VIRTUAL CAMPUS, UNION TOWERS, 6TH FLOOR.

P.O. BOX13495-00100 GPO NAIROBI.

COURSE TITLE: FUNDAMENTALS OF PEDAGOGY

COURSE CODE: BEM1202

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE ................................................................................................................... 4
COURSE DESCRIPTION ......................................................................................................................... 4
TEACHING/LEARNING METHODOLOGIES ......................................................................................... 4
COURSE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION .............................................................................................. 4
MODULE ORGANIZATION ....................................................................................................................... 4
COURSE CONTENT................................................................................................................................... 5
LECTURE ONE: VISION, MISSION AND GOALS OF EDUCATION IN KENYA...................................... 6
Philosophy of Education in Kenya ....................................................................................................... 6
Vision................................................................................................................................................... 6
Mission ................................................................................................................................................ 7
National Goals of Education and Training .......................................................................................... 8
LECTURE TWO: INTRODUCTION TO PEDAGOGY............................................................................. 11
Pedagogy ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Pedagogical Relationship .................................................................................................................. 12
Pedagogy and teaching ..................................................................................................................... 13
Teacher enthusiasm .......................................................................................................................... 15
LECTURE THREE: LEARNING............................................................................................................. 18
Learning ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Transfer of learning........................................................................................................................... 19
Active learning .................................................................................................................................. 19
Domains of Learning ......................................................................................................................... 20
LECTURE FOUR: THEORIES OF LEARNING ...................................................................................... 26
Educational theory ............................................................................................................................ 26
Philosophy of education ................................................................................................................... 27
Learning theories .............................................................................................................................. 28
LESSON FIVE: AXIOLOGY AND EDUCATION ..................................................................................... 33
Teaching as a profession ................................................................................................................... 34
The teacher and Ethics ...................................................................................................................... 35
The Teacher’s Accountability ............................................................................................................ 37
LECTURE SIX: THE TEACHER AND THE WORLD OF EDUCATION ................................................. 39
The teacher and the curriculum ....................................................................................................... 39

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 The role of the teacher in education ................................................................................................ 42
LECTURE SEVEN: VARIOUS TEACHING METHODS IN THE CLASSROOM ...................................... 49
Factors that determine selection of teaching approaches ....................................................... 49
Methodology.................................................................................................................................... 50
REFERNCES AND RECOMMENDED BOOKS ...................................................................................... 63

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PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

The purpose of this course is to introduce students to the Philosophy of Teaching.

COURSE DESCRIPTION

TEACHING/LEARNING METHODOLOGIES

This course will be offered and/or undertaken through tutorials, group discussions, group
and individual assignments, presentations, interactive questions and answers, micro-
teaching lessons, peer teaching and e-learning interactive forums. The learner will be
required to go through this training module, make notes based on the objectives of the
course and attempt the questions given at the end of every lesson.
Further reading in this area of curriculum is encouraged. However all information gathered
should be within the course description and objectives.

COURSE ASSESSMENT AND

EVALUATION
Learning will be assessed through sit in Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs), Take Away
Assignments and a Main Examination. The CATs will constitute 30% and the Examination
70%

MODULE ORGANIZATION
This module is organized in form of lessons. This is followed by the lesson objectives. Then,
the learner is taken through the lesson content. The content may be sub-divided into sub-
topics depending on the nature of the topic in a lesson. At the end of the lesson the learner
is given activities. These activities are in form of questions and practical. It is good to note
that this is not a text book. The content is therefore in form of lecture notes. Further
reading from text books is recommended. A list of books to refer to is given at end of the
module.

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COURSE CONTENT
This unit covers the following:

 Concept of pedagogy and teaching

 Pedagogical issue related to teaching
 Theories of learning
 Philosophical foundation
 Axiological issues related to teaching
 Different views on teaching and various teaching approaches

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LECTURE ONE: VISION, MISSION AND GOALS OF EDUCATION IN KENYA

By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to;

1. Discuss the goals of education in Kenya and

explain their importance

Introduction
An appropriate education system of a country is founded on a philosophy, vision and
mission and must target goals pursued through clearly stated objectives. This
Chapter spells out the philosophy, vision, mission, goals and objectives of the
Kenyan Education system.

Philosophy of Education in Kenya

The Ministry of Education is guided by the National Philosophy, which places
education at the centre-stage of the country‘s human and economic development
strategies. It focuses on the acquisition of knowledge and skills as well as provision
of lifelong learning. Emphasis is placed on the provision of a holistic, quality
education and training that promotes the cognitive, psychomotor and affective
domains of learners, instilling values such as patriotism, equality of all human
beings, peace, security, honesty, humility, mutual respect, tolerance, co-operation
and democracy, through education.

