Project management

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Project management is the discipline of organizing and managing
resources in such a way that these resources deliver all the work
required to complete a project within defined scope, time, and cost
constraints. A project is a temporary and one-time endeavor
undertaken to create a unique product or service. This property of
being a temporary and a one-time undertaking contrasts with
processes, or operations, which are permanent or semi-permanent
ongoing functional work to create the same product or service over-
and-over again. The management of these two systems is often very
different and requires varying technical skills and philosophy, hence
requiring the development of project management.
The first challenge of project management is ensuring that a project is
delivered within the defined constraints. The second, more ambitious,
challenge is the optimized allocation and integration of the inputs
needed to meet those pre-defined objectives. The project, therefore, is
a carefully selected set of activities chosen to use resources (time,
money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions, communication,
quality, risk, etc.) to meet the pre-defined objectives.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 The Project Manager

• 2 The traditional triple constraints
o 2.1 Time
o 2.2 Cost
o 2.3 Scope
• 3 Project Management activities
• 4 Project Management artifacts
• 5 Project control variables
• 6 History of Project Management
 • 7 Approaches
o 7.1 The traditional approach
o 7.2 Critical chain
o 7.3 Process-based (agile) management
• 8 Project systems
o 8.1 Project control systems
o 8.2 Project development stages
 8.2.1 Initiation
 8.2.2 Planning and design
 8.2.3 Production or execution
 8.2.4 Closing and Maintenance
• 9 Project Management Associations
o 9.1 International Standards
o 9.2 Professional Certifications
• 10 See also
• 11 Literature

• 12 External links
[edit]

The Project Manager

Project Management is quite often the province and responsibility of an

individual project manager. This individual seldom participates directly
in the activities that produce the end result, but rather strives to
maintain the progress and productive mutual interaction of various
parties in such a way that overall risk of failure is reduced.
A project manager is often a client representative and has to
determine and implement the exact needs of the client based on
knowledge of the firm he/she is representing. The ability to adapt to
the various internal procedures of the contracting party, and to form
close links with the nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring
that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all client
satisfaction, can be realized.
In whatever field, a successful project manager must be able to
envisage the entire project from start to finish and to have the ability
to ensure that this vision is realized
Any type of product or service - buildings, vehicles, electronics,
computer software, financial services, etc. - may have its
implementation overseen by a project manager and its operations by a
product manager.
[edit]

The traditional triple constraints

Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and
delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally, these constraints
have been listed as: scope, time, and cost. This is also referred to as
the Project Management Triangle where each side represents a
constraint. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without
impacting the others. A further refinement of the constraints separates
product 'quality' or 'performance' from scope, and turns quality into a
fourth constraint.
The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete
a project. The cost constraint refers to the budgeted amount available
for the project. The scope constraint refers to what must be done to
produce the project's end result. These three constraints are often
competing constraints: increased scope typically means increased time
and increased cost, a tight time constraint could mean increased costs
and reduced scope, and a tight budget could mean increased time and
reduced scope.
The discipline of project management is about providing the tools and
techniques that enable the project team (not just the project manager)
to organize their work to meet these constraints.
[edit]

Time

Broken down for analytical purposes into the time required to complete
the components of the project, which is then further broken down into
the time required to complete each task contributing to the completion
of each component.
[edit]

Cost

Cost to develop a project depends on several variables including

(chiefly): labor rates, material rates, risk management, plant
(buildings, machines, etc.), equipment, and profit. When hiring an
independent consultant for a project, cost will typically be determined
by the consultant's or firm's per diem rate multiplied by an estimated
quantity for completion.
[edit]

Scope

Requirements specified for the end result. The overall definition of

what the project is supposed to accomplish, and a specific description
of what the end result should be or accomplish. A major component of
scope is the quality of the final product. The amount of time put into
individual tasks determines the overall quality of the project. Some
tasks may require a given amount of time to complete adequately, but
given more time could be completed exceptionally. Over the course of
a large project, quality can have a significant impact on time and cost
(or vice versa).
[edit]

Project Management activities

Project Management is composed of several different types of activities
such as:

1. Planning the work or objectives

2. Analysis & Design of objectives
3. Assessing and mitigating risk (or Risk Management)
4. Estimating resources
5. Allocation of resources
 6. Organizing the work
7. Acquiring human and material resources
8. Assigning tasks
9. Directing activities
10. Controlling project execution
11. Tracking and Reporting progress
12. Analyzing the results based on the facts achieved
13. Defining the products of the project
14. Forecasting future trends in the project
15. Quality Management
16. Issues Management

[edit]

Project Management artifacts

All successful projects adequately document objectives and
deliverables. These documents are a mechanism to align sponsors,
clients, and project team's expectations.

