GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY 2015

PRE-COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE: MODULE TDSHS 102

THE STONE AGE CULTURE TO IRON AGECULTURE

-Very little is known about the lives of the Stone age culture people
but iron users in Zimbabwe were premised by the hunter-gatherers
of the stone age people. They could have existed during the times of
the San and Khoisan-hunting and gathering.Some scholars argued
that the use of iron was brought in by the coming of the Bantu
speaking people while others argued that the local people
introduced the use of iron themselves. Despite this argument, it is
true that people started to make use of iron instead of stone in
making tools .The introduction of iron whether brought by the Bantu
or being introduced by the local people, fundamental social, political
and economic changes occurred in their communities which was
marked by great improvement in their lives.

STONE AGE PERIOD

This period was dominated by the San and Khoisan people who practised
hunting and gathering.Though the San were regarded as backward people,
some of their actitivities were far ahead of their time such as rock
art,preservation of food,burying of the dead,clothing,basket making,sense of
beauty,sharpening of tools,sharing of food,division of labour,fishing
techniques,hunting skills,family planning,conservation and nomadism.Their
social and economic life showed that they had the know-how to relate well like
any other human being and conquer the environment to sustain a living.They
were able to manipulate their environment for their survival.They depended
on what nature provided i.e as hunter-gatherers, they relied on their
environment for their survival-food i.e fruits,honey,game meat and insects and
got medicines from tree roots,leaves and bark.They got shelter from
caves,temporary shelter made from bush materials like tree branches,grass or
reeds.They got clothes from animal skins and firewood from the

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environment.They used ostrich egg shells for carrying water and tree bark for
carrying fruits.Fish was obtained from rivers and other aquatic
animals.However,despite the fact that the San depended on what nature
provided, they also found other means of survival e.g. they stole from the
khoikhoi and the Bantu.They also worked as cattle herders for the
khoikhoi.Thus, nomadism was a result of the San’s desire to live within an
environment that could furnish them with everything.

Impact of iron Age technology on the iron Age Zimbabwean

societies

Changes brought about by iron Age technology (use of iron)

A/.Economic Changes

-keeping of livestock ensured people of availability of food-milk and

meat-thus improvements in farming were accompanied by
improvements in the domestication of animals such as
cattle,goats,sheep. These improved the diet and could be
accumulated as form of wealth.

-improved crop production through use of iron hoes, plough, axes.

This revolutionised agriculture i.e increased food production-through

clearing and tilling of land-grass cereals such as sorghum and millet

were added to various roots,melons and bean crops.

-improved diet and lessened dependence on hunting and gathering

-improved hunting-became easier and big game was now hunted

through use of iron weapons such as arrows and spears.

-improved fishing

-improved mining –started which was traded with Swahili and Arab
traders on the Indian Ocean Coast.

-introduction of trade-regional trade and inter-regional trade

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-division of labour and specialisation

-exploitation of man by man

B/.Social Changes

-accumulation of wealth resulted in emergence of social classes ie

rich and poor people-social stratification

-population increase and growth of communities promoted building

of permanent homes and beginning of religion-worship of supreme
being and ancestral spirits-unifying force.

-development of permanent settlements

-development of large villages and groups

-rapid population increase due to food security

-division of labour according to gender,age and skill-formation of

social classes

-marriages intensified backed by payments of lobola

-specialisation in areas such as mining,blacksmithing,weaving,

basketry

-growth of villages leading to the quest for a clan leader

-religion-institution of social regulation (elders in society and those

people who had accumulated considerable wealth in cattle and
trade). This perharps formed the basis for a political idealogy based
on scarced leadership.

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C/.Political Changes

-bloody wars arising out of dispute over succession necessitated by

use of better iron weapons e.g spears

-formation of villages created the bases for chiefdoms for example

Leopold’s kopje and state formation e.g Mapungubwe and Great
Zimbabwe.

-state formation due population growth

-growth of villages leading to state formation and quest for

leadership

BANTU MIGRATION

Theories of Bantu migration

1.Murdock’s theory

-attributes the migration to have been due to the introduction of

crops from Malaysia like Banana,yam,taro and such crops resulted in
the of population hence the need to move.

2.Wrigley’s theory

-rejects Murdock’s theory and puts forward that the primary factor
was the knowledge of iron working not Malaysian crops.Iron
technology meant that they could clear large forest areas or defeat
weak groups as they went.

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3.Posnasky’s theory

-argues that both iron and introduction of Malaysian crops were

responsible for the migration.

However, there were other causes-search for better grazing and

farming land and competition for natural resources.However,the
nature of migration carried in the form of invasions but movement
was not massive exodus from one area to another but gradual taking
the Eastern,Western and Southern direction from the Katanga
region.

Reasons for the Bantu’s success over the San on the Zimbabwean
plateau before 1450

-better military organisation and tactics

-strong and durable shelter e.g huts

-food security due to crop cultivation

-the establishment of permanent settlements

-social cohesion e.g existence of chiefs

-use of more advanced tools and weapons

-superiority in numbers due to large population

Impact of Bantu migration on the region

-displacement of the san people from the Zimbabwean region

-Bantu permanent settlement on the plateau

-spread of iron age technology and end of stone Age period.

Contribution of Iron Age Sites in tracing the movement of Bantu

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Early Iron Age

Nyanga –found in the eastern plateau

-Ziwa-4th century to the 11th century –activities include pottery

metallurgy,bones,grains –these were archaeological remains

-human activities include animal husbandry,crop cultivation,trade etc

Gokomere pottery found in central Zimbabwe-Mabveni-6 th

century,Malipati-9thcentury,tunnel rock shelter-6th century,Zimbabwe
acropolis-4th century

Later Iron Age

i.Leopard’s Kopje-11th century-western Plateau

-Bambandyanalo suggested a southward migration-cattle

2.Musengezi (central Plateau)-13th –ivory trade

3.Mapungubwe-Southern plateau-trade and animal husbandry.

4.’Although the San were regarded as backward people,some of

their activities were far ahead of their time.’ Do you agree?

5.With reference to the movements of the Shona in Zimbabwe up

to 1000 AD, critically evaluate the theories of the spread and
diffusion of the Bantu.

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Rozvi state and its Rise
There is disagreement among historians as to the origin of the Rozvi state. The
word Rozvi ‘means’ destroyers. It seems to have been used by the Portuguese
and the north Eastern Shona communities to refer to the powerful army of the
ruling lineage of changamire family who fought Mutapa and the Portuguese in
the 1490s.The state may have adopted the name for itself. Oral tradition said
that the changamire dynasty got its name from one of its founder members
changa for whom little is known about him.

There are two main theories about its origins:-

A.Some historians believed that the Rozvi came from the area in the NE of
Zimbabwe Plateau between Mutapa and Torwa states. They invaded and
conquered all the Torwa state in the South west. Thus, the Torwa state was
taken over by another expanding Shona state (Rozvi) from the North east. The
weaknesses of the Torwa had facilitated the move as well as its riches (source
of attraction). The takeover by changamire dynasty was not particularly violent
and destructive but was more of mere absorption by a powerful state. It
appears to have been an easy conquest e.g intermarriages between the two
cultures could have cemented the fusion process resulting in its origin i.e the
stronger state absorbing the weaker state.

B.The Changamire state or dynasty (sub-rulers) had existed within the Mutapa
in the NE but following their unsuccessful rebellion against Mutapa in the
1490s caused them to move to the SW to avoid further retaliation. This
dynasty disappears from history but after 150 years later, the changamire
dynasty quite possibly related to the early changamire is recorded as being
based on the NE plateau. This was the area of its origin .Though the
information surrounding its history is scanty, various sources of history were
used to gather more information about its origin. It originated in the NE but
was not yet a state because it had no administrative boundaries but however,
the military strengths of the Rozvi State greatly impressed both the Mutapa
and Portuguese.

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-Other traditions of history suggest that the Rozvi state was a continuation
from a Torwa state probably under a new ruling lineage but certainly under a
new name after 1680.They refer to great conflicts between different ruling
lineages over who should rule Torwa centred at Khami and a new capital was
built at Danan’ombe in SW but however,not much is known about these
events.

Reasons for its Rise

1.Weaknesses of Mutapa and Torwa states---civil wars and succession
disputes within these states—this enabled the emerging powerful Rozvi army
to take advantage of this.

2.Portuguese involvement in the Mutapa was an added advantage to the

Rozvi army---the Mutapa state was shrinking while Rozvi state was growing
since the two were competing for geographical space

3.Charismatic nature of the first Changamire-military genius—who raised a

huge army which he used to carve territories out of Mutapa and Torwa states
and used this army to eject the Portuguese

4.Environmental factors

-Rich soils which encouraged farming and the area had enough rainfall and free
from tsetse flies thus promoting keeping of large herds of cattle.

-the area had a lot of gold and ivory,salt for trade

5. The impact of Maravi invasion and rebellions of its political provinces was
an added advantage for the rise of Rozvi state.

1.Analyse the rise to power of the Changamire rulers in the 1680s

Approach

-Factors that led to the rise of the Rozvi state

-weaknesses of the Mutapa rulers and Torwa state

-succession disputes

-Portuguese involvement

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-Maravi invasions

-rebellions by provinces

-charismatic nature of the first Changamire who:

-raised a huge army

-used his army to carve territories out of Mutapa and Torwa states

-used the army to eject the Portuguese

-had control over trade

-owned large herds of cattle

ROZVI DOMINATION IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURY AD

The Rozvi power grew in the late 17 th and 18th AD during the period of great
confusion and violence. It was a period when Portuguese were attempting to
conquer the Mutapa and Torwa states. The Rozvi army of the Changamire was
very strong enough to make war in areas far beyond the direct authority of the
Changamire e.g Portuguese trading post at Dambarare was overrun by Rozvi
army and were forced to abandon it and remained confined to the town of
Sena and Teve.Throughout the 18th century, the relation between Portuguese
and Rozvi was tense but peaceful e,g Portuguese paid tribute to Changamire. It
must be noted that the Portuguese traders were not allowed in the Rozvi state
but interaction between the two cultures was through the
vashambadzi.Changamire’s policies conficted with those of the Portuguese
because like any other shona leader, he was aware of the harmful
consequences of the Portuguese presence.eg during the battle of Maungwe
1684 –Portuguese were defeated.In 1693,another war broke out because the
Portuguese refused to pay tribute-Portuguese were defeated and vacated the
area. The Rozvi state was growing at the expense of Mutapa state i.e while
growing Mutapa was shrinking due to Portuguese influence for they were
competing for geographical spaces. The Rozvi armies are said to have been
famous throughout central Africa at the height of its power-operating as far as
Zumbo along the Zambezi valley to the north as far Manyika to the East.In the
SW,many kalanga communities as far as Soshangane Hills in Botswana paid
tribute to Rozvi until the 19th century. Most of the shona chiefdoms living in
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the plateau must have been tributary at one time to the Rozvi ruling class built
did not mean that Mambo ruled all over the shona chiefdoms e.g some
powerful chiefdoms refused to pay tribute to the Rozvi.The Rozvi power or
influence was not constant but sometimes it was at its peak, sometimes at its
lowest but however,the fact remains that it was the largest and most powerful
to many shona chiefdoms throughout this period. Its power was likely to have
been extended by force rather than a common culture/lineage e.g young men
from different chiefdoms and lineages may have been encouraged to join the
Rozvi armies by rewards in cattle captured by raids. One wonders why Rozvi
state offered the least resistance to Nguni incursion having ascribed as a
powerful state in the region e.g between 1743 and 1781, the Portuguese
requested to Rozvi protection against other groups in Zimbabwe as they
wanted to create favourable trading conditions for themselves, i.e a situation
which continued up to the 1830s when Rozvi power was destroyed by the
Nguni groups. Thus, the Rozvi dominance of the period in question can not be
denied but what we do not know at present is now local and regional histories
tie up to produce ‘a Rozvi past which has either been exaggerated i.e they
were sometimes presented as empire builders or mere collection of Karanga
dynasties united under the authority of Changamire. Rozvi power forced the
Portuguese to change their destructive trading tactics in the interior and they
eventually accepted Rozvi power e.g important victories of changamire against
Portuguese( 1680-1690)—Mutapa Maungwe and Manyika, their conquests of
Guruuswa (Torwa state)

RELIGION

Religion occupied an important position among the Rozvi people- believed in

supernatural being called Mwari up to 19th century. There was a strong link
between the Rozvi political system and their God-this belief in Mwari was later
on spread to other parts of the country where the Rozvi had never ruled. The
mwari cult affected most of the shona- Ndebele societies-they came to believe
that any misfortune in their lives was linked to their inability to please Gods i.e
issues such as inadequate rainfall, poor harvest and famine,wars,diseases were
associated with punishment from the Gods.The mwari cult is believed to have
been established at the Matopo shrines.

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ECONOMIC ORGANISATION

Like any other pre-colonial African society,agriculture was an important aspect

of Rozvi economy.Gold mining-Rozvi rulers had monopoly over gold mining
though ordinary people were allowed to mine their own gold. Tribute was paid
by vassal chiefs-gold,livestock or grains,animal skins and tobacco-but was not
paid in large amounts-was a sign of allegiance or neither was it paid regularly-
so it could not much to its economic base.Local trade was practised by
ordinary people who exchange grain and cattle for other basic goods because
agriculture was prone to drought-trade supplemented their economy. External
trade in gold was practised but not on a large scale.The Rozvi economy was
relatively stable with each of the economic facets contributing to the structure
of the economy.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION

-Covered an extensive area-north-west. Dombo resided at Danangombe in a

hut called Chitoramano that was located on a hill.Many villages were located
outside the royal court.The changamire was surrounded by kinsmen who
belonged to the moyondizvo lineage. Next were the non-moyo people who
had who had accompanied the Rozvi from the north East and the final group
were karanga who had settled in the south-west earlier on.

REASONS WHY THE ROZVI OFFERED LITTLE RESISTANCE TO NGUNI

GROUPS
1.Mzilikazi’s arrival in 1836---completed the conquest of the Rozvi and finally
settled.This could have been due to less competent rulers e.g Tohwechipi who
lacked political experiences. The impact of Ndebele was more of cultural than
military

2.Continued internal crises e.g civil wars, succession disputes. This could have
disrupted the political base of the state hence weakening its political structure
i.e order,stability and peace

3.Drought

This could have been responsible for the decline of its economic base i.e
successive droughts led to environmental degradation. This meant that

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agricultural economy i.e cattle rearing and crop farming was no longer as
strong as it used to be.Thus, drought weakened its economic base hence
causing unnecessary migration of people in search of good pastures for their
cattle. The state became stateless hence vulnerable to Nguni groups

4.Impact of earlier Nguni groups e.g raiders—Nxaba, Nyamazana, Maseko,

Soshangane—these had negatively ravaged the Rozvi state making it easier for
the Ndebele to complete the process which had already underway. These
raided cattle, women, grain.Its population were assimilated thus leading to
Rozvi depopulation. Nyamazana killed Chirisamhuru in 1836 and Nxaba also
attacked Rozvi.Some human bones in graves were discovered showing the
extent of their destruction but however one should not be blinded by the
impact of droughts within the state.

5.Superior military tactics of Nguni groups

These were fully equipped with Zulu tactics of Shaka-e.g the death of
Chirisamhuru left the state without a strong political leader but his son
Tohwechipi tried to command the state but this was not very effective because
of political divisions between the Changamire dynasty and Mutinhimira
family.This makes the state vulnerable to external attacks and then offers little
resistance.Some of the Rozvi houses placed themselves under the Ndebele rule
by 1840 possibly they did not want to be raided by the Ndebele. Michael Tidy
and D.Leeming pointed out that the Ngoni under Zvangendaba brought
disaster to large parts of central and East Africa destroying the Rozvi empire
e.g on their migrations they were like a swarm of locusts destroying anything
they pass by—used scotched earth policy i.e burning villages and their crops---
thousands of people were killed and dragged away to join the Ngoni army.
During these wars, the Rozvi people were unable to cultivate their fields and
sometimes crops were destroyed. They also attacked trade routes between
Danhamombe, Zumbo and Masekesa.In the final analysis, agricultural
production ,trade and gold mining declined thus weakening the economic base
of the state. Again their herds of cattle were raided and Nyamazana with a
small Ngoni army fought against the already weaked Rozvi empire resulting in
the killing of Chirisamhuru leaving the state without a competent leader.Young
men were also raided affecting agriculture.

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6.Size of the state----too vast to be ruled by one leader

People were scattered all over the region such that there was no effective
control –thus some sub-rulers started to rebel against Tohwechipi—resistance
in paying tribute thus affecting the economic status of the state

7.Civil wars and succession disputes

The 18th and 19th century was characterised by civil wars thus worsening the
political situation of the state—struggling for power among the Rozvi families :
Changamire vs Mutimhira family e.g Swabazvi Lukuluba remained jeosousy
towards the legal successors (Changamire dynasty) A weak economic base
coupled with a weakening political system resulted in a gradual loss of
territory by the Rozvi i.e there was lack of control over the vassal chiefs who
paid tribute to Changamire dynasty.Such groups started to mount raids against
the Rozvi people.

8.Depletion of resources

e.g gold and ivory-trading items no longer able to sustain the Rozvi economy.

STUDY QUESTION

1.’The Rozvi state was violently disrupted, though not completely destroyed
by the Nguni incursions’ Discuss.

Approach

-Mfecane produced raiders like Nxaba, Nyamazana,Mzilikazi,Soshangane who

ravaged the Rozvi state

-other Nguni groups who passed through the Rozvi state were Zvangendaba
who raided for cattle,grain and women

-Mzilikazi arrived in 1838, thereby completingthe conquest of the Rozvi state

and settled.