Vision
The Vision of education service provision is to have a globally competitive quality
education, training and research for Kenya’s sustainable development. To achieve
this, the Ministry has endorsed Vision 2030 and shall focus education and training
towards achieving the goals of the Vision.

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Mission
The Mission of the Ministry of Education is to provide, promote, co-ordinate quality
education, training and research for empowerment of individuals to become caring,
competent and responsible citizens who value education as a life-long process.

Mandate
The mandate of the Ministry of Education is to provide services that target achieving:
(a) Economic development; by ensuring that all learners acquire the requisite
knowledge, skills and competences to make them productive citizens.
(b) Social development; by ensuring that all learners are aware of fundamental
human rights and obligations, and national values and aspirations, and have the
capacity to play a full part in the nation‘s social and cultural development at a local
and national level.
(c) Political development; by ensuring that all learners have the capacity to play a
role in the political life of Kenya at local, national and international level, whilst
upholding the rule of law and respect for others. In addition, education to play a role
in expanding democratic space and fostering political participation values.

Guiding Principles
Towards the realization of Vision 2030, the education system will be guided by the
following principles:
(a) Reaffirming and enhancing patriotism, national unity, mutual social responsibility
and the ethical and moral foundation of our society.

(b) Providing an education for all that has open door and alternative systems that
ensure opportunities for continuous learning.

(c) Placing emphasis on quality, access, equity, relevance and transitional issues.

(d) Placing emphasis on new developments in science, technology and innovation.

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(e) Providing education that focuses on entrepreneurship, agricultural and industrial
development.

(f) Providing education that identifies and nurtures learners‘ talents and gifts.

National Goals of Education and Training

After independence, the Government of Kenya appointed a committee of eminent
Kenyans under the Chairmanship of Prof. Ominde (1964) to collect views from the
people of Kenya on what they wished the country to strive for.

The Ministry of Education shall retain the eight National Goals of Education and
Training articulated by Ominde and subsequent reports. These are to:
(a) Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
(b) Promote the socio-economic, technological and industrial skills for the country‘s
development.
(c) Promote individual development and self-fulfilment.
(d) Promote sound moral and religious values.
(e) Promote social equality and responsibility.
(f) Promote respect for and development of Kenya‘s rich and varied cultures.
(g) Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations.
(h) Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.

Additionally, to be internationally competitive and economically viable, the Republic

of Kenya requires an education system that will produce citizens who are able to
engage in lifelong learning, learn new things quickly, perform more non-routine
tasks, capable of more complex problem-solving, take more decisions, understand
more about what they are working on, require less supervision, assume more
responsibility, and as vital tools to these ends, have better reading, quantitative,
reasoning and expository skills.

It is appropriate that the following eight goals of education are discussed:

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(a) National Unity
The goal of education is to foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
To achieve this goal the Ministry of Education and County Education Boards shall
ensure access to education for all its citizens.
National and County Education Boards shall enforce the use of the two official
languages Kiswahili and English both in and out of school. The language of the
catchment area (Mother Tongue) shall be used for child care, ECDE and in the
education of Lower Primary children (0-8 years). It is important that whenever
possible learners are not confined in their local areas for the purpose of national
integration.

(b) Socio-economic, Technology and Industry

The link between education and the world of work, the economy and national
development is indivisible. The MoE shall strengthen that link through a review of the
national curriculum to ensure that all learners are exposed to developments in
science and technology, and to opportunities to apply that knowledge practically. The
development of TIVET shall receive special attention together with skills training to
increase small scale industries especially in the Jua Kali sector and agriculture.
Opportunities for learners to specialise in technology education shall be developed
when at age sixteen; learners will have an opportunity to select to follow the
technology pathway for the senior secondary phase. The use of ICT shall be
accelerated and integrated into the education system.

(c) Individual Development and Self-fulfilment

Access to a quality and relevant education is guaranteed in the 2010 Constitution. To
facilitate individual development and self-fulfilment, a revised structure which will
enable learners to follow alternative knowledge pathways shall be introduced.
Learners shall be equipped with practical skills to make them employable or to
become self-employed and to ensure Kenya‘s economic competitiveness.

(d) Moral and Religious Values

Education and training shall inculcate moral and spiritual values, as well as, the
valuing of cultural differences within the unity of Kenya. It shall instil the importance

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of integrity, honesty, respect for others and hard work. Further, it shall develop inter-
personal skills and use the curriculum to instil these values.