1. Project Charter
2. Business case/Feasibility Study
3. Scope Statement / Terms of reference
4. Work Breakdown Structure
5. Change Control Plan
6. Risk Management Plan
7. Communications Plan
8. Governance Model
9. Risk Register
10. Issue Log
11. Resource Management Plan
12. Project Schedule
13. Status Report
14. Responsibility assignment matrix
15. Database of risks
 16. Database of lessons learned
17. Stakeholder Analysis

These documents are normally hosted on a shared resource (i.e.,

intranet web page) and are available for review by the project's
stakeholders. Changes or updates to these documents are explicitly
outlined in the project's configuration management (or change control
plan).
[edit]

Project control variables

Project Management tries to gain control over variables such as risk:
risk
Potential points of failure. Most negative risks (or potential failures) can be
overcome or resolved, given enough planning capabilities, time, and resources.
According to some definitions (including PMBOK Third Edition) risk can also be
categorized as "positive--" meaning that there is a potential opportunity, e.g.,
complete the project faster than expected.
Customers (either internal or external project sponsors), external
organizations (such as government agencies and regulators) can
dictate the extent of three variables: time, cost, and scope. The
remaining variable (risk) is managed by the project team, ideally based
on solid estimation and response planning techniques. Through a
negotiation process among project stakeholders, an agreement defines
the final objectives, in terms of time, cost, scope, and risk, usually in
the form of a charter or contract.
To properly control these variables a good project manager has a
depth of knowledge and experience in these four areas (time, cost,
scope, and risk), and in six other areas as well: integration,
communication, human resources, quality assurance, schedule
development, and procurement.
[edit]

History of Project Management

As a discipline, Project Management developed from several different
fields of application, including construction, mechanical engineering,
military projects, etc. In the United States, the forefather of project
management is Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control
techniques, who is famously known for his use of the "bar" chart as a
project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow
Taylor's theories of scientific management, and for his study of the
work and management of Navy ship building. His work is the
forerunner to many modern project management tools, including the
work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950's mark the beginning of the modern project management
era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950's, projects were
managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal
techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project
scheduling models were developed: (1) the "Program Evaluation and
Review Technique" or PERT, developed as part of the United States
Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile
submarine program; and (2) the "Critical Path Method" (CPM)
developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and
Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance
projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many
private enterprises.
In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve
the interest of the project management industry. The premise of PMI is
that the tools and techniques of project management are common
even among the widespread application of projects from the software
industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of
Directors authorized the development of what has become the The
Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, containing the
standards and guidelines of practice that are widely used throughout
the profession.
[edit]

Approaches
There are several approaches that can be taken to managing project
activities including agile, iterative, incremental, and phased
approaches.
Regardless of the approach employed, careful consideration needs to
be given to clarify surrounding project objectives, goals, and
importantly, the roles and responsibilities of all participants and
stakeholders.
[edit]

The traditional approach

A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be

completed. In the traditional approach, we can distinguish 5
components of a project (4 stages plus control) in the development of
a project:

1. project initiation stage;

2. project planning or design stage;
3. project execution or production stage;
4. project monitoring and controlling systems;
5. project completion stage.

Not all projects will visit every stage as projects can be terminated
before they reach completion. Some projects probably don't have the
planning and/or the monitoring. Some projects will go through steps 2,
3 and 4 multiple times.
Many industries utilize variations on these stages. For example, in
bricks and mortar architectural design, projects typically progress
through stages like Pre-Planning, Conceptual Design, Schematic
Design, Design Development, Construction Drawings (or Contract
Documents), and Construction Administration. In software
development, this approach is often known as Rational Unified Process
(RUP) traditionally known as 'waterfall development' i.e one series of
tasks after another in linear sequence. Waterfall development can
work for small tightly defined projects, but for larger projects of
undefined or unknowable scope, it is less suited. While the names may
differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically follow
common steps to problem solving--defining the problem, weighing
options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation.
[edit]

Critical chain

Critical chain is an extension to the traditional critical path method.

