Chapter 2

Notation and definitions

2.1 Quantifiers
Now, quantifiers are formal objects, but again are (informal) analogies of
the following:

1. ∃x∈a β means ‘there exists a x in a certain set a such that β is true/valid’.

(The x ∈ a in subscript is only to make a clear distinction between
x ∈ a and β.)

2. ∀x∈a β means ‘for all x in a certain set a, β is true/valid’.

Sometimes ∃x∈a β is rather subtle, because it also means something like: “if
there is a x such that β, then, ... holds”.
Now, a closed-formed proposition φ, depending on x1 , x2 , . . . , xn (so
φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )), is a proposition in which all variables are restricted by
exactly either one of these quantifiers. So in our example in section ‘Proving
theorems’, we had ∀x∈N . This will become more clear in the following
section.

2.2 Sets
Sets are collections of items, informally. In fact, it can be said, jokingly, all
mathematics is applied set theory (combined with the human capability to
grasp certain concepts of course). Set theory was formally established at the
same time as proof theory. The ‘set’ of axioms which tames the most used
‘forms’ of sets is called Zermelo-Fraenkel (ZF) set theory, which is just a list
of axioms. Some of their axioms are derived from quite simple occurrences
or thought experiments. One of them is ‘Two sets are the same, when they
have the same elements.’, which is actually a very useful axioms. Another
axiom prevents instances such as the ‘Russell’s paradox’ (Google it I’d say!)
Other axioms are used to define some notation and operations of set theory,