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IMPACT OF NGUNI INCURSIONS ON THE ZIMBABWEAN PLATEAU
OR SOCIETIES-ROZVI 1830-1860
The question is the extent to which some Nguni groups affected the various
shona/karanga groups in Zimbabwe up to 1860.The Nguni groups were
brought about by the Mfecane, the great disturbances of Southern Africa often
associated with state formation in KwaZulu Natal.In Zimbabwe, many
historians think it brought to an end to the Zimbabwean culture following
extensive raiding and killings,absorption of some people in to their
groups.Many people are said to have been forced into hills and mountains to
seek refuge however some of these accounts have been exaggerated.The
Nxaba group and Gaza Nguni arrived in the region first before 1830 and their
effects are felt in Manyika,Tete and Sofala. Later groups arrived after 1831 but
these too are hardly felt as they fought among themselves and were moving
rapidly across the plateaus e.g Zvangendaba’s group. However,it was the south
western regions that were badly affected e.g Changamire Rozvi were overrun
by Nguni and their state centred at Danan;ombe and Manyanga were
destroyed. The Rozvi eventually succeed in driving away these groups but at
considerable loss to their army and leadership.The Ndebele arrived in 1840 but
by that time there were no other Nguni groups left in Zimbabwe except the
Gaza-Nguni.The Ndebele occupied the kalanga in the south west and
established a considerable tributary area. The Ndebele impact on the local
kalang should not only be seen in terms of raiding but acculturation
(language) .By 1860, this process was already in motion such that the
Rozvi/karanga identities were no longer apparent.The groups involved were:--
Ngwane-Maseko-Ngoni, Zvangendaba-Ngoni,Nyamazana’ s group and
Mzilikazi-Ndebele.Each of these groups weakened shona societies in various
ways though the Ndebele are said to have inflicated the final and decisive
blow.

Beach says that the impact of Mfecane on Rozvi state have been exaggerated?
What was being exaggerated?----------Negative impacts as opposed to positive
impacts.The question of raiding was raised and it became a problem among
the shona societies but it must be remembered that raiding was a way of life
which was their way of life even during Shaka’s time in Zululand but however it
did not generate such catastrophe.With any incursions,the process of

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dispossession,dispersions and acculturations were inevitable.In the final
analysis, shona societies were disrupted by Nguni groups through constant
raiding----imposition of their dress,customs,language were effected for the
purpose of common identity thus shona societies were culturally absorbed
thus assuming Nguni identity.e.g Gaza dress and weapons were brought in and
this brought a culture of raiding of weaker groups. Thus ,socially, economically
and politically, the shona societies were negatively affected e.g cattle were
raided by the Ndebele which was part of their economy and it was also raiding
which als affected their political control of their sphere of influence e,g some
shona placed themselves under Ndebele influence possibly because of fear to
be raided by them.This further created political divisions among the shona
societies e.g Nxaba restocked its human population and cattle by raiding the
Manyika and Teve.

.TRIBUTE PAYMENT

Sometime force was used to those who rejected-Rozvi economy was not
destroyed but weakened.

-Ngoni invasions brought untold sufferings and destruction on Rozvi state e.g
villages were destroyed and thousands of people perished-some excavations
were carried out and some human bones were discovered thus reflecting the
extent of the destruction and violence to the state but however successive
droughts could have led to similar extent of destruction.It must be admitted
that nguni invasions disrupted their economic,social and political life e.g
agriculture and trade with the Portuguese

POSITIVE IMPACTS
1.New military skills of fighting were introduced along zulu lines

2.Idea of centralisation of power ,unity ,loyalty to the rulers was demonstrated

to the shona society by Mzilikazi-state formation process was also brought in
by Mzilikazi as a state builder i.e people of different cultural backgrounds were
infused together through inter-marriage and adoption of shona religion and
Ndebele language

3.New kind of unity was demonstrated though Ndebele society was stratified

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4.Rozvi never came under Ndebele influence

-the Rozvi collapsed through the influence of nguni groups but the shona never
came under the control of the Ndebele except those who lived closer to their
kingdom .e.g the new changamire Tohwechipi successfully resisted Ndebele
raids who attempted to expand in Mashonaland but the struggle went up to
British invasion in 1890s.Those who fail to pay tribute to Mzilikazi were the
ones who were raided

5. Concept of peace was brought in by nguni groups e.g sometimes the

Ndebele made peaceful arrangements with the shona e.g the Ndebele got
youngmen to strengthen their army and in turn gave the shona cattle but with
no right ownership.The Ndebele did not disrupt their trade with Portuguese
but they slotted into the pattern of shona long distance trade.It must be noted
that Ndebele raiding was exaggerated by European
missionaries,explorers,traders to justify their existence in Zimba

Effects of Ndebele-Gaza raids on the Shona

-Eurocentric views-outline of the exaggerations and scholars associated with

these.

-Afro-centric views –arguments to counter these exaggerations e,g Ndebele

policy towards their adoption of Ndebele-Gaza culture

-instances of peaceful co-existince between the Ndebele-Gaza and Shona

NB/ High level of ANALYSIS needed.

3.Analyse the rise to power of the Changamire rulers in the 1680s

Approach

-factors led to the rise of Rozvi state

-weaknesses of Mutapa and Torwa states due succession disputes

-Portuguese involvement

-Maravi invasion

-rebellions by provinces

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-charismatic nature of first changamire who raised a huge army,used his army
to carve territories out of Mutapa and Torwa state,used the army to eject the
Portuguese

-had control over trade, owned large herds of cattle.

Role played by trade and religion in the Rozvi state

Approach

 -trade brought new forms of wealth-used to reinvest in the construction

of elaborate stone buildings such as Naletale,Dhlodhlo,Zinjanja etc
 -trade was also responsible for the expansion of the Rozvi
 -the Rozvi managed to restore the pre-17th century trading patterns
involving vashambadzi which the Portuguese had to destroy
 -some of the items obtained were given to vassals as rewards
 -used gold and ivory to obtain foreign goods e.g beads,cowries
shells,cloth,

IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION

-Religion was not generally different from that of the rest of the shona-used as
a unifying factor

-religious authority centred on Matopos,Manyanga,and Matonjeni

 -The Mwari cult was believed to manifest himself in lighting-they

interpreted his commands.

-in other areas the high god,Mwari was approached through mediums,men
and women who claimed to be possessed by the spirits of the founding
fathers-Dzivaguru,Nehanda and Chaminuka-reinforced the political
systems.They intervened in the case of political disputes over succession-even
rulers regarded themselves as divinely appointed.

-therefore,religion acted as a stability factor in the Rozvi state

-the relationship between politics and religion was enhanced by a number of

rituals which clustered around the Rozvi Mambo.

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MUTAPA STATE-ORIGIN AND RISE OF MUTAPA STATE
Theories or versions and their validity in relation to the rise of Mutapa state

Mutapa state is regarded as a conquest state i.e there was a conquering army
under Mutota in the Dande valley.It is argued that the state was an offshoot of
Great Zimbabwe state but however authors point out that the relationship
between Mutapa and Great Zimbabwe state was obscure or not clear. Little is
known on how Mutapa state came into being. Portuguese record sources
could be used to reconstruct its history but there is a problem of reliability of
these sources i.e 1420-1470 the dating is very inaccurate and unreliable so one
has to rely on oral traditions collected during the 18th and 19th century.

Independent theory

Some questioned whether Mutota existed especially Beach. Abraham does

not link Mutota with Great Zimbabwe but with Guruuswa that is
environmental term rather than a specific place because the dynasties are
claimed to have been originated in Guruuswa.This is referred as an
independent theory which rejects an element of migration of people to the
North from Great Zimbabwe. Though,this theory sound more convincing
considering the availability of resources,it lacks archeological evidence hence
its validity is questionable.

Migration theory

The second version with regards to the rise and origin of the Mutapa state is
linked to Great Zimbabwe e.g evidence of similar stoneworks at
Chitakochangonya i.e Mutota’s capital i.e archaeological evidence indicates its
link with Great Zimbabwe in terms of similar stoneworks. According to
archaeology,Great Zimbabwe’s culture had spread far beyond its vicinity of its
ruins and started to fall in the middle of the 14 th century for reasons which are
not clear.Mudenge says that it spread even as far as Mozambique coast and
the lower Zambezi.Despite archeological evidence,oral traditions also
suggested that factors like civil wars,overpopulation,decline in gold
production,shortage of salt,fall in trade ,vastness of Great Zimbabwe state
could have le to the downfall of Great Zimbabwe hence marking the rise of a
new state quite similar to Great Zimbabwe in the north.It is suggested that

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some groups under Mutota started moving northwards from Great Zimbabwe
towards an area already in touch with Great Zimbabwe.

Oral traditions sources have given the version of the conquering army from
Great Zimbabwe under the leadership of Mutota thus overpowering Tavara,
Tonga in the north searching for salt.Its foundation was a gradual process
through assimilation of the conquered groups in the Dande area.Thus,
environmental factors like availability of good pastures,ivory,good fertile
soils ,good rainfall and weak societies could have attracted this intruding group
from Great Zimbabwe to settle there. However, push factors such as
deterioration in natural resources i.e salt,gold, ivory,copper,and succession
disputes,civil wars at Great Zimbabwe could have forced some of Gumanye
culture people to move away in search of green pastures. The salt theory has
been overused to explain the critical shortages of most basic necessities in
their way of life.Thus, both push and pull factors could be used to explain the
rise and origin of Mutapa state.

In the final analysis, the well accepted version today is of the migratory group
from Great Zimbabwe with a strong army which was used to conquer the
inhabitants in the north e.g Tavara,Tonga.The rationale behind the acceptance
of this version is the similarities of stoneworks between Great Zimbabwe ruins
with those at Chitakochangonya.Thus, the change of environmental conditions
at Great Zimbabwe could have led people to look for new areas i.e shortage of
pastures,mineral resources,salt,firewood etc.

FACTORS FOR ITS EXPANSION

When the group started to get settled,the expansion process started to take
shape under the leadership of Mutota and his successors e.g Matope.

1.Installation of his relatives in charge of vast empire e.g Nyamhita i.e one of
his daughters controlled the Handa district

2.Personal advantages-had some divine position from his ancestors i.e he was
feared by his people who saw him as a barometer of the condition of the state
e.g a health king,means a health state. This instilled an element of unity based
on fear(forced unity)

19
3.Alliance system

-was used to expand the state i.e making vassal chiefs paying tribute in form of
gold and ivory.

4.Strong conquering army

-this enabled him to establish himself among the local people e.g Tavara,Tonga
hence consolidating his state

5.Marriage alliances

-this created more relatives and this approach is credited for more relations
with local people.

6.Availability of mineral resources,salt

-this promoted external trade and trade relations with foreigners

DOWNFALL OF MUTAPA STATE

The Mutapa state had largely declined before the arrival of the Portuguese
why?

1.Succession disputes of inexperienced Mutapas e.g Nyahuma-this affected

the political stability of the state.Succession disputes seemed to be one of the
common problems prevailed in most shona traditions and were not handled
properly.This could have attracted foreign intervention hence facilitating its
downfall.

2. Civil wars

There were civil wars among the Mutapa people as result of succession
disputes e.g Chikuyo against Nyamanda in the 1490s and Negomo vs Chiputo in
the 1550s.This division in the state weakened the political base of the
state.They weakened the moral fibre of the state and divided people.The
division within the state resulted in the creation of puppet rulers e.g Mavura
allying with Portuguese against fellow rulers.It was now a state within a state
where Portuguese were controlling the state through use African rulers.They
intensified internal political division and disunity within the state.

3.Rebellions from vassal chiefs

20
These included chiefs like Changa and Togwa of Guruuswa,laying the basis of
what was to become the Rozvi Empire.Thus, the rise of Rozvi mambos from the
Mutapa group had a strong bearing towards its downfall.Emergence of other
strong chiefdoms like Uteve and Barwe offered great challenge to its survival.

4.Incompetent leadership

The incompetence leadership of Mutapa rulers were demonstrated by Gatsi

Rusere,Chioko,Mavura whose weaknesses were manipulated by the
Portuguese to their advantages to interfere into the internal politics thus
creating a state within a state i.e planting the Portuguese colony-i.e the royal
fire was made useless thus the vassal chiefs Madanda and Uteve broke
away.Thus, the state became too vast for young inexperienced and
incompetent leadership.Thus, weak rulers after Matope could not effectively
implement the centralised system of Mutapa.

5.Series of droughts

This roughaged the state to its decline.There was also outbreak of epidemic
and plagues which killed many people

6.Rebellions from vassal chiefs e.g Changa of mbire and Togwa of Guruuswa
laying down the basis of what was to become the Rozvi empire.The state had
become too vast to such an extent that the rulers lost firm grip of control of
the state.

7.Loss of Manyika ,Teve,Danda provinces had left the authority of Mutapa

confined to Dande,Chidima and Zambezi valley. From this, it can be argued
that the Mutapa had lost a large part of its territory in the 15 th century.Its
downfall was rather gradual as evidence by its loss of provinces. The
Portuguese only arrived in the Empire in the 16th century when the had already
reduced and became weak, the Portuguese were only responsible for a fall of
the small remnant of the state.However, the Portuguese should not be
completely dismissed since they completed the process of decline of this state
through their intervention.

NB/ Portuguese only arrived in the empire in 16 th century when the state had
already reduced and became weak, thus the Portuguese were only responsible

21
for a fall of the small/remnant of the state. However, Portuguese also played a
role to complete the process of decline how?

FOREIGN INTERVENTION

1.Threats from the Portuguese through charismatic and military expeditions

e.g Fransisco Barreto in 1569 and Vasco Homen in 1574-These did not lead to
the downfall of the state but their failure to effectively penetrate the state
encouraged other Portuguese to come in dozens in order to plant a colony.
The death of Gonzalo da Silveria really attracted Lisborn to take some
measures against the conservative elements of the Mutapa people.This
Portuguese missionary was killed because Christianity had weakened the moral
fibre of the state and again had divided people.

2.Loss of land ---their agricultural economy was paralysed through creation of

prazo system i.e large pieces of land was taken by the Portuguese.This affected
their economic base on crop farming.

3.Control of trade and mining now being controlled by Portuguese.Again,

Portuguese were no longer paying tribute to Mutapa rulers.This negatively
affected the economy of Mutapa.

4.Intermarriage were practised resulting in the creation of mulato

population.Cultural erosion was inevitable.The Portuguess used the chikunda
army to curb opposition and recruit cheap labour.

5.External threats from the Rozvi at Guruuswa e.g campaign of 1684-85 –was
a crushing blow on the state in 1695 thus Portuguese joined forces with the
Rozvi.

6.Division within the state-resulting in the creation of puppet rulers e.g

Mavura Mhande.It was now a state within a state where Portuguese were
controlling the state through use of African rulers. They intensified internal
political division and disunity within the state.

7.Exhaustion of natural resources through trade with Portuguese

The Portuguese were actively involved in mining of mineral resoures that

resulted in the depletion of these resources.This negatively affected the
economic base of the state.
22
8.BSAC marked the final end of Mutapa state after the Portuguese gave in
fearing British authority.

9.Maravi invasions

Summay on Portuguese factor

-Portuguese infiltration was as the main cause of the Mutapa state’s downfall –
i.e Portuguese interference in the political ,economic and social affairs of
Mutapa

1.installationof puppet kings

2.use of Achikunda army

3.prazo system

4.slavery and slave trade

5.use of forced labour in the prazos

Portuguese factor/foreign intervention

-Mutapa relations began to be sour in 1561 after the death of Gonzalo Da

Silveira.Portuguese embarked on military campaigns which were not successful
but distrurbing and also increasing Portuguese interests in the Mutapa.Gatsi
Rusere sought and got support of the Portuguese to crush Chiraramuro and
Matizuanhe’s rebellion.Portuguese started dictating pace of political
events.When Gatsi died in 1624,Mavura become a puppet ruler and this lasted
to the 1660s.Portuguese were now benefitting from the gold fields and the
Prazos became a melting pot of the Mutapa culture

23
GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
Introduction

It is the biggest and best known state of the many Madzimbabwes structures
scattered in the sub-Saharan Africa and in Zimbabwe in particular.These
Madzimbabwes share similar archaeological style with dry stone walling.The
stone structures seem to have been built for defensive purposes, to show the
powers of the kings, prestigious,ritual purposes,protection and privacy.There is
great controversy as to who actually built those stone structures.There is also
debate as to the major reasons for its rise and how it declined as well as its
economic system.It is located to the south-east of Masvingo town.

There are various theories which were advanced on the origins and
construction of GZ but in some instances,it was deliberately distorted. E.g
distortion is seen in those who have tried to deny the local origins of GZ and
point much to foreign influence.The debate here is that, Who built it?.There
are theories which have been advanced to possibly explain the people who
built it but today,there is no general consensus on who actually built it.

The assumption was based on the view that anything good in Africa was due
to the work of whites.(Hamatic hypothesis-ie any good in Africa was subjected
to the work of foreigners on the basis that Africa is viewed as cradle of
mankind while Asia was the cradle of civilisation). It is believed that GZ was
built by the Jews and Phoenicians or unforgotten whites without much
verification and analysis. Euro-centric historians base their arguments on
complexity of stone structures, existence of foreign goods. However,
archaeological findings and oral traditions leave no doubt that they were
African creation. This is a striking example of the generally held belief that
African negro had played a passive part in history for example, the Lemba who
were multi-skilled particularly the Tavakare clan of the Lemba who were the
mansons and it is believed that they were the designers and builders of stone
structures. Afro-centric theorists argue that artefacts at Great Zimbabwe are
similar to contemporary shona (Karanga) and so many Madzimbabwes are
found throughout Zimbabwe.eg Afro-centric theorists like James,E. Mullan give
credit to locals.