In critical studies of project management, it has been noted that
several of these fundamentally PERT-based models are not well suited
for the multi-project company environment of today. Most of them are
aimed at very large-scale, one-time, non-routine projects, and
nowadays all kinds of management are expressed in terms of projects.
Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few
weeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and low
maneuverability in several cases. Instead, project management
experts try to identify different "lightweight" models, such as, for
example Extreme Programming for software development and Scrum
techniques. The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds
of projects is extreme project management, which may be used in
combination with the process modeling and management principles of
human interaction management.
[edit]

Process-based (agile) management

Also furthering the concept of project control is the incorporation of

process-based management. This area has been driven by the use of
Maturity models such as the CMMI (Capability Maturity Model
Integration) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE - Software Process Improvement
and Capability Determination), which have been far more successful.
Agile project management approaches based on the principles of
human interaction management are founded on a process view of
human collaboration. This contrasts sharply with traditional approach.
In the agile software development or flexible product development
approach, the project is seen as a series of relatively small tasks
conceived and executed as the situation demands in an adaptive
manner, rather than as a completely pre-planned process.
[edit]

Project systems
As mentioned above, traditionally, project development includes five
elements: control systems and four stages.
[edit]

Project control systems

Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on-track, on-

time, and within budget. Project control begins early in the project with
planning and ends late in the project with post-implementation review,
having a thorough involvement of each step in the process. Each
project should be assessed for the appropriate level of control needed,
too much control is too time consuming, too little control is too costly.
Clarifying the cost to the business if the control is not implemented in
terms of errors, fixes, and additional audit fees.
Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication,
time, change, procurement, and human resources. In addition, auditors
should consider how important the projects are to the financial
statements, how reliant the stakeholders are on controls, and how
many controls exist. Auditors should review the development process
and procedures how they are implemented. The process of
development and the quality of the final product may also be assessed
if needed or requested. A business may want the auditing firm to be
involved throughout the process to catch problems earlier on so that
they can be fixed more easily. An auditor can serve as a controls
consultant as part of the development team or as an independent
auditor as part of an audit.
Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes.
These help assure that systems are developed successfully. A formal
process is more effective in creating strong controls, and auditors
should review this process to confirm that it is well designed and is
followed in practice. A good formal systems development plan outlines:

• A strategy to align development with the organization’s broader objectives

• Standards for new systems
• Project management policies for timing and budgeting
• Procedures describing the process

[edit]

Project development stages

Regardless of the methodology used, the project development process

will have the same major stages: initiation, development, production or
execution, and closing/maintenance.
[edit]

Initiation

The initiation stage determines the nature and scope of the

development. If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the
project will be successful in meeting the business’s needs. The key
project controls needed here is an understanding of the business
environment and making sure that all necessary controls are
incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and
a recommendation should be made to fix them.
The initiation stage should include a cohesive plan that encompasses
the following areas:

• Study analyzing the business needs in measurable goals.

• Review of the current operations.
• Conceptual design of the operation of the final product.
• Equipment requirement.
• Financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget.
• Select stake holders, including users, and support personnel for the project.
• Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule.
[edit]

Planning and design

After the initiation stage, the system is designed, occasionally a small

prototype of the final product is built and tested. Testing is generally
performed by a combination of testers and end users, and can occur
after the prototype is built or concurrently. Controls should be in place
that ensures that the final product will meet the specifications of the
project charter. The results of the design stage should include:

• A product that satisfies the project sponsor, end user, and business requirements.
• Functions as it was intended.
• Can be produced within quality standards.
• Can be produced with time and budget.

[edit]

Production or execution

The execution stage includes the actual implementation of the design

or plan. In software systems, this includes conversion (transfer of data
from an old system to a new system), documentation, and training.
From an auditor's perspective, training is also important because it
helps users use the software correctly. The bulk of the project's work
and largest capital expenditure is realized in this stage.
[edit]

Closing and Maintenance

Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending
thereof. Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and
documenting lessons learned.
Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:

• Continuing support of end users

• Correction of errors
• Updates of the software over time
In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and
quickly user problems are resolved.
[edit]

Project Management Associations

Several national and professional associations exist which has as their
aim the promotion and development of project management and the
project management profession. The most prominent associations
include:

• The Association for Project Management (UK) (APM)

• The Australian Institute of Project Management (AIPM)
• The International Project Management Association (IPMA)
• The Project Management Institute (PMI)
• The International Association of Project & Program Management (IAPPM)
• The International Project Management Commission (IPMC)

[edit]

International Standards

• A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide)

• APM Body of Knowledge 5th ed. (APM - Association for Project Management
(UK))
• PRINCE2 (PRojects IN a Controlled Environment)
• P2M (A guidebook of Project & Program Management for Enterprise Innovation,
japanese third-generation project management method)
• V-Modell (German project management method)
• HERMES (The Swiss general project management method, selected for use in
Luxembourg and international organisations)