(e) Social Equity and Responsibility

Education is closely linked to culture. An educated person is not only one who has
sufficient knowledge and skills, but one who knows how to interact with others
courteously and harmoniously. Education and training shall therefore embrace equity
issues and equal opportunity for all. It shall be the duty of education and training to
ensure that there is equal service delivery of good quality education to nomadic,
orphans and vulnerable groups especially girls throughout Kenya.

(f) Respect For and Development of Kenya’s Rich and Varied Cultures
Kenya‘s diversity in culture and ethnic heritage is best demonstrated by her wealth of
42 indigenous tribes. It is through education and training that integration of Kenya‘s
tribes can be enriched. Education has to encourage non-formal curricula activities
such as music, dance, games, and debating among our schools across counties. In
this way, schools will be transformed into channels of cultural integration. The MoE
shall ensure that local cultural traditions and the celebration thereof, form part of the
life of every school.

(g) International Consciousness and Positive Attitudes towards other Nations

Information Communication Technology (ICT) has globalized education and made it
easier for people to learn from one another. The MoE shall support links with schools
internationally to extend the education of Kenyan children. Further, the MoE shall
promote e-learning and thereby raise the level of international awareness of our
children.

(h) Positive Attitudes towards Good Health and Environmental Protection

Education and training shall enlighten learners to the benefits of good health by
including in the curriculum knowledge of how to prevent and combat Malaria, HIV
AND AIDS and other diseases. The MoE shall endorse and support programmes
designed to raise the awareness of young people to HIV AND AIDS, STDs and drug
abuse. Further, the MoE shall institute Environmental Education in all schools, and

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through the proposed Community Service Programmes, channel this knowledge to
the wider Kenyan community.
Lesson Activity
1. Discuss the eight goals of education in Kenya

LECTURE TWO: INTRODUCTION TO PEDAGOGY

LESSON OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of pedagogy
2. Discuss the relationship between the teacher and the learner

Pedagogy
Pedagogy is the science and art of education. It is also the art or science of teaching;
education; instructional methods. Its aims range from the full development of the
human being to skills acquisition. The word pedagogy comes from the Greek
παιδαγωγέω (paidagōgeō); in which παῖς (país, genitive παιδός, paidos) means
"child" and άγω (ágō) means "lead"; so it literally means "to lead the child". The
Greek παιδαγωγός (pedagogue); in which παιδί (ped) means "child” and άγω (ago)
means "lead"; would also mean "to lead the child."

Pedagogy is also the function or work of a teacher that is, teaching. However for a
teacher to do this effectively:

 Teachers must constantly review and reflect on their practice,

 teachers should collaborate and discuss their practice with other

professionals, and students, and
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  Teachers should be constantly creative, innovate, and have fun with their
teaching.

Pedagogical Relationship
The pedagogical relationship is an intentional relationship between the teacher and
student, in which the teacher’s dedication and intentions are geared towards the
development and growth of the student. It is a relation oriented toward the personal,
intellectual, affective and professional development of the student.

Teacher

A teacher is a person who provides education for pupils and students. The role of
teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal
education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first
obtain specified professional qualifications or credentials from a university or college.
These professional qualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of
teaching. Teachers, like other professionals, may have to continue their education
after they qualify, a process known as continuing professional development.
Teachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course of
study which is called the curriculum.

A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction in
literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics,
community roles, or life skills. A teacher who facilitates education for an individual
may also be described as a personal tutor, or, largely historically, a governess.

In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling.
Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing
role, such as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider
community setting.

Religious and spiritual teachers, such as gurus, mullahs, rabbis, pastors/youth

pastors and lamas, may teach religious texts such as the Quran, Torah or Bible.

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 

Teaching may be carried out informally, within the family which is called home
schooling or the wider community. Formal teaching may be carried out by paid
professionals. Such professionals enjoy a status in some societies on a par with
physicians, lawyers, engineers, and accountants (Chartered or CPA).

A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the
classroom teachers may accompany students on field trips, supervise study halls,
help with the organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for
extracurricular activities. In most education systems, teachers may have
responsibility for student discipline.

Around the world teachers are often required to obtain specialized education,
knowledge, codes of ethics and internal monitoring.

There are a variety of bodies designed to instill, preserve and update the knowledge
and professional standing of teachers. Around the world many governments operate
teacher's colleges, which are generally established to serve and protect the public
interest through certifying, governing and enforcing the standards of practice for the
teaching profession.

The functions of the teacher's colleges may include setting out clear standards of
practice, providing for the ongoing education of teachers, In many situations
teachers in publicly funded schools must be members in good standing with the
college, and private schools may also require their teachers to be college peoples. In
other areas these roles may belong to the State Board of Education, the
Superintendent of Public Instruction, the State Education Agency or other
governmental bodies. In still other areas Teaching Unions may be responsible for
some or all of these duties. In Kenya all teachers practicing education are required to
have gone through teachers training college or acquired an education degree.

