WEB CRIPPLING BEHAVIOUR OF COLD

FORMED CHANNEL SECTION WITH WEB

HOLES

SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the
Degree of Master of Technology in Civil Engineering
of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University

Submitted by
MOHAMMED SHANIB K.
M3 Structural Engineering
Roll No: 193092

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TRIVANDRUM
NOVEMBER 2020
 WEB CRIPPLING BEHAVIOUR OF COLD
FORMED CHANNEL SECTION WITH WEB
HOLES

SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the
Degree of Master of Technology in Civil Engineering
of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University

Submitted by
MOHAMMED SHANIB K.
M3 Structural Engineering
Roll No: 193092

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
TRIVANDRUM
NOVEMBER 2020
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING TRIVANDRUM
2020

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar report entitled “Web Crippling Behaviour Of
Cold-Formed Channel Section With Web Holes” is a bonafide record of the
seminar presented by MOHAMMED SHANIB K. (M3 Structural Engineering, Roll
No. 193092) under my guidance, towards the partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of the Degree of Master of Technology in Civil Engineering (Structural
Engineering) from the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University during the
academic year 20120-21.

Guided By P G Professor

Prof. Biju V. Dr. Anil R

Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
College of Engineering College of Engineering
Trivandrum Trivandrum
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide Prof. Biju V, Assistant

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Trivandrum, for
his expert guidance and valuable suggestions for the successful and timely completion
of this seminar work.

I also express my sincere thanks to Dr. Mini Soman, Professor and Head of
Department of Civil Engineering and. Dr. Anil R. Associate Professor and P G
coordinator, Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Trivandrum for
all the necessary helps extended by them for the fulfillment of this work.

I would like to thank Prof. Jiji Jacob , Assistant Professor and staff advisor for
her immense support and encouragement offered for the completion of the work.

I am thankful to our Seminar Coordinators, Dr. Yashida Nadir and

Dr. Vandana R.K. for the valuable guidance and suggestions offered during the
course of the seminar and in preparing this report.

My sincere thanks are expressed here to the entire faculty of the Department of
Civil Engineering and to my parents and all friends for their help and support.

Above all, I thank the Lord Almighty whose invisible hand guided me
throughout the course of this work.

MOHAMMED SHANIB K.
 ABSTRACT

Cold-formed steel (CFS) section is the term used for products which are made
by rolling or pressing thin gauges of steel sheets into goods at nearly room
temperature. CFS, especially in the form of thin gauge sheets, is commonly used in
the construction industry. Web crushing or crippling at points of concentrated or
localized, load or reaction in thin-walled beams is well-known to be a significant
problem. Furthermore, openings in the web are often used to allow ease of installation
of electrical or plumbing services. Such openings, however, result in the sections
being more susceptible to web crippling, particularly when concentrated loads are
applied near to the openings.

In this work, a comparative study of the web crippling strength of Cold formed
channel sections with plain webs, with unstiffened and edge stiffened web holes under
different interior loading conditions are done. The study considered both the
experimental and numerical investigations done by Asraf et al., in 2017 and 2020.
Two types of loading, i.e., Interior one flange loading (IOF) and Interior Two flange
loading (ITF) are taken in to consideration. A total of 18 specimens were
experimentally and numerically studied under each loading. All the experimental tests
are carried out as per the AISI specifications. For the sections with web holes the
diameter of the holes are chosen as 140 mm.

From the study it can be concluded that the web crippling capacity varies with
different types of loading. Also found that the sections with edge stiffened web holes
have more web crippling strength than the plain web sections and with unstiffened
web holes which is due to the increase in the lateral stiffness of the web section and
hence reduction in lateral displacements. The reductions in the web crippling strengths
of each specimen due to the presence of holes are also calculated separately.
 CONTENTS
SL.NO TITLE PAGE NO.
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Web crippling test 4
1.1.1 One –flange loading 5
1.1.2 Two-flange loading 6
2. CASE STUDIES 9
2.1 Interior One –flange loading (IOF) 9
2.1.1 Experimental investigation 9
2.1.2 Test procedure and discussions 10
2.1.3 Numerical investigations 12
2.2 Interior Two –flange loading (ITF) 15
2.2.1 Experimental investigation 15
2.2.2 Test procedure and discussions 16
2.2.3 Numerical investigations 18
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 21
4 CONCLUSIONS 22
5 REFERENCES 23
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG. NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