24
 Such assumptions made by colonial historians tended to create a situation
among professional and nationalists historians to have detailed research on
the history of GZ. This has created an intellectual crisis. The writings of African
historians as a counterview at last were rather cosmetic in over glorifying
African achievement especially in this case of GZ. It was more of attacking
racism by racism thus making African past unpleasant. It is agreeable that the
idea of state formation could have diffused from coastal areas into the interior
by traders.The initial ideas of state formation had already begun though not
complex as one might suppose. Historians like Beach, Peter Garlake and other
archaeologists such as Getrude Caton-Thompson and Randall Maclver came
out in support of the local origins of GZ. Those against local origins include Carl
Mauch, James Theodore Bent, Ian Smith, Cecil John Rhodes, Richard Hall,Joao
de Baros

THE RISE AND EXPANSION OF GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

INTRODUCTION

There is no single factor which can be used to explain the rise and
expansion of the state.Several factors have been suggested by
historians basing their arguments on different historical sources i.e
others used oral tradition while others used archaeological evidence
and written records.

1.Downfall of Mapungubwe state.

After about the 12th century, the Mapungubwe state was the
dominant formal political state in south Africa. It is generally
regarded as the predecessor to Great Zimbabwe. The rise of
Mapungubwe was associated with the introduction of livestock
between Limpopo and Shashe valley. Acquisition of livestock
facilitated the relatively stable economy that warranted
developments of settlements. The area between the shashe and
Limpopo rivers offered good grazing ground for livestock. Gold was
later introduced at Mapungubwe but it was not all that significant.An

25
important aspect of the economy was the trade in ivory. The fall of
Mapungubwe was a result of several factors. It is believed that an
increase in livestock led to deterioration of grazing lands and
ultimate inadequate food supplies for the animals.The situation was
worsened by periodic droughts and veld fires. There was an ultimate
reduction in livestock productivity hence the decision by the people
to abandon the area.There was also change in trade routes as people
migrated to other parts of the continent.At that point in time, the
disintegrating state meant that the economy in that area was no
longer sustainable at a time when prices of gold have gone up.These
chances were seized by the people of Zimbabwe plateau as they had
access to alluvial gold which enabled them to take control of gold
trade with the east coast.In the process, the people at GZ controlled
markets that had belonged to Mapungubwe. With the expansion in
gold trade, the people of GZ strengthen their political power
especially at the time the demand for gold was at its highest.The
rulers at GZ started to build a bigger settlement area and to
consolidate their political power.The rise of GZ coincided in the
growth of Kilwa—a trading post on the east African coast.Since the
12th century Kilwa had become a new city-state and was ruled by
moslem dynasty called Shirazi who manipulated and bought goods
from the interior—GZ was one of the suppliers of trade goods.GZ
was the most successful and largest of all states in Southern Africa
2. Role of Trade(trade theory)

The other argument is that GZ arose as a trading centre.Archaeologists have

found evidence of important trade goods such as ceramics,glass beads made
from Persia which are evidence of external trade.Trade brought new forms of
wealth to the people of GZS.The weakness of this argument is that the state
did not lie on the famous trade routes e.g Sena-tete route and Zambezi-
limpopo route.Again, the area had very little trading goods like gold, copper
and ivory but however,these trading items were available due to local trade

26
with the interior people and due to raiding through use of their strong army
and payment of tribute.Its strategic position enabled them to exploit the
interior resources in the western part of the region.

-Curtin points out that the fall of Mapungubwe’s external trade in ivory and
gold further north to the Zimbabwe plateau with its richer gold deposits in the
western Zimbabwe-led to the rise of GZ as an entreport or commercial centre
which resulted in the accumulation of new forms of wealth. This indicates the
fundamental role of trade as one of the bases of GZ’ s economy. Pwiti concurs
with Curtin that the direct fall of Mapungubwe’s foreign trade with the coastal
people –Arabs/Swahili saw the rise of GZ. This suggests that there was no
competition for this interregional trade—i.e trade monopolisation-full control
of the interior i.e producing areas. Garlake views the control of trade as the
prime factor in the growth of the state and main bases of its economy.It is
expected to have played a part in its development i.e its importance enabled
concentration of people at GZ thus becoming an entreport than a political
centre.Trade brought new forms of wealth that intensified its political base and
social stratification which was already in existence----rich people gained
political power.

-Through trade,ideas of state formation could have been spread (Hamitic

hypothesis).Trade is seen an enabling factor for its growth,rise and
development.The state was already in existence.

3 .Strategic position of the state

Location of GZ is very questionable in relation to desired resources .i.e gold

and ivory.The area had little gold and ivory and most its trade items were
through raiding the iron age people living in the western part of the region
where gold and ivory were plenty- the state used its military power to gained
trade items.The army was also used to enforce payment of tribute in form of
gold and ivory.Thus, external trade with coastal people helped to consolidate
political centralisation of the state which had already been achieved through
cattle accumulation. This indicates the diversity of its economy based on trade,
tribute payment,cattle accumulation and raiding of weaker societies.
However,being strategically positioned with the coastal people, they managed
to acquire gold and ivory.Archaeological evidence turn to prove this

27
interregional trade by presence of Chineseware, Chinese bowls, ceremics,
beads etc.

NB/ It is believed that both theories—hamitic hypothesis and independent

theory with regards to the rise of the state complement each other e.g Africans
could have borrowed ideas to build such elaborate buildings(stoneworks)
similar to those in East African coast e.g Kilwa, Malindi.

3.Cattle accumulation/pastoralism

Great Zimbabwe arose as a result of pastoralism.This argument is convincing to

a reasonable extent.There is large evidence of cattle keeping by large
quantities of cattle dung and bones excavated by the archaeologists in
graves.Secondly, the area had palatable grass which was suitable for cattle
keeping and area was tsetsefly free hence conducive for cattle keeping.Good
climatic conditions were favourable for animal husbandry.The fact that it was
densely populated support the notion that there were lots of cattle to sustain
the population in terms of food hence promoting population growth.

-the initial economic base of the state was cattle accumulation while trade was
an enabling factor for its further expansion.Trade promoted concentration of
people at GZ centre resulting in the emergence of large community that
required some kind of political control –i.e beginning of leadership roles within
the state.Some scholars argued that luxurious goods had no relevance to the
state’s expansion.

David Birmingham says ‘the management of transhumant cattle economy

more than gold mining led to different forms of wealth and emergence of
kings’. Beach concurs that cattle enabled men to marry more wives who had
many children who helped to strengthen the military might of the state.This
cattle accumulation led to population growth,increase in wealth and
strengthen the military power that was used for raiding purpose to acquire
gold and ivory.Thus, GZ’s economy was so diverse and complex which
complimented each other for sustenance of the state.However, the major
weakness of this argument is that it fails to explain the role of ordinary people
as cattle ownership was a preserve for rich or ruling elite.

5.Crop farming

28
-Central to its economy was crop farming which led top population growth and
settled settlement.

6.The role of the army

-One of the arguments put forward was that GZ grew as a result of militaristic
activities which gave rise to the state.It conquered and absorbed weaker
groups in the region.The army enforced the payment of tribute to consolidate
its economic power.

7.The role of religion

-one argument is that GZ rose as a religious centre that was for praise and
worship (praising God through spirit mediums) e.g there were some symbolic
birds dotted around the Hill signifying that they practised religion which acted
as a unifying factor.Supporters of this argument also associated the conical
tower with sheveron pattern on clay pots with religious activities-faith theory
based on oral tradition and archaeological evidence.

PURPOSE FOR BUILDING GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

QUESTION

1.’Great Zimbabwe was built by the Shona for defensive purposes’ Discuss.

-was built for defensive purposes

-was a symbol of power and emblem of prestige, honour and privacy

-was built as a religious centre

-expression of fertility and success

-was a trade center or entreport

NB/ Use archaeological evidence to support their arguments

WHY GREAT ZIMBABWE DECLINE AS A CENTRE OF POLITICAL

POWER AND WEALTH DURING THE 15TH CENTURY
There are a number of possible factors that could safely account its demise

1.Environmental catastrophes e.g drought and aridity

29
-this really affected their economy based on farming –crop cultivation and
livestock keeping

2.civil wars

-It should be stressed that neither written records nor archaeology has been of
much help in understanding the demise of GZ but what is clear is that from 15 th
century there productive reduction of GZ following the emergence of new
centres elsewhere on the Zimbabwe plateau in the north.Perharps the rise of
polites elsewhere challenged the authority of GZ e.g Ingombe
illede,Torwa,Mutapa. Civil war is a practical possibility but remains poorly
documented or completely unremembered in oral traditions.It must be noted
that there is divergence of explanations regarding its decline both as a town
and centre of a powerful state.

3.Change in the environmental conditions i.e environmental

degradation,siltation,exhaustions of resources like salt,firewood,pastures,

-Its fall is closely linked to the change in the environment which occurred
sometime in the 15th century.Thus,ecological upheaval caused considerable
stress to the people at GZ and its immediate periphery. However,this
explanation remains largely inconclusive because neither archaeological nor
historical records are of much in telling us what led to the fall of the state. Oral
tradition refer to fall of GZ to critical shortage of salt.This salt should be seen as
an environmental factor rather than taking it literally.Oral traditions have
overemphasise to severe shortage of salt but it alone could not have led to the
fall of GZ. Salt must be seen as an important item in the ways of life of people
as well as trading.It has been suggested that salt shortage mentioned by oral
tradition may indicate shortage of good pastures and food supply.Thus, the
general shortage of salt may have disrupted people’s way of life and trade.This
explains why Mutota decided to move away due north in search of salt in the
Dande valley.It must be noted that the general reduction of natural resources
must have been a gradual process which reached dangerous levels.It is
important to highlight the importance of trade and environmental factors
towards the downfall of the state.

4.loss of control of external trade/change of traded routes

30
-If the status of the town of GZ, resulted from surplus wealth from trade,one
can argued that GZ had lost the ability to control trade to the north e.g the
gold and ivory trade to the Sofala coast had shifted north from Sub-Lundi valley
towards the Zambezi valley in the north, just as it had previously shifted from
Shashe-Limpopo valley to the Save valley marking the downfall of
Mapungumbwe state.This could have caused some people to move due north.

5.Internal revolts/succession disputes

-one may speculate that competition within the ruling families may have
caused dispersion of people from GZ--,Mutota and small group of people.He
was an ambitious ruler who wanted to form his own state.—succession
disputes forced Mutota to move north with his followers where he built a new
state just similar to GZ in terms of stoneworks at Chitakochangonya hill.

6.Political size of the state

-GZ became too vast –that it was unable to supply the basic necessities of life
to the people e,g food,wood,good pastures—overpopulation thus causing
environmental degradation

7.Challenges of new states e.g Mutapa,Torwa or rise of new states

As fewer and fewer goods moved through their hands(Gumanye culture

people), they were no longer able to channel benefits to their clients where
possible,their followers sought benefits elsewhere,e.g Mutapa. Thus, the rise
of Mutapa and Torwa states have diverted and disrupted the long standing
markets of the people of GZ e.g by 15 th century GZ ceased to have commercial
significance as this was verified by the early Portuguese sources which were
silent about the state in the early 16th century.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1.Account for the fall of Great Zimbabwe by the mid 15 th century

2.To what extent can the decline of Great Zimbabwe civilisation be attributed
to ecological factors.

Approach

-Ecological factors
31
-siltation

-exhaustions of resources-salt,woodlands,cultivatable land.grazing pastures

other factors

-rise of rival states

-change of trade routes

-failure of kings to maintain peace leading to succession disputes

32
SOURCES OF HISTORY
African or Zimbabwean history can be reconstructed through main sources of
history which are archaeology, written records and oral traditions. These can
be backed by linguistics and anthropology as subjects of art of language and
the study of living beings.

Archaeological evidence

This is a form of unwritten records concerned with remains of man’s past i.e
artifacts obtained through excavation.It refers to the scientific study of
artifacts or fossils.It is the study of human history and pre-history by
excavations of sites and analysis of physical remains e.g pottery,tools,human
bones,beads,jewellery and metal remains. Around 200-300 AD,farming
settlements appeared south of the Zambezi.These villages were associated
with a number of pottery traditions which suggest not only settled
communities but also shared identities. They grew crops, kept livestock and
used iron.Their appearances marks the inception of the iron Age in
Zimbabwe.Whether this culture came from north as a result of Bantu
migration or developed locally from the later stone Age cultures-is still
debatable. However, evidence for the early iron age is known from such sites
as Kadzi( northern Zimbabwe ),Ziwa (Nyanga,Eastern Zimbabwe),Gokomere
and Mabveni (southern Zimbabwe) e.g the later possessed sea-shells
suggesting some indirect connections with the Indian ocean during the first
half of the first millennium AD.The pottery found at these sites clearly suggests
that they were agricultural communities (food producers) who probably
cultivated grains and beans. This further supported by the location of the sites
which seem to favour fertile soils near streams as in the case in northern
Zimbabwe. These communities were basically subsistence farmers and also
kept livestock.

Archaeological evidence that represents an agricultural society of these

societies

33
Ziwa complex was an early iron age farming community which existed from
around 1300 AD.

-pottery remains dated 16th and 17th century

-remains of agricultural seeds which were probably grown by the people

-remains of iron tools done to support agricultural technology

-ruined stone built homesteads used as defensive forts

-pit structures thought to have been used as cattle pens as well as homesteads

-old water furrows demonstrating their use of available water resources

-presence of wide cultivation ridges covering hundreds of ha of valleys soils

-cattle bones in graves indicating religious importance of cattle in these early

societies

NB/ QUESTION

What evidence is found at some of these iron age sites to demonstrate that it
represents an agricultural society?

EVIDENCE OF EXTERNAL TRADE at Great Zimbabwe State.

There was also archaeological evidence that external trade was practised by
these societies with coastal people e.g presence of sea-shells, beads,ceramics
whose origin is Asia have been discovered at Great Zimbabwe.However,
carbon dating has made possible to give approximate date for many living
things or sites occupied in the past.Archaeological records can be used to show
trade contacts and interactions between societies in the pre-history of Great
Zimbabwe state.Much evidence has been mainly obtained from
archaeology.Excavations at Great Zimbabwe in 1903 produced a variety of
assorted finds of goods.These were found in several enclosures.Some of the
goods were dated back to the 13th and 14th centuries-goods consisted of
Persian bowls, Chinese dishes,iron lamp holders,copper chains,rings.These
foreign goods may have been brought to Zimbabwe by traders as gifts for
chiefs to promote good trade relations.A variety of glass
beads(yellow,green,blue),brass wire,sea-shells iron wire,axe,chisels were most

34
likely trade items from foreign traders. However,local goods such as ivory,iron
gongs,gold wire and beads,soapstone dishes were found at Great Zimbabwe
but appears to have been manufactured elsewhere in the region.The list of
trade goods testifies that people of Great Zimbabwe had trade contacts not
only with such areas as China, India and Middle and Near East but with other
African regions such as Central and Eastern Africa.Iron gongs were of Africa but
certainly not made in Zimbabwe.They were probably made in Central Africa.
However,some of the traded items were found elsewhere e.g in some graves
at Ingombe IIIede on the banks of the Zambezi river.All these give evidence
that the people in Great Zimbabwe took part in regional and inter-regional
trade.Thus, archaeological records are used to show contacts and interactions
between societies in Pre-history of Zimbabwe.

WHAT CAN ARCHAEOLOGY DO?

-can tell history of pre-colonial Zimbabwe especially when studying the period
where ther was no written records e.g case of Great Zimbabwe

-can classify pieces of pottery into similar styles,each new style then
interpreted as evidence of new migration (indicates signs of indentity) Thus,
content of archaeological finding is important since it provides reasonably
accurate dating and speaks for itself.

-contibuted a lot in the form of artifacts e.g pottery,tools,skeletons.These are

silent witness to man’s past but this depends on the archaeologist’s
interpretation

-it can be precise in dating as long as artefacts are found.

-it furnishes documents that can not speak for themselves e.g has been useful
in unearthing the pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.

-social activities such as burial systems,pottery making,farming , religion are

usually best explained using archaeology.

-can tell the economic bases of the people e.g agricultural activities and trade
who lived at a particular site

-can also tell the approximate date of the existence of particular culture of
people through carbon dating.
35
LIMITATIONS OF THIS SOURCE

-contribution of this source is weighed down by the fact that it neglects the
political and other cultural aspects e,g language, hierarchy of dynasty but may
be obtained from oral traditions.

-Can not tell accurate dates

-Can not tell language and religion of the people as well as their names unless
there are inscriptions on an artefact. e.g Great Zimbabwe, Mapungubwe were
given by later people.

-Historical knowledge from archaeological evidence is not accurate because its

history is derived from conclusions of past remains and it is possible that these
conclusions could be wrong.e.g artifacts are silent witness to man’s past but
however, this depends on the archaeologist’s interpretation.

-artifacts can be destroyed by weather

-information can be scanty and incomplete e,g no names are provided and
even religi

1.To what extent have archaeological findings been useful in the

reconstruction of the economic activities of Mapungubwe state OR Great
Zimbabwe State.

-Mapungubwe was inhabited between 1000 and 1300AD

-Cattle enclosures,bones and figurines demonstrate the importance of

pastoralism

-site surrounded by a valley which contained agricultural terraces i.e remains

of seeds e.g sorghum,cow peas confirms rich agriculture activities

-evidence of hidden bones suggests the domestication of animals and these

were more important as a source of meat

-remains of copper and iron were accumulated for commercial purposes

36
-remains of copper bangles and beads-indicate external trade-brought foreign
goods e.g glass beads and mining celadon from china

-evidence of local spinning and weaving, hunting and fishing

WRITTEN RECORDS

These are pieces of evidence found in national archives,libraries,textbooks,

Magazines,newspapers(processed evidence or secondary sources),unpublished

papers such as reports, minutes,treaties,diaries (unprocessed evidence)-
primary sources.

-rock paintings can also be classified under written records e.g on caves during
the later stone age and left many traces of their activities.These are silent
written records e.g depicted animals which were hunted and tools used.These
sources are useful where Africans had contact with whites-pre-colonial era-
Arabs, Muslims,and Portuguese.

