of donkeys, buffalo-
hide, cowhide, Neem fruits, apples and myrrh. This mixture is boiled and
reduced to eighth of its original volume.
Fig.2.23- Hide Glue (Sirus)
Forth Variety of Adamantine glue using metal by Maya (mentioned in Brihat

Samhita).
The cement, Vajra-sanghata is to be compounded of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts

of bell metal and 1 part of brass, melted and poured hot. It is stated that
when this type of cement is applied to temple, etc. they last for around
thousand years. Vajra-sanghata means, composition as hard as thunderbolt.
According to Sage Utpala this compound may includes other materials as

well, but they are to be used in equal quantities.
Fifth Kerala Variety Astabandha (Compound of eight materials)
Preparing the mixture is a 41-day long procedure and the ingredients are;
1. Finely powdered conch,

2. gall-nut (Mayphal)
3. sealing wax ,

4. Fruits of gooseberry
5. Resin of pinus damar,
6. Cotton fibers
7. Medium sizes gravels #
8. Small sizes gravels #
# From the river Bharatapuzha in Kerala, India
The mixture is hammered by four or five men alternatively. During this

process one turns it with an iron spatula. For hammering, only wooden
hammers made of tamarind wood are used. The weight of the hammer
would be 8 to 10 kilos. The lump is very soft and malleable. It becomes hot
during the hammering and becomes hard like stone when the hammering is
stopped. An estimated 0.1 million hits of hammering are needed for a
kilogram of adhesive.
2.9 Stone Softening or crack detection Herbal paints
Microscopic defects in stones, which were invisible to eyes, were detected

by applying some herbal paints so that the defects were clearly visible.
Herbal paints for stone softening
• Mix powder Atis root, Hiracus and red ochre in milk. Apply this paint to
the stone and keep it overnight. OR
• Grind Jatamasi,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus and chor in milk add coconut

water. Apply the solution to the stone. OR
• Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari in rain water. Apply the
solution to the stone. Ref. Shilparatna Ch.14 and Varahsamhita.
• Dowsing is a method to locate underground water sources. This technique
includes use of pendulums, Y shaped tree branch.
CASE STUDIES

B. Brick temple at Sirpur M.P.
(7th century A.D.)
Fig.2.24 – Laxman Temple Sirpur
This temple is among the best examples of brick temples of ancient India.
B. Mud flooring.
Fig.2.25 – The flooring of palace

The floors of Padmanabhapurum palace (1601 A.D) in Kerala were made of
a material that is unique blend of burnt coconut shells, quick lime, palm
toddy, the whites of eggs and extracts of certain herbs.
Sanskrit Verses
अर्जुनोमस्
ु तोशीरै ः सराजकोशामककचर्णै
ू ॥
कनकफलसमायुक्तैर्योग्गः कूपे प्रदातव्यः॥

१२१॥
वराहसंहिता अ५४
SV2.1-Treatment of Well water
कणामस्
ु तकसंयक्
ु तमेलोशीरकचंदनः ।
मर्दितं मत्ति
ृ कापोण्डं खदिरांगारपचितम ्॥१८००॥
निक्षिपेन्निर्मले तोये सर्वदोपरे शुभे ।
कथितः पिण्डवासोऽपं सलिलपु विचक्षणै ॥१८०१॥
अभिलषितार्थ चिंतामणी
SV2.2-Purification of drinking water
ततःक्षीरागरै रीषत्वकक्क्कथत्रिफलांबभि
ु ः ।
मर्दयेन्मासमात्रंतु तत्कर्मकुशलैनरै ः॥
वयगोत्राममाक्षंच तत्वसीचूर्णसंज्ञितं।
वास्तवि
ु द्या १९-६ , शिल्परत्न १-१४-४८
SV2.3-Bricks and Roofing tiles
कार्पास्तंतवश्चापिसुक्ष्मं कृत्वा सुपेषयेद्।
त्रियबंकल्कभिन्नतु कदलीभिस्तदर्धवद्।

क्षीरदृममलाक्षणा कदं बाभययोरपि ।
त्वग्जलैस्त्रिफलातोयं माषजुषं च तत्समं ॥२॥
SV2.4-Clay Mortar
मद
ृ े ष्टांशंसमायोज्य नारिकेरफ़लोदकैः ॥२॥
श्रवेष्टं गग्ु गलंचैव कंु दरु

ु ष्कं तथैवच।
शिल्परत्न २-१९-१२
SV2.5-Earthen pots
मधुक्षीरघत
ृ ेनैवं मद
ृ पात्रेण योजयेद्॥
कपित्थबिल्वं निर्यासं चर्णौ

ू व्दौ समभागिनौ ॥१६॥
शिल्परत्न २-१९
SV2.6-Glazing of earthen pots
मद
ृ े पंचदशांशेवा तिलचूर्णं समंवित ॥
मर्दयेत्क्रमसाम्यार्क कुष्ठगेरिकतालकं ॥
चंदनागरुकर्पूर गोषग
ु ोरोचनंसमं ॥
सण्
ु मचर्णं
ू तक ु र्व्यं गोषग
ु ोरोचनंसमं ॥
अतसीस्नेहसंयुक्तं मर्द्येद्देशिकोत्तमः ॥
शिल्परत्न २-१९-१८
SV2.7-Coloring of Clay pots
तथासर्जरसाचूर्णं मत्ृ कलाशं शिवांशकं।
पात्रे मद
ृ ासमायोज्यं दधिना मर्दयेतसुधीः ॥३॥
चूर्णीचमिष्पली मरीची रसनी तथा ॥