1. Cold formed steel sections 3

2. Cold formed steel channel sections with web openings 4

3. One- flange loading conditions 5

4. Two- flange loading conditions 7

5. Lipped channel sections with different conditions 9

6. Finite element model for edge stiffened hole 13

7. Comparison of experiment and finite element analysis 13

for IOF loading
8. Comparison of experiment and finite element analysis 14
web deformation curves for the specimen 240x45x1.8-
N100
9. Interior Two Flange loading (ITF) experimental setup. 16

10. Interior Two Flange loading (ITF) schematic diagram 16

11. Interior Two Flange loading (ITF) Finite Element 18

Model
12. Comparison of failure modes of experimental and 19
FEA for unstiffened web holes
13. Comparison of failure modes of experimental and 19
FEA for stiffened web holes
 LIST OF TABLES

FIG. NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

1. Section details of the specimen 11

2. Comparison of web crippling strength predicted from 14

FEA and experimental results
3. Section details of the specimen 17

4. Comparison of web crippling strength predicted from 20

FEA and experimental results
 1. INTRODUCTION

Cold-formed steel (CFS) section is the term used for products which are made by
rolling or pressing thin gauges of steel sheets into goods at nearly room temperature.
CFS goods are created by the working of thin steel sheets using stamping, rolling or
presses to deform the steel sheets into a proper product which are usable. CFS,
especially in the form of thin gauge sheets, is commonly used in the construction
industry for structural or non-structural items such as columns, beams, joists, studs,
floor decking, built-up sections and other components.

In building construction there are basically two types of structural steels are used,
hot-rolled steel shapes and cold-formed steel shapes. The hot rolled steel shapes are
formed at elevated temperatures while the cold-formed steel shapes are formed at
room temperature. Cold-formed steel structural members are shapes commonly
manufactured from steel plate, sheet metal or strip material. The manufacturing
process involves forming the material by either press-braking or cold roll forming to
achieve the desired shape.

When steel is formed by press-braking or cold rolled forming, there is a change in

the mechanical properties of the material by virtue of the cold working of the metal.
When a steel section is cold formed from flat sheet or strip the yield strength, and to a
lesser extent the ultimate strength, are increased as a result of this cold working,
particularly in the bends of the section. The coating of zinc or galvanizing is made to
protect the cold-formed steel sections and this provides the protection against the
corrosion in the environment. The thickness of 0.04 mm coating is usually made for
internal environment. If the moisture is present for a longer period of time then the
thicker coat is provided for more protection.

In comparison to the hot rolled section with the cold rolled sections, CFS have
more moment of inertia and section modulus in x-direction and y-direction, therefore
the load carrying capacity and moment resisting capacity are higher.

Some of the main properties of cold formed steel are as follows:-

 Lightness in weight
 High strength and stiffness

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  Ease of prefabrication and mass production
 Fast and easy erection and installation
 Substantial elimination of delays due to weather
 More accurate detailing
 Non shrinking and non-creeping at ambient temperatures
 No formwork needed
 Termite-proof and rot proof
 Uniform quality
 Economy in transportation and handling
 Non combustibility
 Recyclable material
 Panels and decks can provide enclosed cells for conduits.

Different types of CFS sections used are:-

 Channel sections
 Lipped channel sections
 Zee-sections
 Lipped Zee-sections
 Angle sections
 Stiffened angle sections
 I-sections
 Special sections

The figure below shows the different CFS sections mentioned above.

a) Lipped channel sections b) Plain channel section

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 c) Lipped Zee-section d) Plain Zee-section

e) Angle section f) I- section

Fig. 1. Cold formed steel sections.

(Source: www.google.com)

Web crushing or crippling at points of concentrated or localized, load or

reaction in thin-walled beams is well-known to be a significant problem. Cold-formed
steel sections are increasingly used in residential and commercial construction for both
primary and secondary framing members. Such thin-walled sections are well-known to
be susceptible to web crippling, particularly at points of concentrated load or reaction.
Furthermore, openings in the web are often used to allow ease of installation of
electrical or plumbing services. Such openings, however, result in the sections being
more susceptible to web crippling, particularly when concentrated loads are applied
near to the openings.

Web holes in cold-formed steel sections are normally punched or bored and so
are unstiffened. Recent studies have been reported that there is considerable reduction
in the strength of channel sections having such unstiffened circular openings. Latest

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studies describe CFS channel sections having web holes that are edge stiffened. The
web holes are edge stiffened through a continuous edge stiffener or a lip around the
perimeter of the hole.

(a) Section with unstiffened holes (b) Section with edge-stiffened holes

Fig. 2. Cold-formed steel channel sections with web openings.

(Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))

1.1 WEB CRIPPLING TEST

It is a well-known fact that web elements of cold-formed steel members may

crippling, that is buckle or yield, when subjected to local concentrated loads. This
behavior has been studied by numerous investigators since the 1940s, and it has been
concluded that a purely theoretical analysis is rather complicated because it involves
numerous influencing parameters.
There are six key parameters that influence the web crippling strength of cold-
formed steel members. These key parameters are the following:
a) thickness of the web, t
b) yield strength of the web, Fy
c) web slenderness ratio, h/t
d) inside bend radius to thickness ratio, R/t
e) length of bearing to thickness ratio, N/t
f) web inclination, θ.

Also, the web crippling strength depends on the load position and whether or not
only one flange is being loaded or two flanges. If it is end loading, the concentrated

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load is applied at the end of the member and in the case of interior loading, the
concentrate load is applied somewhere in the middle of the member span. Typically,
web crippling tests are carried out for each section geometry and for each of the
following four load cases: These four different loading cases are:-

1.1.1. One-flange loading

One flange loading is the case where only one flange of the section is being
loaded in a simple-span test setup (Figures 3). To achieve a one-flange loading
condition, the clear distance between bearing plate edges must be equal to or greater
than 1.5 times the flat dimension of the web element, h, i.e. 1.5h. If the distance
between the bearing plates is less than 1.5h, then the load case must be considered a
two-flange load case.

a) Interior One-Flange Loading (IOF)

b)End One-Flange Loading (EOF)

Fig.3. One flange loading conditions
(Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))

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 a) Interior One-Flange Loading (IOF)

This load case is a condition where the web crippling failure load is accompanied
by a moment, therefore it is important to keep the specimen length to a minimum (Fig.
3a). This can be achieved by setting the clear distance between bearing plate edges
equal to 1.5h, hence keeping the specimen to its shortest possible length. The moment
ratio of the test moment, Mt, to the calculated nominal moment, Mn, should be equal
to or less than 0.30. If this cannot be achieved, then the specimen must be considered
to be subjected to the combined action of web crippling and bending. The end bearing
plates are typically chosen to be wide plates and/or additional web reinforcing is
provided at each end support to insure that the failure will occur at the interior load
application location.

b) End One-Flange Loading (EOF)

As depicted by Fig. 3b, the failure will occur at one of the end support bearing
plates in a pure web crippling mode. The length of specimen is generally kept to a
minimum to preclude the failure at the interior load application location. Typically, a
wide bearing plate is chosen at the interior load application location with additional
reinforcement in order to avoid a possible premature failure.

1.1.2. Two-flange loading

Two-flange loading is the case where both flanges of a section are being loaded
simultaneously (Fig.4). The length of specimen is important in order to simulate a
realistic condition as experienced in practice. This is especially important in the case
of single-web sections such as C- and Z-sections. If the specimen length is too short,
failure will be by complete overall buckling of the web element, which is not realistic
in practice. In the case of multi-web sections such as deck profiles, the test specimen
length is not as important in that there are a number of web elements that share the
web crippling load.

a) Interior Two-Flange Loading (ITF)

As depicted by Fig. 4a, the applied load is directly over the support reaction, both
bearing plates must be the same width for any given test. The length of a single-web

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specimen should be at least equal to five times the section depth and be positioned
symmetrically in the test frame.
b) End Two-Flange Loading (ETF)
As depicted by Fig. 4b, the bearing plates must be the same width for any given test.
Also, the specimen length of single-web sections should be at least equal to five times
the section depth and the specimen should be positioned flush with both bearing plates
at the end being tested. The other end of the specimen is typically placed on a support
to stabilize the section during testing.

a) Interior Two-Flange Loading (ITF)

b)End Two-Flange Loading (ETF)

Fig.4. Two flange loading conditions
(Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))

There are two different support restraint conditions that may be considered, i.e.,
(1) Where the specimen is not fastened to the support, and
(2) Where the specimen is fastened to the support during testing.

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 In practice, cold-formed steel products may be fastened to their supports.

i) Specimen Not Fastened To Support

In this support restraint condition the specimen is not fastened to a support or

to a bearing plate. The web crippling strength may be less than if the specimen was
fastened to the support. The reason for this reduced capacity is attributed to the
specimen not being restrained against rotation.

ii) Specimen Fastened To Support

The specimen is fastened to the support, which may result in larger web
crippling capacity because the specimen is restrained against rotation. Bolts can be
used to fasten the specimens to the bearing plates.

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 2. CASE STUDIES

In this seminar a comparative study has been conducted by considering two of

the four loading conditions, i.e., Interior one flange loading condition and interior two
flange loading conditions. The comparative study includes the comparison of web
crippling capacities of cold formed channel sections with plain web, with unstiffened
holes in the web and with edge stiffened holes under the considered type of loading.