WRITTEN RECORDS DURING THE PRE=COLONIAL PERIOD IN ZIMBABWE

-Written documents written on the pre-colonial societies by Arabs or

Portuguese who were ignorant of some of the customs tended to be biased.
Documents became very useful after the arrival of the Portuguese. The earliest
written sources referring to the Zimbabwean plateau came from the earliest
Arab traders/visitors but the Portuguese came later to trade with the shona
however,some of these who visited the Mozambiquean coast recorded second
hand information about the circumstances of the interior. They gathered
information from earliest traders e.g Swahili/Arabs who had initially ventured
or others who had encountered the communities of a Zimbabwe plateau
personally e.g the most important sailing source-manual by Ibn Madjid written
sometime between 1475-1489.This source gives us the idea of what was
known of the Sofala region and the hinterland. However, this source is
repetitive and confusing because it does not specifically mention Great
Zimbabwe and Mutapa states.

Reference to GZ is found in Portuguese sources but these are clearly second

hand accounts. The Swahili traders had narrated them e.g Joa and Barros. In
this light,these sources are rather limited in that they rely heavily on the

37
information supported by others (Arabs). This support the idea that the
Portuguese recordings are not reliable with regard to our pre-history i.e human
element should not be ruled out.Besides that Portuguese were well
established in the interior until 1630-1640s. This is why written sources are
silent between 1520-1570. They only made sporadic references to the Mutapa
state. Thus, written sources of Portuguese and Arabs have both limitations and
strengths referring to Zimbabwe plateau prior to 1870. Though Portuguese
sources made references to GZ and Mutapa states, their sources should be
treated with much caution because their sources are second hand information.

LIMITATIONS OF WRITTEN RECORDS

-written records like any other source may be prone to abuse by the writer or
the historian

-the information may be distorted to advance one’s agenda

-Illiterate classes can not use the source

-important information may be left out due human element i.e there is high
element of subjectivity.These weaknesses will be rectified through use of other
sources.

STRENGTHS OF WRITTEN RECORDS

-accounts of Arabs,Portuguese on Mutapa and GZ or missionaries are

important bedrock of pre-colonial history but we should be aware of the biases
embedded in these documents .e.g Portuguese accounts of central African
states have played the foundation from which other sources built on.

-are created for larger number of audiences and widely distributed.

-are considered to be more reliable for they combine in them information

gathered through other sources.

-once written,they are not subject to change and therefore most reliable

-information last for a long time if the documents are well kept thus it can be
passed from generation to generation

-collected data is relatively accurate

38
-clear records of dates,names and events.

ORAL TRADITION as a source of historical evidence

The task of historian of Zimbabwe history has a lot of problems. In contrast to

Asia, Europe or North America where history is well recorded but Africa south
of Sahara has short of written history.Oral traditions are verbal testimonies or
reported statements about the past and can be treated as historical archives
that spelt out a wealth of information relating to past events e.g pray songs,
poems about lineages and often recited on shona tradition. Oral traditions are
messages or information about the past transmitted by word of mouth over
generations. Free testimonies are messages passed by the word of mouth.
Eye-witness account are the most of the oral tradition about pre-colonial
Zimbabwe recorded by Europeans and had a lot of inaccuracies.Oral tradition
complements other sources such as archaeology,written records,anthropology
and linguistic evidence.In other words,a multidisciplinary approach should be
used.Ki-Zerbo states that oral tradition provides cloth and other sources add
bone and flesh

Weaknesses of Oral tradition or its usefulness

NB/ Precaution need to be taken to make sure that material of oral sources are
carefully sorted and sifted.

1. chronologically limited-lacks chronological references and sequence of

events.

2. It is subjected to loss of memory and preservation of oral history depends on

the powers of memory of individuals.

3.It is subjected to bias and is prone to addition or substraction of information

to suit story teller.

4.Oral history fails to give accurate dates for specific events

5.Its tends to ignore small communities or figures and only concerned with
great people e.g kings.

39
6.Oral tradition can not extend for more than 500 years dating back as
according to Thomas.Thus, time depth is critical as oral traditions in Zimbabwe
does not go beyond four centuries.Most common traditions are often political
identified with dynastic groups some of which are part of large state systems
e.g Mutapa,Great Zimbabwe state etc.

7.Traditions often contain myths relating to origins of their societies e.g some
of these traditions relate to movements of shona groups to their present
locations and some traditions carry environmental information mentioning
events that occurred at a time when certain areas were forested than the
present.Some of this information carries historical significance but the problem
is their timelessness.Thus, oral traditions can not give acomplete picture of the
pre-colonial past hence the need to use other sources in the reconstruction of
our past such as written sources and archaeology.

Advantages of Oral tradition

Oral history is of great value when used alongside with other sources such as
archaeology,written records,rock painting etc.Thus,oral tradition is
complementary source which plays a central role in the reconstructing our pre-
colonial history of Zimbabwe.

1.provides first hand information

2.It is participative. The hearer can keep on asking questions to the story teller
for clarifications.

3.major source in illiterate societies that could neither read nor write.

4. It is a living museum of social culture stored up by people who were

purported to have no written records.

STUDY QUESTION

1.Examine critically the sources that have been used in reconstructing the
Pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.

2.Justify the use of a multidisciplinary approach in the study of Zimbabwe’s

history before 1450.

40
3.Why should oral tradition continue to be used to reconstruct the history of
pre-colonial Zimbabwe despite its weaknesses?

Approach

NB/ No one method or technique is superior to the others-cite pros and cons
of each source using supportive evidence

Sources:-oral tradition, written records, archaeology,linguistics and rock

paintings.

-ethnograghy-a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural

phenomena

-anthropology-is the study of humankind,past,present that draws and build

upon knowledge

-linguistic-the scientific study of human language

41
THE NDEBELE STATE

The Ndebele state came into being as a result of Mfecane wars generated by
Shaka, the Zulu in Nguniland.It was regarded as a migrant state because most
of its people became part of the state during their migration process from
South Africa-were assimulated into the original Khumalo clan.The groups
included the Sotho and Tswana who formulated their distinctive class known
as the Enhla while the original ruling class was described as the Zansi.The final
group to be absorbed when the Ndebele finally settled in the present day
Zimbabwe were the Shona and Kalanga-were referred as the Hole.Thus, the
Ndebele society was a stratified with distinctive social classes of different
cultural backgrounds.Mzilikazi, being the leader of the group managed to
cement these different groups despite their different cultural backgrounds into
one state and unified them following the Ndebele culture though they adopted
some cultures of other absorbed groups.The Ndebele established their state in
the area and continued to assimilate some of their neighbours and forcibly
asked them to pay tribute as form of showing allegiance to the king.

Branches of Ndebele economy

Most European scholars had deliberately distorted the basis of the Ndebele
economy.They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and their survival
essentially depended on raiding.It must be noted that the society was based
among other things on raiding and was used as a way of life since the days of
Shaka.The end of raids would mean the change of Ndebele society based on
raiding which was rather difficult to achieve.The end of raids might mean the
end of both Mzilikazi and Lobengula’s power and authority.This implies that
raiding as an economic system of the Ndebele economy was part and parcel
for its survival.For Ndebele to give up raids meant complete economic re-
organisation but both leaders were not strong enough for that and certainly
not ready for the idea.Raiding was done to re-assert their power.It can be
inferred that raiding though not their backbone of their economy,was
essentially part of its economy.However, the assertion that raiding was
essentially backbone of the Ndebele economy is not true because the basis of
the backbone of the Ndebele economy was agriculture and cattle
keeping.Raiding was only carried out during the migration from Zululand to the
present day Zimbabwe and again raiding was carried out in the initial years of
42
the Ndebele settlement in the 1840s and later on the Ndebele developing a
mixed economy where cattle keeping and agriculture were the backbone to
their economy.Thus, one need to appreciate that raiding was not only an
economic system but a political one and raiding was a political practice from
Nguniland. Raiding was simply a way of life of Nguni groups and it was done
out of need, for example they raided cattle to supplement their loss of cattle
due to lung diseases,they raided young man in order to build their Ndebele
army which was more instrumental in maintaining order,peace and stability
within the state as well as used in raiding expeditions.They also raided young
women in order to build their their state. Grains were raided in order to
supplement their food. Again, raiding was condemned by both Mzilikazi and
Lobengula because it disrupted peaceful co-existince with their neighbours.It
was not done regularly but sometimes was used as a punitive measure to
those people who refused to pay tribute to the state.Therefore, raiding played
various functions and in that it can not viewed much as one of the backbone of
the Ndebele economy.It is not fair to say the Ndebele economy was essentially
a raiding economy.There were other various branches of Ndebele economy
that sustained the lives of the Ndebele in the region.These included

-crop farming

-cattle keeping

-trade

-tribute payment

-hunting and gathering

-mining

-fishing

-basketry

The above economic activities became central after they settled in the western
part of the present day Zimbabwe, for example,raiding was done during
agriculture off season when the Ndebele were not busy with their farming
activities.This shows that raiding was their part-time economic activity.It must
be noted that Ndebele economy was highly diversified.For instance,both men
43
and women were actively involved in crop farming –grew crops like
beans,sorghum,groundnuts,melons,maize etc. Men cleared the fields and
looked after cattle while women cultivated the fields.Cattle being the main
basis of the economy was highly valued e.g cattle was a symbol of wealth and
was used in marriage ceremonies,rituals and special occasions like inxwala
ceremonies.Above all, cattle was a source of meat,milk and skins.By 1893, the
Ndebele had large herds of cattle and were being loaned to his people.This
signified that cattle keeping rather raiding was essentially the backbone of
Ndebele economy.However, again, it is very unfair to dismiss completely
raiding as being as non-economic activity because the area in which the
Ndebele settled was affected long periods of droughts.This meant that it was
not possible to produce enough food for the growing population.This suggests
that the Ndebele were forced to go and raid their neighbours for food and
cattle to supplement their economy. They had to develop their trade relations
with locals in order to supplement their basic necessities of life.This indicates
that the basis of the Ndebele economy complex and highly diversified.

Ndebele-Shona Relations

Relations between Ndebele and Shona can be analysed from a mythical

persepective and also from a realistic perspective.The initial relations of the
Ndebele soon after their arrival in Zimbabwe were largely depended on raiding
the shona for cattle, grain and manpower.Raiding was rampant during
Mzilikazi’s reign but later on their relations greatly improved as evidenced by
the following:

1.assimulated shona were no longer raided

11.shona chiefs could freely pay tribute and were not raided but the rogue
ones like Chivi and Nemakonde were punished

111.those on the periphery of the Ndebele state were left alone on condition
that they respected the call by the Ndebele king to provide labour

iv.some areas in the region did not experience any raids from the Ndebele.

v.The Ndebele depended on the Njanja for iron implements and mishonga/miti
or medicines from Mberengwa

44
-However, the Ndebele were not very superior especially after long hours of
walking on foot e.g episodes of the Ndebele defeats in Chirumanzu

-Ndebele-shona relations also proved to be cordial when they both fought

against imperialist presence in 1896 i.e Chimurenga 1

- there was changing nature of the Ndebele relations with the shona.Raiding
was not a permanent feature of Ndebele economy.

Reasons for the failure of the missionary activities in the Ndebele state

-the Ndebele were unwilling to accept Christianity because they were

economically self-sufficient

-had a strong religion and centralised political system

-Ndebele militarism

-conservative nature of Ndebele society

-inexperienced and tactlessness of the missionaries in dealing with the

Ndebele

-security considerations that is Ndebele especially the king, lobengula was

suspicious of the intentions of the missionaries and whites in general

-Christianity despised their customs and beliefs such as polygamy.

45
OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE

The Berlin Conference of 1884-85

The conference held in Germany was meant to ensure peaceful partition of

African continent by European powers namely Britain,France,Germany,Portuga
etc.These European powers conflictec in the Congo region.Thus,open conflict
in non-European areas was avoided more largely as result of Bismarck ‘s
diplomacy but had much pressure from Germans who felt that the country was
being left behind in the colonial race.Bismarck responded by a change of but in
the interest of keeping Germany at peace,thus he took the lead in calling the
conference in 1884.The focus of the conference was on sphere of influence of
each European power over Africa.What prompted the calling of this meeting
was the Congo issue where most European states had interests in the
region,this could have caused unnecessary conflicts.The results were that the
Congo Free State was set under King Leopold of Belgium.It was agreed that
there should fair treatment of local people,fair trade practices among
nations,free navigation of Niger and Congo rivers for all nations and doctrine of
effective occupation was to be applied by every state in order to avoid
unnecessary conflicts.A phase of division of Africa was achieved with great
peace between great powers but there were some difficulties between Italy
and France over Tunisia,Britain and France over Egypt and Britain and Germany
over East Africa.However, these challenges did not result in a war except the
crushing defeat of the Italians at the battle of Adowa in 1896.

Results of the Conference in the colonisation

1.Left the whole of Africa vulnerable to European occupation

-doctrine of effective occupation was to be applied fully by any power in Africa

to avoid unnecessary conflicts.In the case of Zimbabwe’s occupation, this
speeded up rivalry between Rhodes and Boers from South Africa to grab the
Second Rand north of the Limpopo R. Both parties took significant steps to
make concessions with Lobengula to have influence in the area e.g Rhodes
representing the British gvt took significant steps towards implementing the
doctrine of effective occupation by sendind J.S Moffat to negotiate a friendship
treaty with Lobengula,signing of the Rudd Concession in 1888,obtaing the royal
charter from the Great Queen,seeking financial and political from his
46
gvt,formation of BSAC, orgainising the Pionner column and the final
destruction of the Ndebele state by 1893-4. All the steps were made possible
as way of fulfilling the doctrine of effective occupation of the country. The
invasion of Mashonaland by the Pionner column was a partial fulfilment of the
doctrine and the invasion of Matebeleland marked the final implementationof
the doctrine. It can be noted that the Berlin conference of 1884 speeded up
the process of colonisation of Zimbabwe by Rhodes who feared other
concession seekers who attracted to this region because of its abundant
resources such as gold, wildlife,good pastures,good soils and it provided the
missionary route from Cape town to Cairo which was Rhodes’s dream of
painting the whole Africa red.

2.This led to much pressure given to lobengula after the conference by

concession seekers and later led to the rush for lobengula’signature may
include

a.the intention to occupy an area was to be made clear

b.effective occupation of territories

c.signing of treaties and publicising them in newspapers to avoid clashes over

the same territory

d. lobengula signed the following treaties before the Rudd Concession-Moffat

treaty,Grobler treaty e.g Grobler treaty-caused panic to Rhodes and led to
signing of Moffat treaty

e.g Moffat treaty limited lob’s decision making power in foreign policy

Grobler Treaty 1887

This treaty caused much panic to Rhodes since the Boers had created a
friendship with Lobengula.This led Rhodes to send Moffat, a missionary to go
and negotiate a treaty of friendship with Lobengula.This treaty was meant to
cancel the Grobler treaty of Boers.Thus, the Berlin conference intensified
compettion amongst interested concession seekers to claim their areas of
interests quickly as evidenced by Rhodes with the Boers from South Africa.

47
RUDD CONCESSION

-was also to obtain Royal Charter

-used to form the BSAC and Pioneer Column

-facilitated the actual occupation

-used to put a bay against other competitors

-there was cheating on the one hand and on the other hand lobengula desired
partnership with the British

-lobengula was reluctant and hesitant and hence kept on temporising

-by the time of signing the Rudd concession lobengula was ill,agreements
signed by sick people are not viable (axiom)

-indiscriminate use of bribes-C.D Helm,Lotshe, J.S.Moffat

-use of Queen’s name

-lobengula’s metaphorical story of chameleon and the fly

-use of acquaintances

-the police drill had a psychological impact

-lobengula’s philosophy of the middle of the road approach and playing the
whites against each other.

-the military clause had a magnetic effect

-fear of the neighbours by Lobengula e.g Khama.

-fear of the Boers

-Lesson of the succession crisis.

NB/ Lobengula was cheated yet he also wished to work with British but the
agreement was a fake

48
MODERN EUROPE ( 1789-1945)

FRENCH REVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION

During the 18th century, the whole of Europe was administered by kings and
these kings were called divine kings with absolute powers(monarchy
government). The French society was stratified and the official religion in
Europe was Catholicism. Women were not considered to be equal to men thus
displaying an element of oppression in society. Again, it was a period of
enlightenment where people started to question the existing institutions-these
were the philosophers-that is period of reasoning and people were moving
away from superstition.The philosophers condemned the abuses of the ancien’
regime-the church,social structure and government –their writings were
directed to the educated elite not the illiterate population.Their influence
could not be underestimated to this group who became the revolutionary
leaders and were the ones who interpreted their writings to their illiterate
through rallies.eg Voltaire,Rousseau and Montesquieu-clamoured for
sovereignity, reasoning and freedom. Their writings gave the direction to the
revolution.This led to birth of Declaration of the Rights of man-were not after
political revolution but clamouring for constitutional monarchy rather despotic
government---wanted reforms for the betterment of the common people-
equal taxation, banning of aristocratic privileges, equality and civic freedom,
religious tolerance,fair judicial system.It is questionable whether the writings
of these great thinkers caused the revolution but in actual fact,the defects and
abuses of the ancien’ regime were the chief cause of the revolution.The

49
philosophers only managed to undermine and destroy the bases of
faith,religion and Christian morality.

CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

Role of Louis XVI in causing the Revolution i.e blunders made by the king

-It was not only what Louis XVI did, but all that he failed to do which caused
the Revolution.The king ruled not by permission of the people but by divine
right and all power of government rested in the king himself.Louis XVI was
incompetent and failed to use the power enshrined in their office.

What the King failed to do?