शिल्परत्न २-१९-१३
SV2.8-Ceramic pots
दधि दग्ु धं माषजष

ू ं गड
ु ाज्य कदली फलै ।
नारिकेराम्र फलयोजलैश्चैतत्प्रकल्पयेत ॥३॥
आज्यं च कदलीपंकनारिकेरांबम
ु ाषयक
ु ।
शिल्परत्न १-१४-६०
SV2.9-Sunla or Lime Putty
कालाग्नि पक्व कदलीफल पिष्टं तु योजयेत ्॥
तपिष्टस्य प्रमाणं हि सध
ु ा वेदां शकं स्मत
ृ ं ।
नवनितमिवयाति यावत्तावत्सुपेषमेत ्॥
SV2.10-Leveling coat of lime plaster
क्षीरांगंत्वक्कषामं च क्षीर दधि ततो गड

ु ं ।
पिच्छिलंत्रिफलांभश्च त्र्यंशादिकमिदं क्रमात ्॥४॥
SV2.11-Waterproof lime mortar
संग्राह्य शर्क रासक्ष्

ु मा तस्याः
प्रक्षालनंकुरु।
तिलादकसमंपिडं सुक्ष्मचुरणातिथैवच ॥
कार्पासतंतव
ु श्चापि मद
ृ ं कृत्वासप
ु ेषयेत ्।
त्रियंबकल्कभिन्नंच कदलीभिस्तदर्धवत ्॥
नवनीतमिवायति यावत्तवस्सप
ु षेयेत ्।
भग
ृ स
ु ंहिता अ ४८
दधिदग्ु धं माषजष
ु ं गुडाज्य कदली फलै।

नारिकेराम्र फलयोजर्लैश्चतत्प्रकल्पयेद्।
आज्यं च कदलीपंकनारिकेरांबुमाषयुकः ॥
दग्ु ध्वाशंखादिकंकाष्ठै रचर्णि

ू तंहिसध
ु ाभवेत ्।
सुधाचूर्णचतुर्थंश मुग्द्क्वाथलवैः सह॥
गुलतोयेनसंसिचेत ् तच्चूर्णवलुकांवितं
गुलतोयत्रमाणंहि सुधातुयंशिमानतः॥
दोव्याक्षिप्त्वाचसंमर्ध
चित्रकर्माणियोजयेत ्।
SV2.12-Materials for Lime Plasters
चतस्त्रि
ु व्दयमासांते मटि
ु का युक्तिनिर्मिता
।
श्रेष्टमध्योत्तमाज्ञेया सुधा सौधदिंबधिनी

॥
शिल्परत्न अ १४
SV2.13-Lime mortar for terrace
सितवर्ण पीतवर्ण रक्तवर्णंच

कज्जलं।
एतानि शुध्दवर्णानि नीलवर्णातिथैनच॥
विष्णध
ु र्मोत्तर परु ाण अ २७
SV2.14-Basic four colors
शंखशंक्त्यादिकंवाथुसितमद
ृ धवलेभवेत ्।
कपित्थालिंबनिर्यास तोमैरालोड्यबुध्दिमान ्॥

पिष्ठवापन
ू ःपन
ू ः सन्मग्मस
ु लनउलखले ।
तात्पिसष्तमुष्णतोयेनसन्मगा लोड्यगालयेत ्॥
SV2.15-White color
अथदारूनपीतवर्णान ् रिनद्यादिसंभवान ्।
आदायशध्
ु दतायेन सक्षाल्यादै विचर्ण
ू येत ्॥
मंद किंचितशिलापष्ृ टे षयित्वाविलोड्यच।
शध्
ु दतोयैर्मद्दोपात्रे मह
ु ु र्त प्रतिपालयेत ्॥
तदध्र्ू वशसारतोय मधःपंकक्विर्जितं।
पात्रांतरे विनिक्षिप्य पुनःकुर्यादमुंविधि॥
एवं पुनःपुनः कृत्वा वान्निर्मलताभवेत ्।
तत्सारं नवमभ्
ृ दांडे मंदमालिन्य शोषयेत ्॥
SV2.16-Yellow color
मद
ृ रु क्तंतसि
ु दं रू ं गैरिकंमध्यरक्तके ।
ं ुलं किंवालाक्षारसंबुधैः॥
अतिरक्तेतुहिग
गैरकिकंतुशिलापष्ृ ठे दिनयेकंसुपेषयेत ्।
तत्कोषितंशध्
ु दतोयैः संग्रहे न्मग्ु दरादिषु ॥
दिनार्धपेषयेतब्द त्सिंदरू तम
ु नःशिलं।
निर्मलंपेषयेच्चेवपेषण्य ॥
एतेषांनिब
ं निर्यासतोयंसंयोज्य युक्तितः।
समर्धलेपेनक्रियाद्रव्येषच
ु प्रयोजयेत ्॥
SV2.17- Red color

अथतैलसमासिच्य वर्धमानेच्छवर्तिकां।
विन्यस्यप्रज्वले द्दीपं धटमादायमण्ृ मयं॥
शष्ु कगोमयचर्णे
ू न समज्
ृ जोदरमस्यच ।
तद्दीपोपरिदीपस्य संमुखंविन्यसेत्पुनः ॥
तत्रदीपाशिखोद्भतं कज्जलंतध्दटे दरू े ।
आलग्नंसम्यगादाय मद्
ृ घटादौविलेपयेत ्॥
मर्दयेग्निजहस्तेन भुयेदं र्य्पु