2.1. INTERIOR ONE FLANGE LOADING (IOF)

For the purpose of studying the Interior One Flange loading (IOF) conditions
the work done by Asrasf et al.,(2017) was considered. In this work a combination of
experimental investigation and non-linear elasto-plastic finite element analyses are
used to investigate the effect of edge-stiffened holes under the interior-one-flange
(IOF) loading condition. For comparison, sections without holes and with unstiffened
holes are also considered.

2.1.1. Experimental Investigation

In this work the test programme was conducted on lipped channel sections as
shown in the figure.

(a) No hole (b) Unstiffened hole (c) Edge-stiffened hole

Fig.5. Lipped channel sections with different conditions.
(Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))

The tests were conducted on specimens having depths of 240 mm and 290 mm
which were named as C240 and C290 respectively. All holes had a nominal diameter
(a) of 140 mm and an edge-stiffener length (q) of 13 mm; the radius (rq) between the
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web and edge-stiffener was 3 mm. The test specimens comprised two different section
sizes, having nominal thicknesses (t) ranging from 2.0 mm to 2.5 mm; the nominal
depth (d) of the webs ranged from 240 mm to 290 mm; the nominal flange width (b f)
for both sizes is 45 mm.
The ratios of the diameter of the circular holes to the depth of the flat portion
of the webs (a/h) were 0.6 and 0.5 for the C240 and C290 section, respectively. All
test specimens were fabricated with the circular web holes located at the mid-depth of
the webs and centered above the bearing plates, with a horizontal clear distance to the
near edge of the bearing plates (x). The specimen length (L) used were according to
the North American Specification and the AISI Specification. The bearing plates were
fabricated using with high strength steel having a thickness of 25 mm. Three lengths of
bearing plates (N) were used: 50 mm, 75 mm and 100 mm.

2.1.2. Test Procedure and Discussions

The specimens were tested under the IOF loading conditions as specified in the
North American Specification and the AISI Specification. For the IOF loading
conditions, two channel sections were used to provide symmetric loading. The
specimens were bolted to support blocks at each end of the specimens. A bearing plate
was positioned at the mid-length of the specimens. The load was applied through
bearing plate. Hinge supports were simulated by two half rounds in the line of action
of the force. Two displacement transducers (LVDTs) were positioned at the two edges
of bearing plate to measure the vertical displacements.

A servo-controlled Tinius-Olsen testing machine was used to apply a

concentrated compressive force to the test specimens. Displacement control was used
to drive the hydraulic actuator at a constant speed of 0.05 mm/min for all the test
specimens. The bearing plates were fabricated using a high strength steel. All the
bearing plates were machined to specified dimensions, and the thickness was 25 mm.
In the experimental investigation, three different lengths of bearing plates (N) were
used, namely, 50 mm, 75 mm and 100 mm. The flanges of the channel section
specimens were unfastened the bearing plates during testing.

Table 1 below shows the section details of the specimens used. The specimens
were labeled such that the loading condition, the nominal dimension of the specimen

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 and the length of the bearing as well as the ratio of the diameter of the holes to the
depth of the flat portion of the webs (a/h) could be identified from the label.
Table 1. Section details of the specimen
((Source: Asraf et al.,(2017)))

Specimen d(mm) bf(mm) bl(mm) L(mm) t(mm) a(mm) N(mm)

Plain section

IOF 240x45x15-N50-NH 236.33 45.08 18.57 970.0 1.98 - 50

IOF 240x45x15-N75-NH 238.17 44.77 17.62 994.7 1.97 - 75
IOF 240x45x15-N100-NH 237.56 44.77 17.59 1020.0 1.97 - 100
IOF 290x45x15-N50-NH 289.33 45.38 18.56 1120.1 2.48 - 50
IOF 290x45x15-N75-NH 289.67 45.17 18.57 1144.6 2.48 - 75
IOF 290x45x15-N100-NH 288.21 44.75 19.47 1170.2 2.46 - 100

Unstiffened hole

IOF 240x45x15-N50-USH 235.12 44.76 17.45 969.0 1.97 140 50

IOF 240x45x15-N75- USH 236.54 45.15 17.76 994.3 1.98 140 75
IOF 240x45x15-N100- USH 235.54 44.95 17.62 1020.2 1.96 140 100
IOF 290x45x15-N50- USH 290.74 45.36 18.14 1120.6 2.49 140 50
IOF 290x45x15-N75- USH 290.83 44.8 19.63 1145.1 2.48 140 75
IOF 290x45x15-N100- USH 289.91 44.6 20.07 1170.2 2.48 140 100