-Louis XVI was described as weak-willed i.e was inconsistent in his policies-
inability to pursue a determine course and lacked self confidence and
indecision and very slow to grasp issues.However, he had the ability to identify
and appoint able ministers-Necker,Turgot and Calonne but he failed to support
these people when pressure mounted on by his wife,his family and his
advisors-nobility who aimed to protect their sectoral interests in the system.He
withdrew his support from ministers at critical moments.His advisors did not
understand the needs of the time-therefore ,the king failed to make meaning
reforms to the people.

-he did not reform the ancien’ regime system which he inherited from his
predecessors e.g the unfair taxation and the privileged system were not
reformed. Again, nothing was done to reduce expenditure at the Royal court,
with Marie Antonette as the major culprit and nothing was done to alleviate
the effects of the poor harvasts of 1787-1788

ERRORS COMMITTED BY LOUIS XVI

-Louis XVI’s errors—dismissing competent ministers e.g Necker and Turgot and
sanctioning involvement in the American war of independence (liberal ideas)
and allowing to be influenced by the aristocracy e.g were responsible for his
failure to reform as they did not want to part with their privileges. They were
instrumental in frustrating the effects of Turgot and Necker to reform the
privilege system and solve the financial crisis.

50
-the king failed to support such competent ministers as well as failing to
suppress revolt of the nobles.

-he lacked a strong will that could have strengthened his monarchy and some
of his problems were deep-rooted e.g financial distress which was worsened
by his involvement in the American war and Louis XVI’s wars i.e France’s
financial and economic development lagged behind that of Britain.

-the Third Estate for a long time was plagued by a multitude of problems and
the plight was made more by intolerable by the insensitivity of the king.

-the king perpetuated inefficient system of government which existed before

him. He stated that ‘the state is my self’ and people of France could not have
share in government. The Estate General had last met in 1614 and king was
now passing laws that suits himself. The only parliament that was left for
France was the Parliament of Paris and this parliament was powerless.No
freedom of press, expression and speech and unfair social structure-

LONG STANDING PROBLEMS OF THE ANCIEN REGIME IN FRANCE 1789

How these problems generated into a Revolution

Greatest responsibility-Loius XVI-he knew what was wanted by the people but
he ignored e.g he refused to make reforms in order to protect the interest of
the First and Second Estates

-His incompetence-failing to make reforms e.g abolition of privilege system

-inefficient-dismissal of able-bodied ministers

-corruption-abuse of state funds and endless parties at the king’s palace.

-weak-willed –under the influence of his wife and the royal family,dismissal of
competent ministers and siding with the First and Second Estate at the Estate
General meeting-resulting in the revolution.This was his last chance to prevent
the revolution.

-financial crisis-mismanagement of state funds e.g American war of

independence-effect-heavy borrowing resulting heavy debt and bankruptcy of
the state.-the country used state funds to finance the war-question of pride to
defeat Britain which had defeated France in the Seven year war.This war
51
affected the country politically(brought the practical aspect which had
theorised by great thinkers)-brought in new ideas of democracy and liberal
feelings) and economically

-perpetuation of absolute power which was no longer fashionable in France-

monopolisation of political posts and divine rights of kings.

OTHER FACTORS

-Poor harvest-1787-89-did nothing to alleviate the effects of drought

(insensitive to the needs of people and demonstrates his inefficience)

-ambitious nobility-protecting their sectional interest in the gvt

-influence of philosophers-sow the seeds of revolution through their work

(much of theory than practical)

Privilege System

First Estate---consisted of the royal family and the clergy –had many
privileges.The state and the church were inseparable where the church was
used to pacify people and safeguard the king in order to perpetuate his
oppression of the Third Estate.

Second Estate—consisted of the nobles—had many privileges e.g exempted

from paying taxes, the right to be tried by their own special courts,a monopoly
of the highest offices in the administration of the state and offices in church,
military and diplomatic services.The ambitious nobility was more concerned
with its sectional interests than the reforms of the country-launched a
revolution to preserve their interests in the army.

and Third Estate-the most exploited class—almost everybody else-had

deprived of these privileges e.g the bourgeoisie, workers, peasants, lawyers,
industrialists, scholars, educated elite-had no political representation despite
their level of education.They had limited voting power and it was the quarrel
over the vote that led to the declaration of the National Assembly and later of
the Tennis.Thus that the authority of the king was challenged.Louis xvi was
forced to make the First two Estates meet the Third Estate.The Third Estate
proceeded to the declarationof the Rights of Man and the drawing of the
constitution of 1791 and capture of Bastille,particularly,people of Paris
52
participated.There was the march of women to force the price of bread
down.From 1789,Paris dominated the revolution and Louis lost what personal
regard the people had of him in the flight to Vareness.By 1793,the king was
beheaded despite efforts by the Girondins to stop execution. These demanded
upward social mobility, political power and wanted the same privileges of the
First and Second Estates. Though, there were exempted from some of the
heaviest taxes, they were strongly opposed to the endeavours of the monarchy
and the nobility to thwart its chances of social upward mobility. They
demanded that the social, legal and political privileges of the aristocracy be
banned. The writings of the philosophers influenced them to attack the system
of government which discriminated against them unfairly.

-the peasants which constituted the majority played a great part in the French
Revolution- their dissatisfaction was growing and would become an important
factor in the revolution-heavy taxation and all forms of oppression by their
landowners e.g unpaid labour

Incompetent king

-his incompetence can be seen through-his domination by his wife Marie

Antoinette,his handling of financial matters resulting in bankruptcy by
1788,unfair system of taxation,the summoning of the Estates-General resulting
in the formation of the National Assembly and leading to the union of the
three Estates, the dismissal of competent ministers-Necker and Turgot

Discontent among the lower classes

-peasants suffered exploitations from the nobility and the church-they had
many taxes to pay.Bourgeoisie made up of the educated middle class did not
like their exclusion from politics.The combination of the peasants and the
middle class in forming the Third Estate was crucial in the outbreak of the
revolution.The effects of privileged system in the French society played a
greater role in causing the revolution.

FINANCIAL CRISIS

-was a short-cause of the revolution-the king put the country on huge deficit
through his involvement into American war of independence-helping the
American colonists to defeat the British government-taxation was source of
53
revenue but could not meet the demand-heavy borrowing. Necker and Turgot
were dismissed and these people could have resolved the problem- a blunder.

-the king failed to exercise his powers but greatly influenced by those who
sought to maintain the system for their own benefit-he failed to save his
position,financial and political crisis in the country.—the nobility and clergy
were against any kind of reforms in the country.—fighting for survival. Thus,
the economic crisis greatly led to led to the outbreak of the revolution in
France.Bankruptcy forced the king to agree to call for the Estate General
meetings whose outcome directly led to the fall of crown. Bankruptcy
worsened the harvest failures and the food shortages because they could not
raise money to feed its people—there was general rise in prices of bread due
to poor harvests.It should be noted that the revolution itself was a culminating
point of a long period of social,political and economic grievances in
France.Whilst factors which became more clearly visible in 1789,such as
financial problems and king’s weaknesses, are often cited as more important,
the root causes of the revolution should never be underestimated.

The Poor harvests of 1787-1789

-this poor harvest greatly affected the unprivileged classes-crop failures led to
food shortages-rise in prices and widespread unemployment in cities-misery
both in rural and urban created a sharp explosive situation-rural-urban
migration-Paris mob.Poor harvests added to the disorder and chaos in both
towns and country-side.

SUMMARY ON CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

The outbreak of French revolution stretched back into the 17 th and 18th century
and the situation was worsened by what Louis XVI did and he failed to do e.g
by inheriting problems of the ancien regime and his inconsistent policies that
put the country into social,political and economic crisis.In the final analysis, the
king himself was very insensitive to the needs of the people.

1.The system of ancien’ regime

-privilege system that discriminates others-social classes and exclusion from

political positions despite level of education

54
-oppressive system of the gvt-people had no share in his rule

-no constitution at all tha guarantee people’s rights

-no parliament at all and was once said ‘The state is myself’ and the only
parliament was at Paris but was powerless.

-censorship of press-no freedom of expression,speech,religion

-unfair judicial system.

2.Financial crisis

-Extravagance of the French court e.g Marie Antonett

-taxation no longer able to meet the demand hence resulted in heavy

borrowing-increased debts.

-high inflation due poor harvests-resulted in widespread of poverty among

lower classes.

-high level of unemployment esp among women.

3.Character of Louis XVI

-inconsitent and incompetent-always changes his plans due to influence of his

advisors.e.g Appointment of his ministers and eventually dismissal of them-
these could have saved the king.He ignored the call by Calonne that nothing
could be done while the nobles and clergy were exempted from paying
taxes.Thus, one is tempted to argue that France’ destiny rested at the king

-his mistakes and the ruling Elite-inherited problems-he lacked the personal
ability to impose himself effectively,he dismissed Louis xv’s ministers Terray
and Manpeou whose advice could have improved the situation,he listened to
bad advice especially from his wife,the latter appointment of men such as
Necker and Turgot was not followed by support from the king for their
policies.He inherited problems-structural weaknesses in the ancient regime
and the influence of the priviledged groups.The financial crisis was worsened
by involvement in the American civil war. He did nothing about the poor
harvest.

4.Poor harvests 1787-1789

55
-he did nothing to help the situation.

5.Influence of the American Revolution

-Provided the main practical example to the French people-provided spread of

liberal ideas and democratic ideas brought in by soldiers.This also intensified
the financial crisis of the country.

6.The influence of Philosophers

-did not influence the revolution of 1789 bec the time the French revolution
broke out ,the philosophers were no more but it was their works which were
read that influenced the people- gave emotional spirit to rebel against the
unfair system of the govt e.g Volitare criticised the existence of the
church.Diderot-condemned injustice of the existing system of gvt-church and
the state.Rousseau-clamoured for equality and democracy in society-
sovereignity of the people.The philosophers supplied much of the theory
which undermine the monorchial gvt of Louis XVI.

Calling of the Estates General in 1789

-Louis XVI called the Estates General because the king lacked adequate counsel
on how to rule France.This was called to solve the financial problems and other
issues-thus the king gave way to pressure.The three Estates had to list the
grievances for discussion.They demanded a constitution which would
guarantee the rights of man-wanted a constitutional monarchy while on the
other hand, the clergy and nobility were not prepared to accept these
demands.This raised hopes of many French people that they were moving
towards new reforms but the sticked to the policy of separation between the
two Estates which was a move against reforms.Thus, the revolution was the
struggle for equal rights. This event signalled the beginning of the revolution
and this led to the formation of first government in France known as the
National Assembly(1789-1791).This was the first that the king’s orders had
been defied so directly. Third Estate had the majority of members in the
National Assembly than other Estates. Other revolutionary governments were
the Legislative Assembly(1791-1792),the National Convention(1792-1794) and
finally the Directory (1795-1799)

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a. Discontent against the nature of government demanded reform in the
social,political and economic aspects,e.g peasants and bourgeoisie wanted
social redress on the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and the clergy who
were widely seen as the buttress of royal power

11. new ideas from philosophers and soldiers returning from American war of
Independence (liberal ideas) put much pressure on Louis XVI

111. Financial bankruptcy

iv. Effects of poor harvests were also critical

-The Estates General saw this as an opportunity to address their grievances

and an opportunity for the king to save his government (monarchy).However,

the nobility in order to maintain their sectoral interests,resisted reforms and

also influenced the king to dismiss competent ministers e.g Turgot and
Necker.This resulted in the Tennis Court Oath and the setting up of the
National Assembly. The revolution broke out and a compromise was reached
between the king and Third Estate.Priviledges were attacked as decrees were
passed to end feudalism and freedoms were introduced through declaration of
the rights of man. What the revolutionaries wanted was a constitutional
monarchy,social,economic and political reforms and implementing of human
rights.

OUTCOME OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

GROUPS BENEFITTED FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION-1789-1799

NB/Social, economic and political changes

a.The Third Estate

-The Tennis Court Oath saw this group gaining political power

b.Peasants

Declaration of Rights of man resulted in the abolition of -abolition of feudal

dues and priviledges-gave this group all they wanted

c.Bourgeoisie

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-political power was largely transferred from the nobles and clergy to this
group.

d.Middle class

-the directory , the upper middle class was empowered and while other classes
were excluded

e.Cordeliers,Girodins and Jacobins(radicals-leftist)-advocated for the death of

the king.

-were in control of France’s destiny but military reverses resulted in Girodin

taking political power to Jacobins.

GROUPS THAT DID NOT BENEFIT FROM THIS REVOLUTION

a.Clergy and Nobles

-lost their priviledges i.e abolition of Fuedal dues deprived the nobility and
clergy their former priviledges

-the Civil constitution of the clergy saw the church and the clergy lost their
wealth and influence-the king was supposed to sign but forced him to flee to
Varrenes and finally led to his execution.

-Louis XVI’s flight to Varenes resulted in him losing political power and
eventually his life.

-the Reign of terror was introduced to educate the masses who wanted to
reverse the revolution-did see the benefits of the revolution. It was introduced
by the Jacobins-resulted in loss of life of people from various social classes
especially peasants.(there were internal and external problems facing the
country such as inflation,hoarding of goods by business people,war
profiteers,unemployment,traitors and external –losing the war).This resulted
in the Reign of terror.The outcome was the creation of new gvt-The Directory

58
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 1800-1814

Introduction

Once in power,after the downfall of the last revolutionary gvt in France-The

Directory,Napoleon merged the ideas of change brought about the Revolution
of 1789 ( principles of the revolution-equelity,freedom and fraternity) and
autocratic principles of the Bourbon Monarchy-centralisation of power.

-While bringing change to the French society, power was centralised in his
hands thus perpetuating elements of ancient regime of Louis XVI.

NATURE OF NAPOLEON 1’S DOMESTIC POLICY

Being the child of the revolution, Napoleon 1 saw the need to implement some
aspects of the revolutionary gains in order to meet the needs of the people
and again on the other hand, he had to perpetuate some of the autrocratic
principles of ancient regime so as to ensure total control of the state. Thus, his
policies were blend of despotism and progressivesm e.g he adopted the
principle of the Revolution of liberty,fraternity and equality(revolutionary
aspects)

Despotic elements of his domestic policies

Some of his policies were despotic-i.e the Executive government was invested
in the First Consul-Napoleon himself-centralisation of power in his
hands.Traces of ancient regime in his new gvt-were-no mention of
liberty,equality or fraternity but he just promised that he would uphold in his
regime.

59
Dictatorship was common in his administration through military and there was
absence in the constitution of the declaration of human rights.Despite having
elements of ancient regime in his gvt, he also borrowed some revolutionary
ideals to uphold his regime-eg universal suffrage,equality before law,equal
taxation,and confirmation of the peasants’s possession of land gained during
the revolution. Napoleon 1 could be described as a borrower and innovator in
his regime.

-ministers were appointed by Napoleon himself-no elections were held to

select potential candidates-used his power against the will of the people thus
promoting inefficiency within the political system.

-prefects and sub-prefects were appointed by him though leaders of local

Councils were politically weak thus promoting inefficiency in government.

-though education was open to all classes-poor or rich,was denied to the girls
thus demonstrating suppression of women in society.The authority of the
father tended to be dictatorial that is the role of women was
undermined.Thus, element of equality was violated by Napoleon thus
defeating the whole purpose of revolutionary gains.Education was controlled
by a man appointed by Napoleon.Press censorship was implemented in order
to ensure peace and stability-violating freedom of expression.There was use of
secret police to curb opposition. Catholicism was recognised as the religion of
the French majority but however, freedom of religion was allowed-i.e the state
and church were still inseparable.This demonstrated that there was strong tie
relationship between the two, a common feature during Louis XV1-he gained
and enjoyed support from church members.Napoleon 1 had to his power for
effective control of the state.

Progressive nature of his government(application of revolutionary gains)

Being the child of the revolution, Nap had learnt something from the
revolution and forgotten nothing from the revolution. Freedom of religion was
allowed though Catholicism was recognised as a state religion. Education was
open to all classes,thus demonstrating one of the principles of the revolution
i.e equality though denied to the girls.Thus, his gvt was characterised by
elements of oppression.Promotion in the army was open to men from all
classes i.e career open to talent ( concept of merit was applied which rather
60
fair in system) Thus, the principle of equality was applied here.Again, his gvt
was marked by better administration and removal of corruption.The ideas of
equal taxation was shown in rule ie all people were seen as being before God
and should be subjected to the treatment. Education system was greatly
improved reflecting that he was an innovator e.g between 1802-1809-France
had the best education system in Europe. Again, important changes in industry
were effected though trade unionism was not allowed.Athough Napoleon’s gvt
had some elements of oppression,overally, sh Nap was a great servant of
France since he did a lot to upgrade the status of his country-peace and
political stability were ensured through his policies.His vision was that ‘France
first’ showing that he loved his country than anything else in Europe.There was
good representation in parliament.Thus, the legion of honour ensured
efficiency in his political system.However,peace and stability were enjoyed but
at the expense of freedom of speech and expression of French people as result
of the establishment of press censorship. Social stability was established
through the corcordat which was made between the state and the
Pope.Roman Catholic Church was made an official religion although other
religions were tolerated. In some respects,Nap promoted the ideas of
revolution though he was retrogressive in his thinking by applying some the
elements of ancien regime.The Pope was protected by Nap.What ever Nap did
was in self- defence for his attained position as the leader of the French as his
domination in the Continent.

His foreign policy in Europe

France emerged as powerful nation in Europe through the works of Nap but
this was direct challenge to Britain as a sea power while France as a land
power.The two states could not co-exist together thus war with each other
was inevitable. Whatever Nap did both in his country or beyond her
borders,was in self defence to his newly acquired position both in Europe and
France especially as he felt permanently threatened by the British naval
supremacy.