ू नस्तथा ।
शुध्दांबमि
ु श्रंसमर्ध बहुदाः योषयेत्पुनः ॥
SV2.18- Black color
श्यामधातूनयवमात्रं शुध्दतोयेनपेषयेत ्
पुनःकपित्थनिर्या तोयैःसमर्धयेत ्॥
SV2.19 - Blue color
अन्योन्ययोगात ् संज्रात वर्ण्भेदोऽयकथते । श्वेतस्यव्दिगुणं पीतं मिश्रंख्यातंतुपिग

ं लं ।
सितंरक्तेनसंयुक्त गौरच्चाविहिदृशते ॥१॥ कृष्णस्य द्विगुणंपीते मिश्रितंत्वबुसमि

ं तं ॥
५॥
श्वेतं कृष्णंचपीतंच समभागविभिश्रितं ।
तदे तण
ृ ावर्णःस्यात ् कृष्णंपीतंसमतुयत ्।
शास्त्रच्चवीतिविख्यातं वर्णकारसुखप्रदं ॥
२॥ हरितालं नीलयुतं शुकपक्षानिभंभवेत ्॥६॥
श्वेतंकृष्णंसमंमिश्रं गजवर्णमुदाहतं । लाक्षारसेन संयुक्तं हिंगुलंत्वतिरक्तकं ।
रक्तं पीतं समंमिश्रं बकुलस्यकालाकृति॥ लाक्षारसेन संमिश्रं कृश्णाबकुलाकृति ॥७॥

३॥
कृष्णनीलेन समिश्रं केशवरर्णमद
ु ाहतं ।
पीतस्यव्दिगुणंरक्तं मिश्रितंत्वति रक्तकं ।
एवंमिश्रकवर्णानि यक्
ु तासंयोज्यसंलिखत ्॥८॥
ज्वलनाभमिदं ख्यातं अग्निवर्णनिभंपरं ॥४॥

SV2.20-Composite colors
अथ दारुन ् इष्ट वर्णान ् गिरिनद्यादि संभवान ् ।
आदाय शध्
ु दतोयेन संक्षाल्यादौ विचूर्णयेद्॥
शुध्दतोयेन महापात्रे मुहुर्त प्रतिपालयेद् ।
पात्रांतरे विनिक्षिप्य पन
ु ः कुर्यादमवि
ंु धिं ॥
तत्सार नव मद्भ
ृ ांडे मंद मालिप्य शोधयेद्।
SV2.21-Natural Colors
लाक्षारसं जाति लिंग सितवर्णंच ॥२॥
न्यघ्रोधोंदब
ु र वट पिप्पल बिल्व दे वदारु वक्ष
ृ ाणां ।
क्वाथस्तैल समेतः काष्ठ पीठ शयनेषु ॥
SV2.22a- Varnish
वन्हिकोषातकी श्वेतार्क गिरिकर्णिका ।
वचापाठाचनिर्गुंडी कटुतंब्ु याश्वमल

ु कं ।
निंबकेशर्बीजानि गौमत्र
ु ःै पेषयेतशनैः ।
अनेन पादलेपेन पश्येत भूमिगतं जलं ॥
मंत्रशास्त्र
SV2.22-Ingredients of herbal foot paint
प्रासादहम्र्यवलभीलिंगप्रतिमासु कुड्यकुपेषु।
सम्तप्तो दतव्या वर्षसहत्राययुतस्थायो ॥४॥
बहृ तसंहिता अ ५६

SV2.23-Uses of adamantine glues
आमं तिंदक
ु मांस कपित्थकं पष्ु पमपि च शाल्मल्याः
।
बीजानि शल्ककीनां धन्वनवल्को वचा चेति ॥२१०॥
एतैः सलिला द्रोणः क्वाथयितव्योऽष्टभागशेषश्च।
अवतार्योऽस्य च कल्को द्रव्यैरेतैः समनुयोज्यः॥२११॥
श्रीवसकरसगुग्गुलुभल्लातककंु दरूकसर्जरसैः ।
अतसीबिल्वैश्च युतः कल्कोऽयं वज्रकेपाख्यः ॥२१२॥
प्रासादहम्र्यवलभीलिंगप्रतिमासु कुड्यकूपेशु ।
संतप्तो दातव्यो वर्षसहस्त्राय तस्यायु ॥२१३॥
SV2.24-Brihat Samhita formula
लाक्षागुलमधूच्छिष्ट गुग्गुलूनां समांशकाः ॥६४॥
एतेषां द्विगुण भागं ग्राह्यं सर्जरस तदा ।
गैरिकचूर्णकं तस्मादर्धंतु घनचूर्णकम ्॥६५॥
सर्वेषामर्धंतस्तैलं निक्षिपेल्लोहभाजने।
लोहद्रव्या चं कुर्यात पाचयेन्मद

ृ व
ु हिना ॥६६॥
अष्टबंधमिति प्रोक्तम्श्मवद् दृडबंधनम ्।
मयमत अ ६४
SV2.25-Mayamat formula
लाक्षकंु दरू
ु गुग्गुलग
ु ह
ृ धुमकपित्थबिल्वमध्यानि ।