Stiffened hole

IOF 240x45x15-N50-ESH 236.33 44.76 17.44 969.3 1.97 140 50

IOF 240x45x15-N75- ESH 236.67 44.75 17.77 994.3 1.98 140 75
IOF 240x45x15-N100- ESH 237.67 45.01 17.67 1020.9 1.97 140 100
IOF 290x45x15-N50- ESH 290.11 45.28 18.14 1120.2 2.48 140 50
IOF 290x45x15-N75- ESH 290.54 44.78 19.71 1145.7 2.48 140 75
IOF 290x45x15-N100- ESH 289.33 44.59 20.08 1170.3 2.49 140 100

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Where,
d = Depth of the web
bf = Width of the flange
bl = Width of the lip
L = Length of the channel
t = Thickness of the channel
a = Hole diameter
N = Bearing length
The specimen labels are assigned as follows:-
 The first three letters indicate the web crippling loading condition used i.e.
Interior-One-Flange (IOF) and Interior Two- Flange (ITF)
 The symbols d x bf x bl refer to the nominal dimensions of the specimens in
millimeters i.e. 240 x 45 x 15 means d = 240 mm; bf = 45 mm; and bl = 13mm
 The notation „„N50” indicates the length of bearing in millimeters (i.e. N = 50
mm)
 The last three notations „„NH”, „„USH” and „„ESH” indicates the web holes
cases. „„NH” represents the no web hole case, „„USH” represents a web having
a hole that is unstiffened, and „„ESH” represents a web having a hole that is
edge-stiffened.

2.1.3 Numerical investigation

The non-linear elasto-plastic general purpose finite element programme
ABAQUS was used to simulate the channel sections with and without holes subjected
to web crippling. The bearing plates, the channel section with circular holes and the
interfaces between the bearing plates and the channel section have been modeled. In
the finite element model, the measured cross section dimensions and the material
properties obtained from the tests were used. The model was based on the Centre line
dimensions of the cross-sections.
Due to symmetry, only half of the test setup was modeled, as shown in Figure
6. The dimensions of the channel section modeled are given in Table 1. Contact pairs
are defined between the bearing plate and the cold-formed steel section. In addition,
for the IOF loading condition, contact pairs are defined between the support block and
cold-formed steel section.

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 Fig.6. Finite element model for edge stiffened hole

(Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))

The value of Young‟s modulus was 205 kN/mm2 and Poisson‟s ratio was 0.3.
A mesh sensitivity analysis was used to investigate the effect of different element sizes
in the cross-section of the channel sections. Finite element mesh sizes were 5 mm x
5mm for the cold-formed steel channel sections and 8 mm x 8 mm for the bearing
plates and load transfer block. Cold-formed steel channel sections with and without
web holes were modeled using S4R shell element.
The vertical load applied to the channel section through the bearing plate for
the IOF and load transfer block for the EOF in the laboratory tests was modelled using
displacement control. In the finite element model, a displacement in the vertical Y-
direction was applied to the reference point of the analytical rigid plate that modelled
the bearing plate and load transfer block. The nodes on symmetry surface of load
transfer block, support blocks and bearing plates were prevented from translational
axes in the X-direction and rotation about the Y and Z axes.

(a) Experimental (b) FEA

Fig. 7. Comparison of experiment and finite element analysis for IOF loading condition
((Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))

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 The web crippling failure mode observed from the tests has been also verified
by the finite element model for the IOF loading condition, as shown in figure 7. It is
shown that good agreement is achieved between the experimental and finite element
results for both the web crippling strength and the failure mode.
The results of the experimental and numerical investigations of lipped channel
sections with circular unstiffened and edge stiffened circular web holes subjected to
web crippling is tabulated table 2. The web deformation curves predicted by finite
element analysis were compared with the experimental curves. The figure 8 shows the
web crippling strength v/s displacement curve of the specimen 240 x 45 x 1.8- N100.

Fig. 8. Comparison of experiment and finite element analysis web deformation

curves for the specimen 240x45x1.8-N100
((Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))

Table 2. Comparison of web crippling strength predicted from FEA and

experimental results
(Source: Asraf et al.,(2017))
Web crippling %
Web crippling
strength per web PEXP /
Specimen strength per web Reduction
as per
predicted from PFEA due to
experiment,
FEA, PFEA (kN) webholes
PEXP (kN)
Plain section
IOF 240x45x15-N50-NH 16.07 16.20 0.99 -
IOF 240x45x15-N75-NH 17.30 17.50 0.99 -
IOF 240x45x15-N100-NH 18.50 18.70 0.99 -
IOF 290x45x15-N50-NH 30.68 31.20 0.98 -
IOF 290x45x15-N75-NH 32.97 33.89 0.97 -
IOF 290x45x15-N100-NH 34.60 35.64 0.97 -