Strategies used by Napoleon to control Europe

Napoleon’s strategies had both strengths and shortcomings as illustrated

below:-

61
1.Creation of independent republics as satellite states: was important as his
army lived on conquered states. Though, this approach was good to ensure
effective control of the conquered lands, this created future problems for
Napoleon since this raised the growth of Nationalism, which became a
powerful force to control e.g Spain, Portugal,Netherlands,Italy,Belgium etc

2.Military conquests or War

-war seemed to be a major weapon used by Napoleon in his foreign policy

though he eventually embarked on other methods. All his methods had some
limitations.War being a major instrument was not surprising since he was a
soldier-military genius-he rose to power through military means and a record
of military victories in Europe e.g Italian campaign,Egyptian campaign,war
against Russia, war against Austria and Prussia but however,he was defeated
in some wars e.g Moscow campaign,Trasfalgar,Peninsular war and the battle of
the nations.His early victories had misled him hence resulted in his future
failures.His endless wars had greatly drained French’s financial resources as
well as loss of human resources.NB. So far,Austria,Russia,Prussia were
defeated except Britain, so therefore Napoleon had devised another new
alternative to deal with Britain.The Continental system was his new idea to
deal with Britain because was so convinced that physical war would not yield
results.

3.Introduction of Continental system

-Was an alternative method used to fight Britain-this was a way of forbidding

all conquered states and some of British allies to trade with Britain. It was an
economic warfare between Britain and France.Napoleon strategy to isolate
Britain economically.Britain was declared to be in a state of blockade and all
states were forbidden to trade with the country his allies,subject territories
and France herself.Thus, the Berlin and Milan decrees of 1806 launched the
ststem.Any state was not allowed to accept British means of export or British
ships to be excluded from oll ports and British to buy not to sell.Napoleon
wanted to bring his enerm to bankruptcy and practically was to be applied to
the whole Europe effective control was needed.It was the economic power of

62
Britian which was the real source of danger to NAPOLEON .This struggle
between a sea power and land power.

Why continental system failed?

was costanly smuggling of British goods honest and competent custom officials
were not always available.

Though French agriculture flourished ,others sectors suffered heavily that

relied on British materials.

-lost support of the rich class blamed continental ststem for economic
depression(1810 -11)

-Britain possessed more ships,sailors and merchants than any other country

-Britain offered cheap goods-thus continental system were of no effect and

there was much dissatisfaction amongst states controlled by France especially
where there were less industrialisation e.g Portugal,Spain and Russia had
abandoned the system.

4.Alliance system or treaty system

-His domination in Europe was achieved through alliances e.g treaty of Amiens
which ws signed under the realisation by Napoleon that he would never defeat
Britain militarily.Here,diplomacy was displayed by Napoleon-was done in order
to have a breathing space for consolidating his acquired position in France as a
leader and Britain also wanted peace in order to protect her trade.This peace
treaty was shortlived hence resulted in the resumption of war at Transfagar in
1806 but the French were defeated.

11. Treaty of Tilsit was signed by France and Russia- this was in order to please
Alexander for adopting his continental policy and allowed to take Poland and
Finland. Alexander responded by recognising Napoleon’s control in Europe. For
Russia,the relationship did not last with the launching of Moscow campaign
which resulted in the heavy defeat of Naploleon.This war was caused when
Alexander dropped the continental system since it affected negatively her
economy.This reflected the ineffectiveness of Napoleon’s system. Other allies
of Napoleon were Denmark,Sweden,Norway etc.Napoleon had the ability to
negotiate with his enemies hence showed a flair for diplomacy and state craft.
63
5.Installation of members of his family

-installed them as kings e.g his brother Joseph was made king of Naples and
another brother –louis was made king of Holland

-third brother Jerome was made king of Westphalia

-Bernaotte- his friend was made king of Sweden.

This approach was very effective in controlling all the conquered states but it
suppressed the issue of nationalism,patriotism,liberalism hence generated
revolts in Spain, Portugal and Italy

111.Treaty of Pressburg with Austria was consolidated by marriage alliance

when Austrian Princes Marie Louisse married to Napoleon but this relationship
did not last when Austria joined the 4TH Coalition in 1813 against him.

REASONS FOR HIS EARLY VICTORIES UP 1807

A.Weaknesses of his enemies up 1807

1.In 1799,France was saved by the break-up of the second coalition

2.Napoleon’s enemies fought as weak coalitions-they were divided and often

willing to make separate treaties with France.

-Austria pulled out after Pressburg and Russia after Friedland leaving Britain to
fight alone

3.Napoleon played on Prussia’s s desire to annex Hanover to keep it out of the

Third Coalition.

4.Enemies of Napoleon suffered from lack of reform and transformation in

their armies

5.They lacked ability to plan and organise-this costed Austria and Russia victory
at Austerltz

6.the opposition had poor generals e.g Archduke Charles,Kutosov , Blutcher

His personnal strengths

1.He succeeded because of his abilities as a general

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2.was a military genius

3.very effective in strategy e.g very swift in attacking his enemies and never
gave chance for enemies to regroup

4.benefited from the timely support of generals e,g Desaux at Merego and
Murat at Austerlitz-had the ability to motivate and give morals to his soldiers-
his motto was honour,victory and glory.

NAPOLEON’S METHODS IN CONSOLIDATING HIS POSITION IN FRANCE

-coup by Napoleon created a sense of insecurity and led to opposition from

Royalists,Republicans and Moderates

-However, opposition was killed through despotism-he gave power with one
hand and took away with the other hand.

-amnesty was granted to the émigrés

-force was used e.g Jacobins were executed

-agreement with the Pope

-appointment of mayors,prefects and sub-prefects by him

-press censorship-limitations to the freedom of the press

-propaganda and spies were used

-stability in the economy also led to support from men of property

NB/Repression of the opposition depended on the efficiency and effectiveness

of local government.

DID NAPOLEON ENJOY SUPPORT FROM HIS RULE

-His populist measures

1.the code of Napoleon

2.the concordat with the Pope

3.Beautification of Paris

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4.Development of French economy

5.Development of education

6.His administrative genius

DID NOT ENJOY

1.Dictatorial stance which included a police state under Joseph Fourche

2.Press censorship which violated human’s rights of speech and expression

3.Reasons for oppositions stemmed from his autocracy

Downfall of Napoleon in 1814

Long-term causes for the defeat of Napoleon

1.effects of continental system

2.Britain’s naval power

3.Britain’s financial power

4.the size of the empire which had become too large to be intact.

5.the rise of nationalism especially in the Peninsular War

SHORT-TERM CAUSES

6.Disastrous Moscow campaign of 1812

7.the formation of the Fourth Coalition in 1813 comprising

Russia,Austria,Prussia and Britain

Impact of Napoleon’policies in France

-Was viewed as a brilliant leader of his time both at home and abroad-how

1.he rendered great service to the French-e.g regained French glory through
his wars with other European powers through his military conquests

2.good internal policy where peace prevailed in his country-saved the country
from civil wars through his relationship with the Pope- enjoyed support from
many people.

66
3.trade and industry expanded thats creating employment for the French

However, Nap did much harm to the people

-the country became a mere despotism-his gvt was against the will of the
people.

-press censorship

-all private interest for the people,civil and political rights were subordinated
to the interest of the emperor-Nap himself.

-his fights with Britain drained much resources of the country without any
tangible benefits.

3.His victories before 1799 saved France from her enemies

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VIENNA SETTLEMENT-1815

PERIOD OF CHANGE AND CONTINUITY

Characteristic of the period 1815 onwards

The end of French Revolution and Napoleonic wars had great impact on post
1815 and this period heralded a new era which demanded progress.It was a
period that was influenced by ideas of freedom and equality.Again .it was a
period that challenged autocracy and absolute rule e.g Spain,France against
CharlesX’s ( new wine in an old bottle).Liberal and nationalist ideas began to
spread and this was demonstrated by most European states e.g Italian
states,France in 1830 and German in 1848.The period is also characterised by
social and economic changes-period of industrialisation e.g in France under
Louis Phillipe(1830-1848)-growth of socialism-growth of middle class
demanded capitalism at the expense of poor people.Most gvts reacted to
these changes that threatened the existing systems by suppressing internal
revolutions. The revolutions were put down throughout 1820s,and 1840s.The
problem was that the reaction was too harsh which forced people into
extreme ideas e.g socialist ideas grew in France and by 1848 Karl Marx and
Engles had produced the Socialist Manifestos which stipulated that, workers of
the world have nothing to lose but their chains.---united we stand,divided we
fall’. This inspiriration intensified the revolutionary spirit among the common
people in Euorpe against all forms of exploitation.

Impact of Napoleonic Wars and French Revolution.

68
The French revolution and Napoleonic Wars had a great impact on post 1815
Europe.The end of Napoleonic wars and the advent of Vienna settlement of
1815 heralded a new era that was influenced by ideas of freedom and equality.
The victors-Russia,Britain,Prussia and Austria were confronted with a lot of
complex challenges created by the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars
from 1802-1814. The French Revolution spread the forces of modernisation
and change but Vienna was dominated by members of the old regime and
aristocracy.

Challenges created by Napoleonic Wars

-kings who had lost their thrones put forward their claims

-those states which were responsible for the defeat of Nap submitted their
claims for compensation

-national boundaries which were disturbed by Nap had to be set right

-dilemma of punishing France and her allies for causing political upheaval in
Europe

-challenge of putting Europe together in order to ensure permanent peace and

stability for the sake social,economic and political progress and continuity.

-dilemma on the destiny and future of France as well as handling Nap.

-growth of new forces of change-nationalism, liberalism,socialism-new Europe

demanded the implementation of these ideals especially all the oppressed
small states in Europe-there was demand for constitutional gvts against the
continuity of autocratic gvts which were desired by Russia and Austria.

French Revolution

-implementation of principles of French Revolution-was more of a challenge

since some of the members were conservative in nature in order to protect
their position against the growth of new forces of change-

69
liberalism,socialism,nationalism while others wanted creation of constitutional
governments in smaller states

-issue of nationalism and liberalism of small states that became victims of

major powers

AIMS AND TERMS OF VIENNA SETTLEMENT

Introduction

-The congress of Vienna was one of the most important international summits
of European history- why-it determined the future boundaries of
Europe,boundaries that still impact Europe today.Though,France was the
loser,the framers of this settlement were remarkedly mild towards France and
stopped explosive issues from getting out of hand e.g the Poland issue.

-Peacemakers/architects of the Settlement

1.Britain-Castlereagh-bargained for liberal settlement for her economic

consideration

2.Russis-Alexander 1-also wanted a liberal settlement to advance her interests

of becoming more powerful than any other state by taking greater part of
Poland and bargained for the continuity of existing gvts to ensure peace and
order at the expense of smaller states.

3.Austria-Metternich-also bargained for the continuity of existing gvts

4.Prussia-Fedrick William 11

5.France-Talleyrand

In view of the above scenario,the settlement could be described as a network

of bargains of negotiated compromise among the great powers.From the
onset,great powers revealed their individual interests but at the same time
needed to compromise in some areas in order to promote international
relations e.g the future of France and creation of buffer zones were against the
willing of other people-Austria was given some Italian states as compensation
for losing Netherlands- concept of nationalism and liberalism were
compromised.

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11. Preservation of political divisions in Germany and Italy.

The congress of Vienna remarked as one of the most important diplomatic

gathering in the History of Europe- why-it brought the element of concert of
Europe in view of working together for the betterment of all humanity. The
focus of this settlement was to iron out all the differences among nations for
the sake of European progress which derailed by Napoleon for the past
decade.The settlement was guided by two principles in the redistribution of
territories

1.legitimacy

-e.g the Bourbon Monarchy in the name of Louis XV111 was to be restored in
France or rulers who had lost their states because of Nap conquest should be
restored.

2.Compensation

-those states which had been instrumental in bringing about the downfall of
Nap 1 should rewarded for their labour and territories should be distributed
among the victors-determined to make most gains.When their aims and
interests conflicted, the loser was generally compensated-e.g Austria was given
some Italian states as well as Prussia was given Genoa and Rhineland but
however, Russia being ,the strongest power made extravagant claims in
Europe.This demonstrate shameful example of self –interests by individual
states at the expense of smaller states.The Poland issue could have led to war
or further hostility but it was handled with extreme care by a group of very
capable diplomats.Vienna congress mediated many tensions and conflicting
interests through peaceful negotiations-thus the congress was a success of
diplomacy.

AIMS

1.Restoration of balance of power

Great powers were driven by both common aims and divergent

views.However, collectively,they were prepared to see any one nation
becoming powerful but but that is, in practice, this usually meant in one region
rather in Europe e.g Russia in Eastern Europe,Prussia in Germany and Austria in

71
in Northern Italy. Thus, the idea of balance of power among the great powers
was central with regard to their aims.What they did was to accept France into
congress and again,the arrangement with France and its neighbouring
territories were meant to create a balance of power.Austria and Britain agreed
that France that France was not to be weakened. This would have been based
on an exaggerated estimate of France’s ability once more to disrupt the peace
of Europe.After a generation of turmoil threatening their own states, the
framers were anxious to establish political stability between nations and that
peace was inevitably part of this arrangement.The way they redistribute the
territories demonstrates that they were guided by the idea of maintaining
balance of power. It must be remembered that the Balance of power was
fundamental but certainly not the sole consideration of the settlement.

2.Promotion of European peace

Collectively,the framers of this settlement wanted peace though they had

divergent views about the purpose of this peace. All of them stood for
prevention of future French aggression for the purpose of peace.It was issue of
liberalism and nationalism that divided Britain and her allies over the position
of small states-Britain wanted smaller states to have constitutional gvts
achieved through revolutions while states like Russia and Austria wanted to
suppress these revolutions in order to ensure continuity of existing systems of
autocracy as a way of promoting their domination in other states.e.g demands
for constitutions could be seen in the revolts of 1820s in Spain,Portugal and
Italy.Their diverdent views drove the big powers apart and created alliances
which had divided Europe by 1825.

-was common interest of all powers whether strong or weak powers.This was
not an shameful example of self-interest but each of the victors as well as
France wanted peace for their own benefit .e.g Britain wanted peace in order
promote prosperity of her overseas trade than anything else.This
demonstrates an element of shameful-example of self-interest.

3.Need to contain France

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-there was need to create a barrier around France i.e the framers of the
settlement aimed at strengthening the territories on the borders of France to
deter the French from future aggression-creation of buffer zones.

-during the reign of Nap 1, France proved to be dangerous in Europe and

because of this background, the victors wanted to have some checks and
balances to contain France within their orbit so as prevent future aggression of
the French in Europe. The common fear of Napoleon 1 had been a uniting
factor despite having conflicting aims and motives about the whole purpose of
the settlement.This was done through creation of buffer zones around the
borders of France to check her future expansion.There was evidence of fear of
the unknown by these great powers.This was again good example of self-
interest by victors against the position of France for safety of their position in
Europe.This was also done at the expense of smaller states which were forced
to join together to form strong buffer zones around France.Their interest of
nationalism and liberalism were not considered by great powers.

-However, the affected states were compensated e.g Austria which had lost
Austrian-Netherlands was given two Italian states-Lombardy and
Venetia.Again, the interests of these smaller states were not considered but
reflecting elements of oppression of smaller states by the strong nations.

4.Territorial readjustments

-defeated France was forced to return to its 1790 boundaries.The diplomats

believed that one way in which peace could guaranteed would be through
territorial re-adjustment by weaker states would be given more territory to
strengthen them and so that they could defend themselves in the event of
attack by any other state and no one could be too powereful or too weak thus
demonstrating element of balance of power.France was stripped off the
conquests it had made during the times of Napoleon 1 but that was not out of
cruelty-but rather –to prevent her from remaining powerful. Netherlands and
Italian kingdom of Piedmont were created because members were afraid of a
strong France.

-e.g She lost Belgium and Holland-were merged together to create a bigger
state which was supposed to be capable of defending itself against France or

73
any other state. Austria won back control of Italy while Prussia got the
Rhineland and 2/5 of Saxony

-France lost most of its overseas colonies to Britain and this admittedly to
reward victorious Britain

-In the final analysis, France was clearly punished as a loser but the concept of
balance of power objectives were uppermost in the minds of
diplomats.However, in any case, France was treated with great leniency e.g
Napoleon 1 was allowed to retain his title as Emperor and was given an island
of Elba and again France was accepted to the circle of great powers.

-the whole territorial rearrangements among the victors reflected the

settlement was shameful-example of self-interests at expense of smaller
states.It ignored the forces of nationalism and liberalism of small states-e.g the
buffer zone creation,restoration of Bourbon Monarchy with the new charter

-Austria sought a settlement that would guarantee the continuation of

Hapsburg dynasty in Europe-shameful example of self interest

-territories of Germany were shared to conform the interests of Prussia and

Austria.

-France had to surrender Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine which she had
held for than 20 yrs.France surrendered several colonial possessions

-Russia got Polland

-Prussia was given Genoa and Rhineland.

NB. Thus, France’s boundaries were reduced by great powers possibly due to
fear of future French aggression.

5. Preservation of Political divisions of Germany and Italy for the sake of

order and peace and maintainance of balance of power.

-Prussia dominant in Germany

-Austria dominant in Italy

-nationalism was basically the desire by people of the same language,culture

and origins to rule themselves while liberalism was the right to
74
property,freedom of speech and expression,worship.The Vienna settlement
had suppressed these twi principles after 1815 but eventually gave birth to
unification programmes in Germany and Italy.

-Both countries Germany and Italy were kept divided for the sake of maintain
balance of power.The unifications of the these two states by 1870 through the
work of Bismarck and Cavour really disturbed the balance of power which was
created in 1815 by the victors.The nationalism and liberalism of these two
states were violated.This was the bases of their unification programmes that
started as early as 1815.

-Other cases where nationality and liberalism as twin principles being

compromised by Vienna settlement were:

1.incorporation of Belgium into Holland to prevent the former from being

overrun by France.It can be argued that this was not deliberately against
nationalism as few Belgians were then very concerned about it.