[edit]

Professional Certifications
There have been several attempts to develop project management
standards, such as:

• ISO 10006:1997, Quality management - Guidelines to quality in project

management
• CPM ([The International Association of Project & Program Management])
• ISEB Project Management Syllabus
• JPACE (Justify, Plan, Activate, Control, and End - The James Martin Method for
Managing Projects (1981-present))

See also: An exhaustive list of standards (maturity models)

So far, there is no known attempt to develop a project management
standard available under the GNU Free Documentation License. There
was a proposed Project Management XML Schema.
There is an effort by PMI to develop The Practice Standard for
Scheduling. (This document is currently (May 2006) in exposure draft,
which is near the end of the standards development process.)

[edit]

See also
• Building engineering
• Building construction
• Capability Maturity Model
• Commonware
• Cost overrun
• Critical chain
• Critical path method
• Dependency Structure Matrix
• Earned value management
• Estimation
• Flexible project management
• Functionality, mission and scope creep
• Gantt chart
• Governance
 • Human Interaction Management
• Industrial Engineering
• List of project management topics
• Management
• Megaprojects
• Metrics
• M.S.P.M.
• Project accounting
• Program management
• Project management software (List of project management software)
• Project management in the building process chain
• Process architecture
• RACI diagram
• Software project management
• Terms of reference
• The Mythical Man-Month
• Timesheet
• Work Breakdown Structure

[edit]

Literature
• Berkun, Scott (2005). Art of Project Management

Project
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For the form of US public housing, see housing projects. For Wikipedia projects,
see Wikipedia:WikiProject.
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique
product or service.
It can also comprise an ambitious plan to define and constrain a future
by limiting it to set goals and parameters. The planning, execution and
monitoring of major projects sometimes involves setting up a special
temporary organization, consisting of a project team and one or more
work teams. A project usually needs resources.
The word project comes from the Latin word projectum from projicere,
"to throw something forwards" which in turn comes from pro-, which
denotes something that precedes the action of the next part of the
word in time (paralleling the Greek πρό) and jacere, "to throw". The
word "project" thus actually originally meant "something that comes
before anything else is done". When the word was initially adopted, it
referred to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this
plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project was called
an object. This use of "project" changed in the 1950s when several
techniques for project management were introduced: with this advent
the word slightly changed meaning to cover both projects and objects.
However in certain projects there may still exist so called objects and
object leaders, reflecting the older use of the words.

Types of Projects

Construction Projects

The project produces an artefact. The value generated by the project is embedded in the
artefact. The artefact may be a complex system with human and mechanical components.
Examples:

• Warship
• Jubilee line extension
• Millennium dome
• Customer call centre
• Method guidebook
• IT system

Research Projects

The project produces knowledge. The knowledge may be formally represented as models,
patterns or patents. Or the knowledge may be embedded in a working process or artefact.
Examples:

• Business modelling
• Developing a model of the UK economy
 • Developing a new species of wheat
• Developing novel approaches to project management.
• Military intelligence/ codebreaking.
• The analysis, testing, QA or evaluation portions of a larger project.

Reengineering Projects

The project produces a desired change in some system or process.

Examples:

• Taking sterling into the Euro

• Renumbering the UK telephone system
• Implementing PRINCE project management practices into a large organization.
• Designing and installing an Intranet.

Procurement Projects

The project produces a business relationship contractually based with a selected supplier
for a defined product or service based on a fixed specification and/or a defined
specification process
Examples:

• Outsourcing a specific construction or research project

• Outsourcing a complete business function (such as IT).
• Imposing new rules and measures on a regulated industry.

Business Implementation Projects

The project produces an operationally effective process. The value generated by the
project is embedded in the process.
Examples:

• Developing a new business process to repackage and exploit existing assets.

• Installing e-commerce

Some projects are difficult to classify under this

scheme.

National symbolic programmes:

• Putting a man on the moon by the end of the decade.

• Mitterand’s Grandes Projects.
• New Labour

Large medical programmes:

 • Creating an artificial heart.
• Mass inoculation programmes.

Other hybrid or interdisciplinary projects

• Pilot projects
• Moving offices

In most cases, this difficulty arises from an ambiguity about the primary purpose of the
project. Are we doing this pilot for its own sake, or merely as an experiment? Are we
doing this drug trial to benefit current patients, or to create knowledge that will benefit
future patients? What’s the real political agenda? Of course, we must be able to handle
hybrid projects - but we may need to surface the underlying ambiguity.