नागफलनिम्बतिंदक
ु मदं फलमधक
ु मंजिष्ठाः ॥५॥
सर्जरसामलकानिचेति कल्कः कृतो व्दितीयोऽयम ्।
वज्राड्यः प्रथमगुणैरयमपि तेष्वेव कार्येषु॥६॥
बहृ तसंहिता अ ५६
SV2.26- Brihat Samhita formula
गोमहिषाणैः खररोम्णा महिषचर्मगव्येश्व ।
निंबकपित्थरसै: सह वज्रतलोनाम कल्कोऽन्यः ॥७॥
बह
ृ तसंहिता अ ५६
SV2.27-Hide glue
अष्टौ सीसकभागा: कांसस्य्व्दौ तुरीतिका भागः ।
मयकथितो योगोऽयं विज्ञेयो वज्रसंघातः ॥८॥
बह
ृ तसंहिता अ ५६
SV2.28- Vajrasanghata
संगह्ृ याष्ठौ सीसभागात ् व्दौ तथाशकंम।
रीतिकायास्तु संतप्तो वज्राख्यः परिकीर्तितः ॥

SV2.29-Utpala’s formula
तुल्यांशक्षीरपिष्टै स्तु विसकासीसगैरिकैः।
दृषदालिप्य निःशेषमेकरात्रोषितं भवेत ्॥१-१४-२२॥
कासीतचोरौगोक्षीरे पिष्टवाचालेपयेत शिला ।
मांसीकुष्टगयारात्रिं त्रिफलावारिदांबभि
ु ः ॥१-१४-३४॥
मासीरोगहवारियादजलैः सार्धपलनांत्रयं ।

पिष्टवामविलोचनास्तनभव
ु ा क्षीरे ण तां लेपतेद्॥१-१४-३५॥
शिल्परत्न भाग १ अ १४
SV2.30-Stone softening
***.***

3 MISCELLANEOUS
3.1 Mining -Breaking of stone blocks: The steps involved are;
1-Heating: The stone block is heated by make a pyre of wooden logs of

Palash or Tinduk trees. The heating is continued till the color of wooden logs
becomes bright red or orange.
2-Cooling: The fire is moved to adjacent area of rock surface. The preheated
surface is cooled down quickly by pouring certain types of liquids listed
below.
 Solution of quick lime in cold water
 Solution prepared by mixing buttermilk with rice paste, ripe berries.
 Solution prepared by boiling Neem leaves and some tree barks.
Ref. Brihat Samhita
3.2-Detection of Defects In Rocks
Microscopic defects in stones, which were invisible to eyes, were detected

by applying some herbal paints so that the defects were clearly visible. Ref.
Shilparatna 1.14.33-36 . Ref. Fig .x and Picture below.
• Mix powder atis root 1, Hiracus 2 and red ochre 3

in milk. Apply this
paint to the stone and keep it overnight. OR
• Grind Jatamasi 4,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus and chor in milk add

coconut water. Apply the solution to the stone. OR
5
• Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari in rain water. Apply the
solution to the stone.

Fig.3.1a- Ingredients of herbal paint
Fig.3.1b- Ingredients of herbal paint
3.3- Wood Varnish: Extract of barks of milky trees (Vat,Pipal,Umber, Beal

and cedar trees) is mixed in water. Mixture is boiled. sealing wax, Jatuling,
oil and Hingul is added. Such varnish is applied to wood for polishing and
preservation. Ref. Shilparatna 1.14
Fig.3.2- Wood varnish
3.4- Preservation of Ropes:Soak the freshly woven rope in coconut oil

mixed with ripe bananas and hide glue.
Fig.3.3-Preservation of ropes

Home Remedies
1-Hot decoction of Trifala is substitute of Drainex, to clean the chocked drain

water pipes.
2. Double boiled linseed oil prevents rusting of iron, can substitute under
coat for automobiles.
3. Double boiled linseed oil protects wooden doors and windows from white
ants. Second coat (oil paint) to be applied after one year.
तुल्यांशक्षीर्पिष्टै स्तुविसकासीसगैरिकैः ॥
दृषदालिप्य निःशेषमेकरात्रोषितं भवेत ्।
कासीतचोरौगोक्षीरे पिष्टवाचालेपयेतशिला ।
मांसीकुष्टगयारात्रिं त्रिफलावारिदांबभि
ु ः ॥३॥
मासीरोगहवारियारिदजलैःसार्धपलानांत्रयं ।
पिष्ट्वावामविल्प्चनास्तनभव
ु ा क्षीरे णतं लेपतेद्॥४॥
शिल्परत्न अ १४
SV3.1 – Detection of cracks in stone
..लाक्षारसं जाति लिंगं सितवर्वं च हिगुदं॥२॥
न्यघ्रोधोंदब
ु र वट पिप्पल बिल्व दे वदारू वक्ष
ृ ाणां ।
क्वाथस्तैल समेतः काष्ठ पीठ शयनेषु ॥
SV3.2- Varnish for wood
नारिकेलफलै तैल चर्मसार गह

ृ ीत्वातु सारादन्यास्त्रवाहता ॥
नाड्यःस्वहि संकल्य पश्चदावत

ृ ा नाडिका । शिल्परत्न २-१८-१२
SV3.3 -Preservation of Ropes
***.***

4- Mining & Metallurgy
4.1 Gold or Silver plating
An ancient text on botany mentions that “if juice of Palash flowers (Flame of
forest), treated with sulfur, is rubbed on copper surface, the surface shines
as gold”. Similarly, decoction of mixture of flowers juice and Hartal
(Orpiment) is used to make silver like lead metal. Ref. “Vanaushadhi
GunAdarsh” by Pade
Fig.4.1-Palash and Hartal
4.2 Lost-wax casting technique for metal casting
Dhokra also spelt Dokra) is non–ferrous metal casting using the lost-wax
casting technique. This sort of metal casting has been used in India for over
4,000 years and is still used. One of the earliest known lost wax artefacts is
the dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro. The tribal people of Bastar still use this
technique.