11.-the handing over of most Italian states to foreign rule except Piedmont and
Papal states was clear frustration of nationalism and liberalism.This laid the
bases of future revolutions in Italy and disorder hence the framers of this
settlement could not offer realistic solutions to European problems. In other
words, they created European problems in order to safeguard their interests.

111.-the bringing of Poland under Russian influence was the congress’s

greatest frustration of liberalism and nationality.

6. Banning of Slave trade.

-was in favour of legitimate trade-Britain’s interests-shameful example

7.Restoration of legitimate gvts

-the victors restored the hated Bourbon Monarchy in France but with a charter
as recognition of revolutionary change.This was in response to Talleyrand who
persuaded the Allies to apply the principle to the restoration of Bourbons in
France.This was also shameful example of self interests by the Allies at this
congress.Again, the Bourbon king in Spain was returned as well as the Pope to
their thrones.

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Implementation of what was agreed at Vienna Settlement

After the congress of Vienna, the victors entered into periodic meetings in
order to ensure the implementation of their interests but the question
remains-Whose interests were best served by these series of congresses up to
1825---known as congress system.There was no systematic about these
congresses but were conducted in a hapzard way.They only reacted to events
that is they were rather reactive than proactive.This was one major weakness
made these victors after 1815.The phrase is a useful description of
international relations during this period.The major meetings were congress of
Aixa-chapelle 1818,Troppau 1820,Laibach 1821,Verona 1822 and the abortive
meeting at st Petersburg 1825.These congresses were meant to serve the
interests of individual states- a general point is that all states benefitted
because Europe avoided international war in this period (peace).However, the
suppression of revolutions in smaller states (national and liberal feelings)
benefitted particularly Austria under Metternich and Russia under Alexander
who aimed to maintain the status quo in Europe. e.g Metternich sought to
preserve the authority of the Hapsburg against disstructive forces of
nationalism and liberalism. Britain did not benefit because she was at odds
with conservative autocracies like Russia and Austria. France benefited
because she was readmitted to the circle of major powers that directed
European affairs.Though the congress system lasted not more than 10 years,in
the context of its time, international cooperation through periodic congresses
was created,condemnation of slave trade was effected and peace prevailed for
40 years-no major hostilities occurred until the Crimean War of 1854.

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ITALIAN UNIFICATION FROM 1815-870

Background

The destiny of Italy was decided by 1815 Vienna congress, so therefore its
unification would be a violation to this settlement and a change of balance of
power.The framers of this settlement were not prepared to see such kind of
development. Metternich referred Italy ‘as a mere geographical expression’.
meaning to say that it was not a country worth mentioning.The framers of the
Vienna did not want to disturb the balance of power by advocating the united
Italy.His description seemed appropriate with the following attributes of the
state:

1.communication between different areas was not easy because of physical

barriers such mountains and rivers which were not navigable-north,central and
south.

2.Patriotism of the people was focused on their city

3.There were custom barriers which hampered trade-thus the differences

between north and south were deep and real.

4.The Pope in the central Italy had been opposed to territorial consolidation
under a common ruler-thus Italian situation has less national aspirations.

5.Adminstrative unity was shattered by the terms of Vienna congress in 1815

and once again Italian states had been reduced to a mere geographical
expression-thus its boundaries had been drawn by the congress of the powers
and its unification was an international question as it would entail the
overthrow of the 1815 settlement.

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6.Italy became a rockpit of Europe where foreign powers contented for
mastery e.g Napoleon invaded Naples and later on,Austria was given Lombardy
and Venetia as compensation for her loss of Austrian-Netherlands.

7.Some Italian states such as Parma,Modena,Tuscany were handed over to the

Austrian princes.

8.Pope was restored and controlled all the states in central Italy

9.The Spanish Bourbon monarchy gained the two Sicilies-Naples and Sicily in
the south

10.The Italian ruler of Piedmont was restored and gained Sardinia,Nice and
Savoy but the last two states were inhabited by the French. Thus, in the final
analysis, Italy was mere a divided state into north,central and south.The three
zones needed to be united as one state.

From the above observation, the road to unification required leaders who
were practical,diplomatic,tactful in nature in their approach. From the three
architects of Italian unification (Count Cavour,Mazzini and Garibaldi), Cavour
proved to have best qualities in handling this delicate situation though the
contributions of the other could not be ruled out.Austria was their common
enemy, thus expulsion of Austria from its territory was absolutely essential for
the liberation and unification of the country since Austria was a foreign state
and would have no part in Italian unity.Austria was given the mandate by the
congress of Vienna to control the Italian Peninsula.Metternich was determined
to destroy the idea of Italy as a political expression and there was little
opposition to his views from other powers.The whole process of Italian
unification needed a radical change in attitude for Italians,its rulers and as well
as non-Italians.

Factors that hindered the process of unification

1.Most Italians were found to be lacking political awareness and did not have
the will to forge unity.

2.Italy did not have leaders worth mentioning but was extremely backwards in
all respects.

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3.All early liberal opinions and uprising were put down by Austria e.g Charcoal
burners staged a revolt against king Ferdinard of Naples but the success was
temporary since Metternich intervened and suppressed the uprising.

3.The rule of Pope became unpopular and did not support the idea of
unification-0pposed all forms of reforms and he protected French garrison in
1849.

4.The earliest movement directed towards achieving freedom from foreign

rule was confined to a small section-secret societies-charcoal burbers-the
Carbonaris but very few Italians as yet thought in terms of national
unification.They encouraged people to revolt but were not yet ready for the
cause.

5.Austrian presence was a major obstacle to Italian unity.

6.Different approaches to Italian unity was a problem e.g Mazzini was for a
republican government, Cavour wanted a monachial government (kingships)
whilst the Pope wanted a federal state under his Presidency-so they lacked
common approach.

7.Italy was marked by physical barriers-is a mountainous areas-aspect of

physiography.

8.Numerous customs barriers-hindered trade relations amongst Italian states.

9.Italy had many sovereign states e.g The Papal states in central Italy,The
Bourbon states in Southern Italy and Northern states were under monarchist
government.

Lessons gained from early revolts

-the early failures in 1820s,1830s and 1848-9 Revolutions were not without
lessons for others e.g Mazzini and Cavour learnt something from these
revolts.They realised that they had to change the way to go about the issue of
unity and freedom.It was clear that the defeat of Austria would ensure Italian
freedom and unification.They was need to have backing from the masses
hence need for mobilisation of the masses because the Charcoal burners failed
because they did not have the backing of the masses, possibly people were not

79
ready for the cause.The other lesson was that the Italia fara dese does not
work since all early uprising by the Italians were suppressed by Austria.

THE Role of Cavour: his contribution by 1861

By 1861, the situation in Italy had greatly changed i.e much of Italy had been
annexed to Sardinia-Piedmont e.g Lombardy was surrendered to Piedmont
after the defeat of Austria in 1858.

-the kingdom of Italy was declared in 1861, with Victor Emmanual 11 as king of
Italy

-rulers of smaller states in Central and Southern Italy had been swept away
and these states were annexed to Piedmont

-Austrians had been destroyed from Northern Italy through French help,
although they still entrenched in Venetia but Lombardy was acquired by
Cavour.However, the French garrison remained in Rome. All these were due to
Cavour’s role in solving the problems of 1848. The complete unification was
achieved by 1870 with the role of Bismarck who was pursuing his own interests
in Germany e.g Autro-Prussian war in 1866 at the battle of Sadowa-here was
defeated and Venetia was taken by Piedmont.This marked the end of Austrian
influence in Italy.The Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 by Bismarck finally
unified Italy by defeating France which had influence in Rome,Nice and
Savoy.Thus, Cavour’s idea of foreign assistance was fulfilled by Bismarck by
1870-71.Though much credit can be attributed to Mazzini and Garibaldi,
Cavour had the ability to manipute events as they come to Piedmont’s
advantage as the rallying point for Italian unification.Therefore, the unification
of Italy is attributed to so many players e.g Mazzini ,Cavour,Garibaldi,Victor
Emmanuel 11 and Bismarck who was pursuing his own interests in Germany.
Again, the unification of Italy was subject to both planning and chances which
were exploited by Cavour.

Cavour’s Approch

Derek Beales comments that the unification of Italy happened very

quickly,owed much to good fortune and was largely an affair of war and
diplomacy....’ It was a result of risorgimento-national revival not the sudden
and accidental upshot of war and diplomacy.Cavour was not a revolutionary
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but was a realist and believer of freedom,economic, military and political
progressiveness.He was inspired by the status of Britain.

-Cavour favoured an expanded Piedmont that who lead to a stronger northern

Italy.Victor Emmanuel and Cavour who were the leaders of Piedmont, saw
success being achieved through foreign aid because Piedmont was too weak to
fight alone with strong common enemy Austria and did not wish to raise
revolutionary forces elsewhere.Cavour supported a united Italy at a later date
and had the misgivings about the wisdom of including the South and Rome.

-Intervention in the Crimean War of 1854-1856 was a significant step which he

took to gain foreign aid against Austria in 1858-1859.Cavour favoured an
expansionist policy that would lead a stronger northern Italy against a
powerful Austria.Thus, Cavour’s internal reforms were quite instrumental in
making Piedmont to stand a chance against a strong Austria which proved to
be a stubbling block to Italian unification e.g he signed commercial treaties
with Britain,France,Belgium,Netherlands,German zollverein and also lowered
tarrifs duties with other Italian states as way of promoting trade.Railway
construction was greatly improved to promote communication with other
Italian states,France and German states.Scientific farming was encouraged and
Commerce and Industry were promoted thus Piedmont’s exports greatly
increased by 50%.There was also military reorganisation in order to meet
European standards-the army was well equipped and trained.As a result,
Piedmont-Sardinia had become unchallenged leader of Italy,most liberal and
progressive state in the peninsula. The whole process of Italian unification
needed a strong state and leadership to champion the process. This need was
done by Cavour himself after identifying the weakness of the 1848 revolution
in Italy. Cavour learnt something from his predecessors and had the ability to
manipute to his advantage.

Crimean War 1854-1856

Cavour believed that Itala fara dase or Italy will do it alone was not practical as
evidenced by the failure of revolutiories like Mazzini and Garibaldi.He believed
in blood and iron and diplomacy through use of Foreign aid.This foreign was
not easy to get from either Britain or France since the destiny of Italy was the
81
product of Vienna settlement. It clearly demonstrates that the expulsion of
Austria and possible unification of Italy would entail re-adjustment of the
balance of power and would become a concern for European states. Cavour
waited for his chances to come and his finest hour came when the Crimean
war broke where he joined on the side of Britain and France against Russia
over Turkey. The defeat of Russia resulted in a Peace treaty of Paris in 1856
where Cavour presented his issue to Britain and France.Cavour never thought
of a united Italy comprising the whole entire peninsula but was probably
thinking of a defined kingdom of Northern Italy.This was a diplomatic approach
for Cavour to gain friends in order to oust out Austria.Thus, Cavour’s plan was
successful because she got military support from France and moral support
from Britain.

Napoleon 111’s motives was to upgrade French glory abroad by having some
territorial gains from Italy-Nice and Savoy as compensation for helping
Cavour.Napoleon 111 did not want to see a united Italy since such kind of
move would violate the 1815 arrangement.To Cavour, sought much of
freedom rather than Italian unification.Thus, a territorial expansion of
Piedmont in Northern Italy was planned with the inclusion of states which
were under Austria. Cavour was seeking nothing but territorial
expansion.Cavour’s aim was to use the Italian movement and the friendship of
Napoleon 111 for the advantage of Sardinia.The idea of Italian unity was
hypothetical, remote from immediate reality-setting Piedmont at the head of
national movement.National unity may have been a remote ideal but later was
forced by circumstances of events that led him to think of a united Italy but
under the leadership of Piedmont.Cavour was clearly in closer touch and in
close sympathy with national movement in Italy. As a result, Piedmont,
became focus of national aspirations e.g many liberals had a slogan ‘Victor
Emmanuel, king of Italy’. Unification was distant objective and the immediate
task was the liberation of Italy from the Austrian yoke and set up of North
Italian kingdom.

The role of Mazzini

-Mazzini and Garibaldi were advocating for the unification of all Italian states-
central,northern and southern.Mazzini did not reconcile to Cavours’s
Italy.Mazzini(idealist-not practical) was a republican whose ideas embraced all
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of Italy.He believed that Italy could free itself through revolution-‘Italia fara
dase’ –meaning Italy will go alone.This was not a practical approach
considering the military strength of Austria and again the initial phase of the
call, most Italians were not yet prepared for the cause.He is credited for raising
the national feelings among the young Italians through his creation of the
Young Italy and Young Europe.He laid the foundation for the forthcoming
nationalist leaders and these learnt a lot from his mistakes.He was just an
idealist not a practical man-wanted unity of all people thus he sow the idea
hence the father of Italian unification. Mazzini, being a revolutionary wanted
to create a republican state.The 1848 revolution failed because they were too
parochial and uncoordinated,lacked popular support and lack of realism
among the revolutionaries.These revolts hardly have produced significant
results.The failure of these revolts had shown Mazzini’s ideas to be unrealistic
and the shortcomings of his leadership had been exposed.The slogan that
‘Italia fara dase i.e Italy will do it alone’ was an illusion.This clearly proved that
freedom could not be achieved without foreign aid.

The role of Garibaldi and Southern Italy-His Contribution

Harsh despotism of Bourbons led to revolts of 1860 in Naples and Sicily but
Gribaldi did not have much interest in Italian unity.However ,he assisted them
against despotism.Cavour took this chance to send Piedmontese army and
papal troops were defeated so they marched southwards to link up with
Garibaldi.Garibaldi handed over his cinquest to Victor Emmunuel 11 and the
retired to his home island.The southern part of Italy’s success was due to
Garibaldi’s efforts but Cavour only manipulated to his advantage.

The central states demanded union with Piedmont and these events put
Sardinia to its advantage and Napoleon 111 supported this since Nice and
Savoy wanted union with France.The Pope Pius 1X refused to become
president of an Italian confederation and angered many,hence turned against
him. Garibaldi also participated in Cavour’s wars with Austria though being a
revolutionary.

83
RUSSIA-Role of Joseph Stalin 1824-1941
Introduction

The Communist regime in the Soviet Union’s aim was to to industrialise the
economy.Lenin made advances under his New Economic Policy (NEP) but
surprisingly,Soviet Union remained behind the rest of Europe.It was against
this background that Joseph Stalin had to adopt his Five Year Plans to break
away from Lenin’s policy.The changes introduced by Joseph Stalin under his
plans were to transform the USSR from a backward, peasant country into
modern,urban and industrial-based society.

Reasons for introducing programmes in USSR

1.Fear of foreign invasion

-Russia was still backward despite Lenin’s efforts to introduce modern

economy in USSR and again Russia had abundant resources e.g coal and
iron.Stalin believed that Russia should have strong industrial base if she was to
defend herself against capitalist states like France and Britain. The capitalist
world wanted to destroy communism ideology in Russia.Stalin said ‘ We are 50
to 100 years behind the Advanced countries,We must make good this distance
in 10 years, either we do it or we shall be crushed’.Thus, Stalin’s cry for
socialism in one country was to be achieved through industrialisation.Hitler’s
anti-communism statements provided a further incentive for the successful
implementation of the Five Year Plan as a strategy to introduce modern
economy in USSR.

2.Economic reasons

-Under NEP of Lenin,industrial production although improving remained

disappointing to many Communists.Again, civil war and disruption of First
World War of 1914-1918 damaged Russia’s infrastructure.All these contributed
to Russia’s backward in Europe.The Five Year Plan introduced by him was
strictly controlled by the gvt to ensure enough production and distribution of
essential materials.Thus, to Stalin economic control by the gvt would maximise
use of USSR’s resources hence fast-tracking the growth of its economy-
command economy.

84
3.Political reasons.

To all Communists, industrialisation was seen as a necessary development in

order to ensure the survival of the revolution.Chances of survival of socialism
in an non-industrial society was quite slim.It was therefore, essential to
undertake the programme of industrial development. Thus, industrialisation
process would create many more members of the proletariate who would be
the backbone of the revolution.The Five Year Plan would get rid of all private
business people and traders who had gained under NEP-made excessive profits
at the expense of the majority.The capitalist elements concerned with selfish
gains needed to be wiped out and the Five Year Plan would achieve this
objective.

STALIN’ s Role in introducing a modern economy in Russia

Without Stalin,USSR would have perished, so they had been taught what lay
ahead despite their suffering.Initially, Stalin’s rule was appealing but later his
rule reflected his tyrannical in order to introduce a modern economy to the
standards of other European powers. Stalin decided by starting with
agriculture in turning around the Russian economy where he believed that
industrial development would only be possible if it was supported by an
increase in agricultural production i.e need for food for the workers.Thus,
mechanisation of agriculture would allow people to work in industry –
availability of labour.This policy of industrialisation could be achieved only if
agriculture was made more efficiently.That was Stalin’s assumption in his
policy of introducing modern economy in USSR.

This programme was introduced after a strong power struggle within the
Communist Party which was divided between the Right,Left and the
Centre.The struggle for power was between Trostsky and Stalin but this was
not a mere struggle but involved serious differences over matters of policy
where Stalin wished to build socialism in one country while Trostsky regareded
the need for a communist world revolution as soon as possible.Stalin believed
in building and a modernindustrial state first before doing anything in order to
improve the standards of living and to resist attacks from other states.Stalin
was accepted by Communist Party Congress against Trostsky.NEP of Lenin was

85
abandoned and introduced the push-towards industrialisation in 1928-
industrialisation was state controlled.