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Unstiffened hole
IOF 240x45x15-N50-USH 15.72 15.96 0.98 -2.18
IOF 240x45x15-N75- USH 16.64 16.84 0.99 -3.82
IOF 240x45x15-N100- USH 17.60 17.80 0.99 -4.86
IOF 290x45x15-N50- USH 28.34 29.02 0.98 -7.63
IOF 290x45x15-N75- USH 29.64 30.81 0.96 -10.10
IOF 290x45x15-N100- USH 30.26 32.14 0.94 -12.54
Stiffened hole
IOF 240x45x15-N50-ESH 16.26 16.54 0.98 1.18
IOF 240x45x15-N75- ESH 17.54 17.70 0.99 1.39
IOF 240x45x15-N100- ESH 18.83 18.95 0.99 1.78
IOF 290x45x15-N50- ESH 30.07 29.87 1.01 -1.99
IOF 290x45x15-N75- ESH 32.05 31.42 1.02 -2.79
IOF 290x45x15-N100- ESH 33.62 33.10 1.02 -2.83

2.2. INTERIOR TWO FLANGE LOADING (ITF)

For studying the effect of web crippling load in cold formed sections with web
holes under Interior Two Flange (ITF) loading condition the work by Asraf et al.,
(2020) is considered. In this paper, a combination of experimental investigation and
non-linear finite element analysis (FEA) are used to investigate the effect of edge-
stiffened holes under ITF loading conditions; for comparison, channel sections without
holes and with unstiffened holes are also considered.

2.2.1. Experimental Investigation

The ratios of the diameter of the circular holes to the depth of the flat portion
of the webs (a/h) were 0.6 and 0.5 for the C240 and C290 section, respectively. The
test specimens comprised two different section sizes, having nominal thicknesses (t)
ranging from 2.0 mm to 2.5 mm; the nominal depth (d) of the webs ranged from 240
mm to 290 mm; the nominal flange width (bf) for both sizes is 45 mm. All holes had a
nominal diameter (a) of 140.0 mm and an edge-stiffener length (q) of 13 mm; the

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radius (rq) between the web and edge-stiffener was 3.0 mm; corner radius between
web and flange (ri) was 3.0 mm. All the test specimens were fabricated with web holes
located at the mid-depth of the webs.

2.2.2. Test Procedure and Discussions

Similar to the last case study the specimens were tested under the ITF loading
condition specified in the AISI Specification. For the ITF loading condition, two
identical bearing plates of the same width were positioned at the middle and the mid-
length of each specimen, respectively. Hinge supports were simulated by two half
rounds in the line of action of the force. The bearing plates were fabricated using high
strength steel and bearing plates of length 50 mm, 75 mm, and 100 mm were used. The
photograph of the experimental setup is shown below in figure 9 and figure 10.

Fig.9. Interior Two Flange loading (ITF) experimental setup.

((Source: Asraf et al.,(2020))

Fig.10. Interior Two Flange loading (ITF) schematic diagram

((Source: Asraf et al.,(2020))

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 Similar to previous case study a total of 18 specimens including 6 samples each
of plain webs, unstiffened web holes and edge stiffened web holes were tested
experimentally. The specimen details are shown below in table 3.
Table 3. Section details of the specimen
(Source: Asraf et al.,(2020))

Specimen d(mm) bf(mm) bl(mm) L(mm) t(mm) a(mm) N(mm)

Plain section

ITF 240x45x15-N50-NH 237 44.95 18.29 768.33 1.98 - 50

ITF 240x45x15-N75-NH 237.67 45.04 18.27 794 1.97 - 75
ITF 240x45x15-N100-NH 237.33 45.06 17.75 820 1.96 - 100
ITF 290x45x15-N50-NH 290.33 45.51 18.01 919.67 2.46 - 50
ITF 290x45x15-N75-NH 289.33 45.37 18.55 944 2.47 - 75
ITF 290x45x15-N100-NH 290.67 45.35 18.47 969.67 2.47 - 100

Unstiffened hole

ITF 240x45x15-N50-USH 236 17.56 17.56 770 1.96 140 50

ITF 240x45x15-N75- USH 236 17.68 17.68 795 1.96 140 75
ITF 240x45x15-N100- USH 236 17.65 17.65 820 1.96 140 100
ITF 290x45x15-N50- USH 290 18.22 18.22 920 2.48 140 50
ITF 290x45x15-N75- USH 289 18.24 18.24 944 2.48 140 75
ITF 290x45x15-N100- USH 290 19.57 19.57 970 2.48 140 100