Fig.4.2- Metal statue
The steps in this technique are;
 The first task in the lost wax hollow casting process consists of developing a
clay core which is roughly the shape of the final cast image.
 Next, the clay core is covered by a layer of wax composed of pure bee’s wax,
resin from the tree Damara orientalis, and nut oil.
 The first layer, the closest to the wax sculpture, is the river bed soil, water
and coal powder applied with brush.
 The wax is then shaped and carved in all its finer details of design and
decorations.
 A paste of red soil with rice husk is applied to first dry solidified layer.This is
applied with hands. It is then covered with layers of clay, which takes the
negative form of the wax on the inside, thus becoming a mould for the metal
that will be poured inside it.
 A final coating of rice husk, sand and clay is applied to the entire surface of
the piece.
 Drain ducts are left for the wax, which melts away when the clay is cooked.
The wax is then replaced by the molten metal, often using brass scrap as
basic raw material.
 The liquid metal poured in hardens between the core and the inner surface of
the mould.
 The metal fills the mould and takes the same shape as the wax. The outer
layer of clay is then chipped off and the metal icon is polished and finished as
desired.
Fig.4.3- Ingredients for metal casting

4.3 Tempering or hardening of tools
The steps involved are;
Ref. Brihat Samhita Ref. Brihatsamhita ,ch.53. V 116-117
1. Heating the tool in fire until it becomes red hot.
2. Application of paste* of certain materials and / or dipping the red-hot

tool in a specific solution**.
3. Sharpening the tools.
*Paste is made of excreta of pigeon and rat, powder of horns of a buffalo,

milk extract of a plant (Mandar)
** Solution is mixture of buttermilk and ash of banana plant.
Sanskrit Verses
आर्क पयो हुडुविषाणमशीसमवेत ्।
पारवताखश
ु कृता च यत
ु ं पलेपः ॥
टं कस्य तैलमथितस्य ततोऽस्य पानम ्।
पश्चात ् शितस्य शिलासु भवेद् विधातः ॥११६॥
बहृ तसंहिता अ ५४
क्षारे कदल्या मथितेन युक्ते दिनोषिते पायितमायसं यत ्।
सम्यक्शितं नाश्मनि चैति भंगं न चान्यलोहे ष्वपितस्य

कौठयम ्॥
बहृ तसंहिता अ ५९
SV4.1 -Tempering of tools
**.**

5-AERONAUTICS
5.1 Air balloons
A- Waterproof cloth for air balloons: The juice of certain coreless trees
contains water retarding substances. The procedure for making a cloth
water/air proof is described in Agastya Samhita .Ref. SV5.1 and SV5.2 The
steps involved are;
 Apply three coats of decoction of barks of milky trees (Umber, Kadamb,

Mango, Hirda and Behda) to the cloth.
 Then apply three coats of black gram paste Soak the cloth in solution of
sugar and powders sea shells.
 Allow the cloth to dry to make it water tight.
B-Light weight wood: For seats of air balloons extracts of few trees are
specified in Agastsamhita.
Sanskrit Verses
क्षीरद्रम
ु कदं बाम्रा गवाक्षत्वगक्षैरपि ।
त्रिफलांबक्षि
ु रासितक्तं आपयुषैस्त्तस्ततः
कौषेकं जलबंधकं॥
अगत्यसंहिता
SV5.1 - Waterproof cloth
पलाशोरजकः पीडचंदनः सुखा उच्चते ।
बकुलस्तश
ु ुभः प्रोक्त पनस्तारकः स्मत
ृ ः
Fig.5.1 Palash tree अगत्यसंहिता
SV5.2-Light weight wood
***.***

6-EPILOGUE
It can be concluded that;
• Ancient Indian engineers had adequate knowledge of Indian botany

and knew how to implement this knowledge for strength, durability
and aesthetic purposes.
• With the advent of modern materials, organic materials were replaced

by synthetic materials.
• However secret of endurance of Indian heritage structures lies in

building materials and the construction techniques.
**.**

7 REFERENCES
A-Ancient References
• Aparajitprichha- (12th to 13th Century A.D.), Bhuvanadev Acharya,

Ed.P.A.Makkad,Gaikwad Oriental Series No. 65,(1950)
• Brihatitasamhita (Varahsamhita),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,

Mumbai (1945) and many others
• Kadambini (1999),Ed. And Pub. By P.S.Oza,Jaipur,
• Manasollas of King Someshwara,Ed. By Shirgondekar, G.K.,Pub.