The Five Year Plans and collectivisation 1928-1933

In introducing modern economy, Stalin’s first focus was on agriculture before

looking at the industrial sector.Stalin thought that this was going to be an easy
process.These Five Year Plans to be successful,it required financial backing to
kick off but Russian was still a poor country.However, the question-Where
could Stalin get the money? The possible alternative were to get it from
western states but Stalin feared that they would exploit her profits and again
they had different ideologies.Another possilibility was to wait for gradual
improvement from his programmes but this one was ruled out by him.
Finally,Stalin was convinced that Russian would be hauled into a modern world
by sweat and blood of the Russian people while this needed proper planning
i.e First Five Year Plan 1928-1932 and Second Five Year Plan-1933-1937

The First Five Year Plan 1928-1932-Collectivisation of Agriculture

The focus was on food production for the workers in industry in order to
consolidate the industrial sector-so extra food was to be gained through his
reform of agriculture.The aim of this programme was to build up Russia’s
heavy industry-coal,iron and steel and to collectivise agriculture.The rational
was to do away with individual farms of peasantry in the countryside and to
base agriculture on large farms run collectively under centralised
director.Thus,collectivisation was a policy of creating larger agricultural units
where peasants would farm collectively rather than on individual basis on
farms.The purpose was to increase agricultural production through extensive
use of machinery.Initially, the First Year Plans was carried out at the expense of
low living standards but this was a fundamental step towards creating a
modern industrial state.The plans converted Russia into a modern industrial
state and it provided the basis for resistance to Hitler in the second world war.

Effects of farm collectivisation

This aroused widespread resistance and produced a situation of near civil war
in many farming areas e.g heavy resistance came from richer peasants or
kulaks who lost their properties and were heavily taxed and evicted from their

86
farms.Their products would be taken by the Stalin’s gvt at low price.The
response of these richer peasants to the state was quite heavy i.e they killed
their livestocks and burning of their crops as well as destroying their farm
buildings.Stalin had to introduce forced collectivisation if he had to promote
socialism in one country to ensure surviva of the revolution and create a
modern economy as per his vision.It was a state of confusion and loss of
production. e.g grain production rapidly fell below the 1913 level thus Stalin in
the 1930s was forced to introduce the slower pace in collectivisation especially
when it was found that over 60% of livestock was lost.Stalin allowed many of
the deported peasants to return from prison camps to the villages and he
provided incentive e.g given little private plots of land of their own .Despites
this,by 1932, the gvt had achieved its aims and the collective farm system had
come to stay.There was a huge increase of tractor production in the 1930s
which led to a rise in agricultural production after 1932.Though,the use of
command economy had some shortcomings, Stalin was bit flexible in dealing
the situation when things turned against him-e.g resources were
wasted,consumer industries suffered heavily while coal,iron and steel
production increased and managers tended to inflate figures, hence led to
corruption.

Second Five Year Plan 1933-1937-INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS

The Five Year Plans had increased industrial wealth and huge industrial centres
e,g Stalingrad grew up in these years.Moscow-Volga canal was built and a
great hydro-electric dam was completed on the Dnieper for the electrification
of the countryside,towns of Ukraine and to spearhead rapid industrial
production.This was quite necessary in order to create a modern industrial
state.Thus, creating a modern state was seen by Stalin as a means of raising
standards of living of the Russian people and a means of resisting attacks from
the capitalist world.Stalin though he created a harsh environment for the
people, he managed convert Russia from a backward country into a great
modern industrial state in Europe which his predecessors like Lenin failed to
do so.By 1938, Russia produced more than 5 times the amount of coal
produced in 1913 and 6 times the amount of steel. Though Stalin’s approach in
introducing Modern state economy in Russia,people had to go without many
consumer goods and thus life was hard and living standards remained

87
low.There was shortage of housing and labour was being exploited in
industries.Resistance increased against Stalin but the police terror against
suspected persons-widespread party purges took place resulting in loss of
human life.By 1939, both agriculture and industry had been transformed at a
cost of self-sacrifice by many people under harsh regime e.g purges were
introduced-to get rid of anyone Stalin did not trust e.g about 15 million people
were killed in his effort to create a modern industrial state in Europe. Thus,
though Stalin achieved his goals in introducing a modern state,the remaining
part of his rule was marked by severe criticism from workers,peasants and
even everybody in Russia.Stalin claimed that he was doing it for the good of all
the Russians because Hitler hated communism.Thus,purges were an necessary
evil for his success as well as human suffering-Why? His plans eventually
turned Russia into a industrial giant. However, his critics eventually accepted
the suffering because they believed that they were building a better future for
next generation.A good living example of Stalin’s contribution for the Russians
even today is that of defeating Hitler in 1941.So without the industrial strength
that Stalin had given it,the Russians could have been crushed.Stalin’s new steel
works,power stations and factories saved Russia but the people suffered a lot
to build it.Thus, Stalin’s policies had bought about successful modernisation of
the country but achieved at enormous human cost.It should be noted Stalin’s
approach initially was quite appealing but later on Stalin had to use to make
things happen since some of his predecessor had failed to industrialise the
country.He had created a good foundation for the Russians which is being
remembered by the new generation in the world especially their survival from
Hitler’s attack during the Second World war in 1941.

88
SOCIAL SCIENCE EDUCATION

Social Studies at Primary level

Definition of Social studies

-It is an American concept which intends to study the past and present.

-it is a broad study of various fields which involve past and current human
behaviour and interactions.

-it provides an overview of human society, past and present e.g of disciplines-
History,Economics,Geography,Government,culture, psychology,sociology

-it was an attempt to introduce a new branch of social science which deals with
behaviour and relationships.It was an attempt to explain human behaviour and
relationship which dominated American society.It is the study of people and
their activities.It is an inter-disciplinary subject which has both historical and
contemporary dimension.It was introduced to incorporate traditional coarses
in Geography and history.It involves the study of people and their

89
social,political environment in which they live.This is how the birth of social
studies emerged and today,it is being taught in primary schools.

MAIN CONCEPTS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Ideas and characteristics in SS

1.Socialisation

-process of teaching young ones good morals based on the assumption that a
person is not born human but is made human by other people especially
members of the family and the school.It involves learning appropriate
behaviour patterns. It is a process by which a child gradually become self-
aware, knowledgeable to skilled in the ways of culture into which they are
born.It is a process by which the child is equipped with foundations of
behaviour patterns and communication skills needed for survival in that
community.Social misfits occur when there are misunderstandings e.g
housebreaking,prostitutions,robbery.

2.Culture

-defined as the life style that distinguish a group of people from another,

thus includes knowledge,beliefs,customs,habits,work p

90
GERMANY HISTORY-1919-1945

Background-RISE OF ADOLF HITLER

Germany and her allies Austria,Turkey,Bulgaria were defeated in the First

World War in 1914-1918.This war had affected the country’s her previous
position as a great power.The German reich was lost since the
victors(Britain,France,Italy) took some of her territories.This resulted in the
singing of Versailles Settlement which saw Germany on the losing side in all
respects.It was against this background that Adolf Hitler worked hard to rectify
the situation after 1919.The defeat of Germany saw the abdication of William
11 from power and the creation of a new democratic government known as
‘Weimur Republic’.It is this government which was associated with the hated
Versailles of 1919 by Germans including Hitler himself.

The Weimur Republic( An Experiement)

Germany’s defeat in 1918 brought to an end to German’ Reich.The abdication

of William11 saw the establishment of a new German Republic called the
Weimur Republic.It adopted this title because it was based at Weimur city in
German.On paper, its constitution was truly democratic but on the ground,it
failed to promote its application right from the beginning.The problems faced
by this government right from the beginning was a good recipe for Hilter’s rise
in 1933.The challenges faced by this gvt were political ,social and economic in
91
nature and these challenges were manipulated by Hitler to his advantages but
however, his abilities enabled him to grab power from this gvt by
1933.Therefore, Hitler’rise is attributed to both challenges faced by this gvt
and his personal abilities that appealed to many Germans.

Conditions that enabled Hitler and the Nazis to rise to power

The attainment of power by Hitler and the Nazis was largely a product of the
weakness of the Weimur republic and the general economic,social and political
problems of the time.The weimur constitutional with its proportional
representation facilitated the rise of Hitler-i.e the constitution led to the
setting up of unstable gvts-failure of democracy caused a lot of problems-e,g
political assassinations and disturbances in form revolts against the gvts.

Political challenges of the Weimur Republic

The gvt was associated with the hated treaty-versallies which adversely
affected the Germans socially,politically and economically.This gvt never won
confidence of the German speaking people-had no faith in this gvt.This
situation was largely created by the leadership who accepted and signed the
Versallies treaty.The treaty was labelled as a diktat by many Germans.The new
rulers of this gvt were accused as sell-out and were given all sorts of
unpalatable names e.g the November criminals.

The democracy which the new rulers of German adopted on assuming power
was alien to the Germans who had been used to an authoritarian system of
gvt.This was more of a challenge to this gvt hence people lost faith in it.Its
future of survival was now questionable from the start.This politica
environment provided a good opportunity for Hitler to grab power in
Germany.Democracy was very unpopular amongst many sections of the
population who included the Business people,army officers and the Prussian
junkers who had never wished to see the survival of this type of gvt.Again, the
introduction of democracy also promoted the mushrooming of many political
parties whose views and interests were diverse as the parties themselves.eg no
single party won a clear majority in the parliament or Reichstag, thus signifying
that the German speaking had different interests and views in the country.This

92
resulted in a series of shortlived and weak coalition gvts e.g chancellors came
one after the other in rapid succession rendering the republic ungovernable.
Examples of parties created were Nazi party under
Hitler,Communist(Sparticist)Party,Social Democratic Party,Catholic Centre
Party,Bavarian Peoples’ Party.Thus, the introduction of democracy in German
created more problems for this gvt as evidenced by formation of many political
parties in the country.This resulted in various attempts to overthrow this gvt
eg.the first attempt was of the Communist uprising(Spartist Purtsh)-its a
German word for an armed rising- in 1919-this took place in Berlin and it was
inspired by the Russian revolution in 1917 which had resulted in the creation of
the Bolshevik gvt under Lenin.However, this revolt was crushed by Nationalists
who did not want to see the spread of communism in their country from
Russian.Another attempt was the Munich Putsch of 1923 where the Nazi under
Hitler attempted to seize power.They wanted to march from Munich to Berlin
imitating what Mussolini did in Italy when grabbed power in 1922 by marching
into Rome.Hitler felt that the time was right to overthrow the gvt since he had
a lot of support in Munich.This attempt resulted in Hitler being imprisoned
where he wrote his book-‘The Mein kampf-My struggle’. It was a matter of
time before this gvt was removed.The importance of this attempt was that
Hitler’s name was known all over German and his became a sort of a Bible
which expressed his ideas about the future of Germany.Most Germans were
tired of this type gvt because people were not benefitting from it since the
country had many social,political and economic problems created by the FWW
but not gvt itself.

Social challenges

There was general social unrest in the country e.g political

violences,demonstrations and strikes amongst workers whose wages and
savings were eroded by the hyper inflationary environment.These became the
order of the day.Dieseses also took a toll on the German populace e,g
thousands of children suffered from life threatening diseases such as
TB,Stomach diseases.Large number of German were left homeless and some
were maimed by WW1.Many widows and orphans were created by the war
and there was widespread unemployment due to demobilisation of the
army.From this situation, most Germans resented this scenario and wanted gvt

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that would rescued them.The Weimur republic seemed not show any sign of
improving the situation and this created more chances for Hitler’s campaign to
win power in Germany.

Economic challenges

The grave unemployment worsened by demobilised soldiers added to the

general poverty in the country.Therefore, the general economic,social and
political dislocation in Germany during the Weimur republic’s rule aided the
rise of Hitler and the Nazis to power.

The French-Belgium occupation of the Ruhr caused the collapse of the mark
and appalling inflation in 1923.Germany faced one of the highest inflation ever
record in history in the 20th century.The vaue of Germany mark dropped soon
after the end of the First world war.Notes were printed daily and became
meaningless and this did not help the situation.However, some people
resorted to barter trade and use of foreign currency when doing their
transactions.Many workers were retrenched resulting in more unemployment
rate in the country.Huper inflation eroded workers’s wages and savings.Banks
and industries were closed resulting in the drop of Gross Economic
growth.Again, this inflation affected the propertied class e.g the middle
class,who became potential supporters of the Nazis.Payment of reparations
was a thorny issue which resulted in heavy borrowing thus increasing the
country’s debts.However,the economic situation slightly improved when
Gustav Stressman became the German chancellor of this gvt but it was
shortlived because of the effects of Great Depression of 1929.Gustav saved the
country from total collapse in 1924-1929 when he embarked on several
measures which brought hope e.g he introduced new currency and on the
international scene,he agreed to the Dawes Plan of 1924 and the Young Plan of
1929-the two schemes assisted the gvt in the payment of reparations by
installments hence by 1926, Germany was accepted in the league of
Nations.The effects of these measures were that trade with other countries
greatly improved,the Germans had more work and food.However, Germany’s
hope was spoiled by the effects of World Great depression which started in
America.The effects of the Great Depression e.g the Wall Crash and death of
the able Stresemann worsened the Republic’s problems and increased support
for the Nazis-industrialists sytmpathised with Nazi hoping to have their
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properties protected.They sympathised with the Nazi programme,especially
the revision of the Versailles treaty.This slump hit Germany very hard e.g
unemployment figures rose sharply,many shops went out business and forced
to close.Many banks collapsed and producers stopped to produceThe majority
felt that the Weimur republic had failed-some turned to communism and some
turned to Hitler.e.g the elections of 1930 and 1932 saw the numbers of Nazis in
the Reichstag rising from 12 to 230 seats- the party had more seats than any
other party.Hindenburg who was German President believed that it was Hitler
who could stop communism in Germany and in 1933 was made the chancellor
of Germany. Hitler hated the Jews,Versailles treaty,Weimur republic and
communism and was lucky that most Germans had same feelings, hence got
much support from the people.It was at the height of this economic collapse
that the Weimur Republic collapsed, hence giving Hitler the chance to grap
power in Germany by 1933.

Remarks

The rise of Hitler to power was based upon long term factors which include
Germans resentment of the terms of Versailles settlement which they saw as a
diktat,the social,economic and political problems created by the war and world
depression as well as the the failure of democracy.The weakeness of the
Weimur republic system gvt was exploited by Hitler through his
propaganda.The term of office by Gustav Streseman from 1924 -1929 brought
hope for most Germans such that Hitler found it difficult to get support for his
plans to overthrow the gvt by force.Most Germans became contented with
Gustav’s measures which saw country reviving from its economic,social and
political problems.The measures adopted by him had a bearing on the social
lives of the Germans so discontentment decreased- the measures brought
economic prosperity and international recognition of Germany.He was very
lucky when Gustav died in 1929 and the beginning of world slump revived his
support from rich business people who did not want see the communist taking
power in Germany.Confidence in the gvt was affected by the Great Depression
e.g loans from America ceased.Government failed to deal with the crisis with
the result that extreme politics returned with the Nazis.Hitler capitalised and
attacked the gvt.Fear of communism made it difficult for the Weimur to deal
with the Nazis challenges.There was a leadership crisis with the death of

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Stresemann, e.g Muller resigned and Bruning and Von Schleicher did not help
much. Thus, self interest of the political parties led to bickering in the
Reichstag and so Hindenburg had no option but to call Hitler.With his
appointment,republicanism had given way to dictatorship.He got financial
backing from them for his campaingns to stop communist from gaining
power.In the final analysis, Hitler rose to power as a result of long term
bitterness and deep anger about the FWW and treaty of Versailles which
created an underlying bitterness which Hitler’s viciousness and expansionism
appealed to so many Germans-so the people of Germany gave him support. In
fact,the weakness of the constitutions crippled the Weimur republic and many
Germans wanted to return to the authotarian type of gvt when the crisis came
in 1929.Noone was prepared to fight to stop Hitler but instead gave him moral
and financial support to run his propaganda and election campaingn.Thus, Nazi
propaganda convinced many Germans to believe that the Jews were to blame
for all the misfortunes of the country-bloodsuckers of their economy and
should be removed through force-and were made to believe that he was their
last hope.Hitler promised everybody something so that they supported
him.Hitler was a brilliant speaker(orator) and his eyes had a peculiar power
over the people.He was good organiser and politician.He believed that he had
been called by God to become a dictator in Germany and rule the world.This
kept him going when other people might have given up.This self-belief
persuaded people to believe in him.

Hitler used various measures to gain support from the Germans-used violence
i,e Storm Troopers beat all opponents in the streets and the Enabling Act of
1933 allowed Hitler to do whatever he likes and Nazi rule of terror begun and
all political parties were outlawed.He was more determined to gain –power e.g
in 1933,17 million voted for him and 20 million voted against him but this did
not stop him despite having strong opposition from communists. Thus, the
terror of the Storm Troopers and the brilliance of his Speeches attracted many
Germans.

Summary

The question to ask is,was the rise of Hitler to power attributed to long term
factors or to challenges faced by the Weimur republic or was due to personal
abilities? However, the position is that both long term factors and his personal
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advantages assisted him to gain power in Germany.It is important to note the
weaknesses of the Weimur republic played a greater role for Hitler to grab
power in Germany.The weaknesses of this gvt was Hitler’s strengths in order to
win support in Germany.This evidenced during the time Gustav when most
Germans got contented and was very difficult for Hitler to gain
support.However,he was bit lucky in 1929 when Gustav died and the
occurrence of world slump otherwise his future rise was now questionable.At
the same time,his personal advantages enabled him to win people and see him
as their last hope in this crisis of the post-war period in Germany.The Great
depression was not the Weimur republic’s creation but was an world event
that affected German economy.The fault of the gvt was that it did not do
anything to help the situation, hence its weaknesses.The rapid succession of
chancellors one after the other shows that this gvt had riddled with a lot
problems right from the onset.Thus, the Weimur republic was more of an
experiment that failed to last since the system of such gvt was a new thing to
the Germans.

NB.Make a detailed evaluation on conditions that enabled Hitler to gain power

in Germany.

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