Stiffened hole

ITF 240x45x15-N50-ESH 237.67 17.6 17.6 770 1.97 140 50

ITF 240x45x15-N75- ESH 237.33 17.66 17.66 795 1.96 140 75
ITF 240x45x15-N100- ESH 237.0 17.58 17.58 820 1.96 140 100
ITF 290x45x15-N50- ESH 289.67 18.13 18.13 920 2.48 140 50
ITF 290x45x15-N75- ESH 289.33 18.17 18.17 944 2.48 140 75
ITF 290x45x15-N100- ESH 289.67 19.55 19.55 970 2.48 140 100

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2.2.3 Numerical investigation
The non-linear elasto-plastic general purpose finite element program ANSYS
was used to simulate the channel sections with and without holes subjected to web
crippling. The bearing plates, the channel section with circular holes and the interfaces
between the bearing plates and the channel section have been modelled. In the finite
element model, the measured cross-section dimensions and the material properties
obtained from the tests were used. The developed model is shown in figure 11 below.

Fig.11. Interior Two Flange loading (ITF) Finite Element Model

((Source: Asraf et al.,(2020))

The effect of different element sizes in the cross-section of the channel section
was investigated to provide both accurate results and reduced computation time.
Depending on the size of the section, the finite element mesh sizes ranged from 3 mm
x 3 mm (length by width) to 5 mm x 5 mm. The channel sections were modelled using
the 4-noded shell element SHELL181. The interface between the bearing plate and the
CFS section were modelled using the surface to-surface contact option. The bearing
plate was the target surface, while the CFS section was the contact surface. The two
contact surfaces were not allowed to penetrate each other.

The value of Poisson‟s ratio was 0.3. The material non-linearity was
incorporated in the finite element model by specifying „true‟ values of stresses and
strains. The plasticity of the material was determined by a mathematical model, known
as the incremental plasticity model

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 The vertical load applied to the channel sections in the laboratory tests was
modelled using displacement control; an imposed displacement is applied to the nodes
of the top bearing plate where the vertical load is applied. The top bearing plate was
restrained against all degrees of freedom, except for the translational degree of
freedom in the vertical direction. The bottom bearing plate was restrained in all
degrees of freedom. This surface is therefore prevented from moving in the line of
action of the load and also in the translational direction.
The web crippling failure mode observed from the tests has been also verified
by the finite element model for the ITF loading condition, as shown in figure 12 and
13. It is shown that good agreement is achieved between the experimental and finite
element results for both the web crippling strength and the failure mode.

Fig.12. Comparison of failure modes of experimental and FEA for unstiffened

web holes
((Source: Asraf et al.,(2020))

Fig.13. Comparison of failure modes of experimental and FEA for stiffened

web holes
((Source: Asraf et al.,(2020))

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 The results of the experimental and numerical investigations of lipped channel
sections with circular unstiffened and edge stiffened circular web holes subjected to
web crippling under the ITF is tabulated in table 4.

Table 4. Comparison of web crippling strength predicted from FEA and

experimental results
(Source: Asraf et al.,(2020))
Web crippling %
Web crippling
strength per web PEXP /
Specimen strength per web Reduction
as per
predicted from PFEA due to
experiment,
FEA, PFEA (kN) web holes
PEXP (kN)
Plain section
ITF 240x45x15-N50-NH 11.28 11.10 1.02 -
ITF 240x45x15-N75-NH 11.61 11.40 1.02 -
ITF 240x45x15-N100-NH 11.94 11.68 1.02 -
ITF 290x45x15-N50-NH 22.13 21.38 1.04 -
ITF 290x45x15-N75-NH 22.65 21.87 1.04 -
ITF 290x45x15-N100-NH 23.11 22.33 1.03 -
Unstiffened hole
ITF 240x45x15-N50-USH 6.81 6.86 0.99 -38.2
ITF 240x45x15-N75- USH 7.16 7.21 0.99 -36.7
ITF 240x45x15-N100- USH 7.49 7.53 0.99 -35.5
ITF 290x45x15-N50- USH 15.1 14.93 1.01 -30.2
ITF 290x45x15-N75- USH 15.6 15.41 1.01 -29.5
ITF 290x45x15-N100- USH 16.11 15.93 1.01 -28.7
Stiffened hole
ITF 240x45x15-N50-ESH 13.1 13.16 1.00 18.6
ITF 240x45x15-N75- ESH 13.43 13.49 1.00 18.3
ITF 240x45x15-N100- ESH 13.75 13.78 1.00 17.9
ITF 290x45x15-N50- ESH 23.71 24.37 0.97 14.0
ITF 290x45x15-N75- ESH 23.85 24.41 0.98 11.6
ITF 290x45x15-N100- ESH 24.15 24.74 0.98 10.8