Central Library, Vadodara, 1925.
• Mayamat,Ed.T.Ganapati Shastri, Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library

Series No.113, Thajavur,(1968).
• Pade S.D. (1973), “Vanoushadhi Gunadarsh “ ,Pub. Gajanan Book

depot, Mumbai
• Rig Veda (3000-5000 B.C)
• Sakaladhikar, - by Sage Agasta Sakaladhikara – Ed by V.G. Iyangar,

Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library, TSM Series No. 141 (1973),
Thajavur.
• Shatapath Bramhan (1400 A.D.),Ed.G.P.Upadhyaya, Pub. Oriental

Science research Institute, New Delhi.
• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub.Anantshayan

Sanskrit Granthmala,No.75,(1929).
• Shukla-Yajurveda Samhita- - Hindi Edition, Ed. Pandit Jwalprasad

Mishra, Pub. By Khemraj Srikrushadas, New Delhi
• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati Shastri,Gaikwad, Oriental
• Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.) of Narayan Nambudripad,Ed.

T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub. Ananta shayana Sanskruit Series No.
151(1919), Mysore.
• Vastuvidya Savyakhya,Ed. K.Mahadevshastri,Pub. Triverdram Sanskrit

Series No. 142,(1977),Tiruanantpuram.

• Vishnu-dharmottara Pooran of Ved Vyas, Ed.Madhusadna Sharma,Pub.
Khemraj krushnadas Mumbai(1911)
• Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas, Mumbai

(1945).
B-Modern References
 Atalkar P S et el (2006), “Preparation and testing of herbal adamantine

glue as described in Brhatsamhita”, Indian Journal of Traditional
Knowledge,Vol. 5(2), April 2006, pp. 259-262
 Nene, A.S. (2009),” Geotechnical engineering of ancient India”, Pub.
Pune Vidyarthi Gruha, Pune.
 Satish Chandra(2003),”Ancient Building Materials in India”, Tech

Books International, N.Delhi.
 Singh, M and, Arbad, B.R.(2014),” Ancient Indian painting

recipes and mural art technique at Ajanta”, International journal
of conservation science, volume 5, issue 1, January-march 2014:
35-
 Vaze, K.V. (1924), “Prachin Hindi Shilpasar” (Essence of ancient Indian

Engineering Philosophy) ,a Marathi Book, Pub. ,Varada Publications
Pune.
 Vaze, K.V. (1963),”Prachin Hindi Shilpashastrasar” Pub. Varda

Publishers, Pune.
***.***

8-ANNEXURE
Annexure-1 Terms related to adamantine glues
Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin
1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola Myrrh
9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos
Annexure 2-Organic Ingredient for Lime mortar & plasters
1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers
2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee
3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers Silk 19 Mustard cake

cotton tree
4 Bee wax 12 Green gram 20 oil

(Moog)
5 Belgiri (aegle'pulp) 13 Guggul 21 Powder of Cattle

horn
6 Black gram(Udad ) 14 Hemp fiber 22 Resin of Sal tree
7 Brick powder 15 Jaggery 23 Rice husk
8 Clay 16 Juice of Cactus 24 Saaf flower oil
Annexure 3
List of Indian Trees mentioned in ancient texts

SN Sanskrit English Latin
1 Aamalaki Aamla Embelic myrobalan.
2 Aamra Mango tree Mangiferra indica
3 Aasan Unknown Unknown
4 Aasav or Arwak Asava tree Asava Bridalia indica
5 Ajkarni Pagoda tree Tabernaemontana
6 Aksha Cork Oak Tree Eleiocarpus calamus
Hog plum, Wild
7 Amratak plum Spondias Magnifera
8 Anjan Aljana Hardwickia binata
9 Ankol Ankol tree Alangium Lamarki
10 Arishta Soapnut Sapindus trifoliatus
11 Arjun Arjun tree Terminalia arjuna
12 Arka or rui Mandar Calotropis procera.
13 Ashmantak arboria Gmelina arboria
14 Ashok Ashoka tree Saraca indica
Ashwatha or
15 Pipal Pipal Ficus relegoa
16 Badarika Jujube Zizyphus jujuba.
17 Bala Munj grass Munj grass
Marking Ink
18 Bhallatak tree Semecarpus anacardium.
Bhangraya
19 Bhardi Bhargi Unknown
20 Bhoum Jamoon tree Eugenia jambolana.
21 Bhouma Jumbba Java Plum Syzygium Cumini
Bibhitak or
22 Wanhi Behda Terminalia bellerica.
23 Bilva Holy fruit tree Aegle marmelos
24 Chaityadrum Colotropia Gigantis
Temple/Pagoda
25 Champak tree Plumeria ru bra
Sandalwood
26 Chandan tree Santalum album.
27 Chatra Unknown Unknown
28 Chatri Umbrella tree Poinciana regia.
29 Chinchini Tamarind Tamarindus indica
30 Dadim Pomegranate. Punica granatum
31 Devnal Unknown Unknown
32 Devnal Unknown Unknown
Dhanwai or
33 Akshit Walnut tree Alcuritea moluocana
Dhanwi or
94 Akshit Walnut tree Alcuritea moluocana
34 Dhava Arjun Dhavda Arjun Dhavda
35 Dhawa Arjun Dhavda Arjun Dhavda
36 Drumagulma Unknown Unknown

37 Durwa Grass Cynodon dactylon
38 Ebha /HastikarNi Unknown Unknown
Heart leaved
39 Garudvega creeper Tinospaora Cordifolia
40 Gawakshi Behada tree bellaric. Terminalia bellerica.
41 Haridrataru Hedu tree Nauclea cordifolia
42 Harija Cane Himalaya calamusfalconeri
Myrobalans Terminalia
43 Haritaki Amacha Hirda tree chebula
Indradanti or
44 Danti Indradant Baliospermum montanum.
45 Indrataru tree Terminalia Arjun
46 Jambba Java Plum Syzygium Cumini
47 Jati Jasmine. Jasmium grandiflorum
Cardiospermum
48 Jyotishmati Creeper Halicacobum Linn
49 Kachnar Kachnar Bauhinia variegata
50 Kadali Plantain Musa paradiasiaca
51 Kadamb Kadamb tree Anthocephalus cadumba
52 Kakodumbar Fir wood tree Falgu
53 Kampilak Kamala tree Mallotus philippensis
54 Kanchan Kachnar Bauhinia variegata
Solanum
55 Kantakarika Jacquini Solanum Indicum
56 Kapittha Wood Apple Limonia acidissima.
57 Karanj Poonga Oil Tree Pongamia pinnata
58 KarNikar Pangara Erythrina indica
59 Karvir /Karir Oleander Nerium Odorum
119 Kashmari Unknown Gmalena arberia
Myrica Myrica esculenta.Myrica esc
60 Kataphal esculenta ulenta
61 Keshar Saffron. Saffron&Tin- DanieleFontana
62 Ketaki Screw Pine Pandanus odoratissimus.
63 Khadir Catechu Acacia catechau
64 Kharjur Date palm Phoenix Sylvestris
65 Kikunch Lemon tree. Citrus lemon
66 Kokilakshya tree Hygrophila spenosa
67 Kowidar Kowidar tree Bauhinia tomentos
68 Kshirini Rubber tree Flueggia leuceoppyrus
69 Kush Kush grass Kush grass
70 Kutaj or Kutaki Coneru Picrohizo kuitoa.
71 Lodha Tilak Tree Symplocos beddomei
72 Madayantika Mehandi Lausonia Alba
73 Madhuk Butter tree Madhuka longifoli
74 Madhuk Butter tree Madhuka longifoli
75 Maleyak Cork tree oak Quercus suler

wild kidney
76 MashparNi bean Phaseolus munog
77 Murwa creeper Clematis triloba
78 Nadwat Bamboo Bambusa bambos..
79 Nagkeshar Unknown Mammamia longiflora
80 Naglata Beetle leaf Piper betle
81 Narikel Coconut tree Cocus nucifera
Jasmine
82 Navamalika creeper Jaspinum sp.
83 Nichul Unknown Unknown
84 Nilini Indigo Indigofera tinctoria
85 Nirgudi Nirgudi Vitex Negundo
Balsum white
86 Nishottar variety Unknown
87 Nishottar Unknown Unknown
Nyagrodha or
88 Vata Bunyan Ficus Indicus
89 Padma Ebony Pithecellobium flexicaule
Palash or Flame of the
90 Kinshuk forest Butea frondosa.
91 Panus Jackfruit Artocarpus integrifolia
92 Parijatak Nyctanthes arbortrist is.
93 Pilu Pilu tree Salvadora persica
95 Pindar Pindara tree Combretum ovalifolium
96 Pishit or Kharjur Date palm Phoenix dactilifera
97 Pluksha Black fir tree Ficus lusida
Poog or
98 Karamuk Areca Palm Areca catechu
Alexandrain
99 Punnag Laurel Ochuro-carpus logifolium
100 Purushak Falsa Grewia asiatia
101 Rajadan Pylchar. Buchanania lanzan.
102 Rohit tree Unknown
103 SaptaparN Alstonia Alstonia scholaris.
sarsaparilla
104 Sariva creeper Hemidesmusindicus
105 Sarja Teak tree Tectona grandis
106 Shak Teak tree Tectona grandis
107 Shak Babul Acacia Arabica
108 Shal Sal tree Shorea robusta
Thorny capar
109 Shama brush Capparis brevispina
110 Shami Sprung tree. Prosopis spyicigers
111 Shami Spung tree. Prosopis spyicigers
112 Shigru Drumstick Moring a pterygesperma
Albizzia lebbek Accacia
113 Shirish Rain tree Siris Sirissa

114 Shishamp Sissoo tree Dalbergia latifolia
115 Shishumar Creeper Unknown
116 Shiva Unknown Unknown
117 Shlemantak Bhokar tree Cordia latifolia
118 Shriparni Kayfal tree Myrica esculanta
Thorny capar
120 Shyama brush Capparis brevispina
121 Shyonak Shonak-Tetu Shonak-Tetu
Royal
122 Stathak Poinciana. Delonix regia.
123 Sthalpadmini lotus Creeper Ionidium suffruticosum
Wild sweet
124 Sukarpadi potato Dioscoren sativa
125 Suradruma Pine Cedrus deodara
126 Surja or simha Teak tree Tectona grandis.
127 SuvarNamra Bauhinia tree Bauhinia acuminata
128 Syonak Shonak-Tetu Shonak-Tetu
129 Tala Palmyra Palm Borassus flabellifer.
130 Tilak Tilak Unknown
Roxb Cabinet
131 Tinduk tree Diospyros melanoxylon
Red
132 Tishris Sandalwood Dalbergia aojeinenaia
133 Twakpatra Cinamum Cinamum tree
134 Udambar Country Fig Ficus glomirata
135 Ushir or ViraN Kuskus grass Andropogon muricatus
136 Varahi Creeper Dioscoren Sativa
137 Vartaki Unknown Unknown
Garlic-Pear
138 VaruN Tree Crateva religiosa
139 Vetus Rattan (Cane) Calamas rotang
140 Visha Mosses Musci
Vyadhighra or Indian
141 Suwarnak laburnum Casscia fistula
Thorny
142 Vyaghrapada Caparbrush Capparis brevispina
***.***

9-ABOUT THE EDITOR
Dr. Ashok Nene
 Designation - Former Professor of Civil Engineering & Dean VNIT, Nagpur.