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 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In both the studies considered both experimental and numerical studies were
carried out on the web crippling behavior of cold formed steel lipped channel sections,
with and without circular web holes, under interior one flange (IOF) and interior two
flange (ITF) loading conditions respectively. The unstiffened and edge stiffened web
holes were taken in to consideration in the above studies.
In the considered works, the test programme was conducted on 18 specimens of
which 6 are each of plain web, unstiffened web holes and edge stiffened web holes.
Corresponding numerical studies are also done using the experimental test results.
The diameter of the web holes were taken as 140 mm, the nominal depth of the
sections considered ranged from 240 mm to 290 mm, the nominal depth of the flange
for all the sizes are 45 mm and thickness of the section varies from 2.0 mm to 2.5 mm.
In the first study under consideration the web crippling strengths for sections with
web holes divided by the sections without web holes, which is the strength reduction
percentage, was used to quantify the degrading influence of the web holes on the web
crippling strengths. From table 2 it can be find that the web crippling strength of
channel sections with unstiffened web holes are less than that of with plain webs. Also
we can find that web crippling strengths of the sections with edge stiffened web holes
are greater than that of unstiffened holes and plain webs in some cases.

From the table 4 which is the consolidated results of the second study similar
trends can be seen as that of in the Interior one flange loading conditions. It was
observed that the out-of-plane deformation of the webs occurred gradually at the early
stage of loading and continued to increase until failure occurred. The failure pattern
was symmetrical and failure occurred due to the formation of a local yield zone under
the bearing plate. Moreover, because of the presence of edge-stiffeners around the
hole, the channel sections were stiff and lateral displacements of the webs were small.

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 4. CONCLUSIONS

The cold formed steel sections are increasingly used in the residential and
commercial constructions. The openings in the web are often used to allow ease of
installation of electrical or plumbing services. Such openings, however, result in the
sections being more susceptible to web crippling, particularly when concentrated loads
are applied near to the openings. From the results of the considered studies the
following conclusions can be made
 The web crippling capacities of the channel sections will change according to
the loading conditions under consideration.
 The cold formed channel sections under the interior two flange loading
conditions is more vulnerable to web crippling than the interior one flange
loading conditions.
 The cold formed channel sections with unstiffened web holes are less resistant
towards web crippling than the plain web holes and edge stiffened web holes.
 The reduction of strength due to the unstiffened web holes is found to have
more impact on interior two flange loading conditions than that of interior one
flange loading conditions.
 When the edges of the web holes are stiffened, the web crippling capacity of
the section is improved than the sections with the plain webs due to the
increased and hence lateral displacements of the web get reduced.
 It is found that for the sections having same geometrical properties with
different bearing length, the web crippling strength increases upon increasing
the bearing length.
 The failure pattern is different for different loading conditions as well as varies
with the presence of web holes.

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 5. REFERENCES
1. Asraf U., David N., James B.P. L.,& Krishanu R. (2020), “Web crippling
behaviour of cold-formed steel channel sections with edge-stiffened and
unstiffened circular holes under interior-two-flange loading condition “, Thin–
Walled Structures 154 (2020), 87-108, Elsevier.
2. Asraf U., Ben Y., David N. & James B.P.L.(2017), “Effects of edge-stiffened
circular holes on the web crippling strength of cold-formed steel channel
sections under one-flange loading conditions”, Engineering Structures 139
(2017) 96–107, Elsevier.
3. Asraf U., Ben Y., David N., James B.P.L. & Jim R. (2012), “ Web crippling
behaviour of cold formed steel channel sections with offset web holes
subjected to interior two flange loading”, Thin–Walled Structures 50 (2012),
76-86, Elsevier.
4. Asraf U., Ben Y., David N., Gasser A. James B.P.L. & Ying L. (2017), “Web
crippling behaviour of cold-formed steel channel sections with web holes
subjected to interior-one-flange loading condition-Part I: Experimental and
numerical investigation”, Thin–Walled Structures 111 (2017), 103-112,
Elsevier.
5. Asraf U., Ben Y., David N., Gasser A. James B.P.L. & Ying L. (2017), “Web
crippling behaviour of cold-formed steel channel sections with web holes
subjected to interior-one-flange loading condition-Part II:Parametric study and
proposed design equations”, Thin–Walled Structures 111 (2017), 103-112,
Elsevier.
6. https://en.wikipedia.org
7. https://civildigital.com

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