 Specialization - Geotechnical Engineering.
 Qualifications -B.E., M.E. Ph.D. IIT Roorkee, MIGS, MISET
 Experience -Supervised more than 150 Consultancy projects involving Soil
Investigations, Quality Control Works, and Setting up Laboratories etc.
 Award - Khosla Memorial Award (1987) by IIT Roorkee, for Technical Paper
published in ASCE.
 Nomination - Nominated by Indian Geotechnical Society to Tech. Committee
TC-19 of International Society of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering
(ISSMFE) on "Preservation of Historical Sites" for one term of 4 years.
 Software - Developed six CAL-CAD Self learning Software packages for Civil
Engineering students.
 Patent - One patent on “Use of Geo-foam Geo-synthetics for expansive soils”
 Research Topics - Anchor foundations, Geo-synthetics, Software
development, Mnemonics, Shilpashastra, Erosion Control and Rural roads.
 Guidance-Two Ph.D. and Two M. Tech. Dissertations Completed.
 Two Ph.D. dissertations under progress.
 Publications -Published more than 50 papers in National and International
journals and conference proceedings.
 Web Uploads - More than 40 Papers & PPT presentations on science and
technology in ancient India are available on web, (Search words –ashoknene
OR ancient India).
 Print Books -
1. Pride of India (1994), Pub. By Sanskrit Bharati , New Delhi.
2. Prachin Hindi Shilpa Shastra (2010) Pub. By Nachiket Prakashan, Nagpur.
3. Geotechnical Engineering in Ancient India, (2011) Pub. By Pune
Vidyarthigruha Prakashan, Pune. (Included in a Time Capsule installed at
Paris 2013, as India’s contribution, submitted by Indian Geotechnical Society,
New Delhi).

 E-Books-Edited & Uploaded at the site Bookganga.com
1. Water Resources in ancient India.
2. Transportation engineering in ancient India.
3. Geotechnical Engineering in ancient India.
4. Building materials and construction techniques of ancient India.
5. Prachin Hindi Shilpashastra.
6. Shilpashastra -Engineering philosophy of Ancient India.
 Books under publication-
1. Engineering Techniques of ancient India.
2. Environmental Engineering in ancient India.
3. Khani Shastra –Mining and metallurgy of ancient India.
 Invited Lectures-Delivered many lectures. Last presentation at Indian
Science Congress, Mumbai, Jan 2015, on topic “Civil Engineering applications
of ancient Indian Botany.
 Mission - Efforts are being made to include an elective subject "Science &
Technology of ancient India" in the curriculum of Civil Engineering at
university level.
 Email ID - nene_ashok@yahoo.com or prof.ashok.nene@gmail.com
***.***

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Engineering Applications

Former Professor of Civil Engineering, VNIT

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 1

Chapter Topic Page

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 2

SN Title of Figures Page

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 3

3-List of Sanskrit verses

SN Subject of Sanskrit verses Page

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 4

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 5

Ancient Indian texts (Mayamat, Manushyalaya chandrika etc) however

1. Nissar – Trees having no hard core. Nissar trees are Ashwathha,

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 6

Table 1.1 - Indian Botanical

Nissar Antassa Bahhiss Sarvassar

Ashwath Aamra Nadwat Bakul

Bilwa Nimb Nariker / Shirish

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 7

1.2 Ancient Classification Systems of trees

The trees were classified in accordance to age, imperfections (gray shades)

To ascertain the stage of life of a tree, a bore through the stem, at 60 cm

1. color of the core,

 But signs such as a women, spiral, snake, headless person, partridge,

 Timber should be free from pores.

Pores on wood it were termed as,

 Nishkut - big pores

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 8

C- On the basis of gender

1. Masculine-Trees have uniform cross-section from top to bottom,

Table 1.2 - Classification by Gender

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 9

Aasan, Gawakshi, Likunch,Saptaparna,

Table 1.3 -Unsuitable Trees

Bilwa ,Chinchini , Kadamb,Kovider,Kutaj ,Lodhra, Mahadrum,Nyagridh or

Shirish , Shlemantaka ,Udumbar

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 10

 in the vicinity of religious place

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 11

C- Selection of trees for timber- Following trees are suitable

 Having enchanting appearance those timber are better for making

 The timbers obtained from trees having inside portion white in

Table 1.4 - Worshiped Trees - Not for construction

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 12

Mayamat 15.108-113, Shilparatna 14.81-84,

Vishnudharmottar Purana 2.29.50-52 & 3.89.7-10,

Samarangana Sutradhara 16.19020,Vishwakarma

Seasoning of Trees For seasoning of wood, as per Mayamat, it should be

Frames and door shutters - Manushyalaya Chandrika specifies that the

Water retarding substances- As per Agastha Samhita or Brihat Samhita,

1-Engineering Applications of Botany-2016 Page 13

During discussions with some Sthapati (architects specialized in ancient

Botanical Classification: In 1735 Carolus Linnaeus, in his book "Systema

Table 1.5- Ancient Botanical Classification

Sanskrit Exact Explanation

Vanaspa Lord of Large Trees which bear fruits

Vrukshy One that Trees, which bears both flowers

Virudha that Herbs, which are stem less and