Pedagogy and teaching

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In education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or
perhaps in another environment such as outdoors, or private home study.

The objective of teaching is accomplished through either an informal or formal

approach to learning, including a course of study and lesson plan that teaches skills,
knowledge and/or thinking skills. Different ways to teach are often referred to as
pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use teachers consider students'
background knowledge, environment, and their learning goals as well as
standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. Many times, teachers
assist in learning outside of the classroom by accompanying students on field trips.
The increasing use of technology, specifically the rise of the internet over the past
decade, has begun to shape the way teachers approach their roles in the classroom.

The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill. A teacher
may follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The
teacher may interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students
with different abilities and students with learning disabilities.

Teaching using pedagogy also involve assessing the educational levels of the
students on particular skills. Understanding the pedagogy of the students in a
classroom involves using differentiated instruction as well as supervision to meet the
needs of all students in the classroom. Pedagogy can be thought of in two manners.
First, teaching itself can be taught in many different ways, hence, using pedagogy of
teaching styles. Second, the pedagogy of the learners comes into play when a
teacher assesses the pedagogic diversity of his/her students and differentiates for
the individual students accordingly.

This is true throughout most of the United States as well. However, alternative
approaches for primary education do exist. One of these, sometimes referred to as a
"platoon" system, involves placing a group of students together in one class that
moves from one specialist to another for every subject. The advantage here is that
students learn from teachers who specialize in one subject and who tend to be more
knowledgeable in that one area than a teacher who teaches many subjects.

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Students still derive a strong sense of security by staying with the same group of
peers for all classes.

Co-teaching has also become a new trend amongst educational institutions. Co-
teaching is defined as two or more teachers working harmoniously to fulfill the needs
of every student in the classroom. Co-teaching focuses the student on learning by
providing a social networking support that allows them to reach their full cognitive
potential. Co-teachers work in sync with one another to create a climate of learning.

Teacher enthusiasm
Since teachers can affect how students perceive the course materials, it has been
found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and
students can affect a positive learning experience towards the course materials. On
teacher/course evaluations, it was found that teachers who have a positive
disposition towards the course content tend to transfer their passion to receptive
students. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for
the course materials on a daily basis. One of the difficulties in this approach is that
teachers may have repeatedly covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored
with the subject which in turn bores the students as well. Students who had
enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didn't show much
enthusiasm for the course materials.

Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be
engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter.
Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students'
intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom. Controlled, experimental
studies exploring intrinsic motivation of college students has shown that nonverbal
expressions of enthusiasm, such as demonstrative gesturing, dramatic movements
which are varied, and emotional facial expressions, result in students reporting
higher levels of intrinsic motivation to learn Students who experienced a very
enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the
classroom.

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There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher
levels of intrinsic motivation:

 Teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere full of energy

and enthusiasm which feed student interest and excitement in learning the
subject matter
 Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to students becoming more self-
determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure
indicates that the teacher's enthusiasm may contribute to the student's
expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning.
 Enthusiasm may act as a "motivational embellishment"; increasing a
student's interest by the variety, novelty, and surprise of the enthusiastic
teacher's presentation of the material.
 The concept of emotional contagion, may also apply. Students may become
more intrinsically motivated by catching onto the enthusiasm and energy of
the teacher student motivation and attitudes towards school are closely linked
to student-teacher relationships.
 Enthusiastic teachers are particularly good at creating beneficial relations with
their students. Their ability to create effective learning environments that
foster student achievement depends on the kind of relationship they build with
their students Useful teacher-to-student interactions are crucial in linking
academic success with personal achievement Here, personal success is a
student's internal goal of improving himself, whereas academic success
includes the goals he receives from his superior. A teacher must guide his
student in aligning his personal goals with his academic goals. Students who
receive this positive influence show stronger self-confidence and greater
personal and academic success than those without these teacher
interactions.
 Students are likely to build stronger relations with teachers who are friendly
and supportive and will show more interest in courses taught by these
teachers. Teachers that spend more time interacting and working directly with
students are perceived as supportive and effective teachers. Effective
teachers have been shown to invite student participation and decision making,
allow humor into their classroom, and demonstrate a willingness to play.

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The way a teacher promotes the course they are teaching, the more the student will
get out of the subject matter. The three most important aspects of teacher
enthusiasm are:

1. Enthusiasm about teaching,

2. Enthusiasm about the students,
3. Enthusiasm about the subject matter.

A teacher must enjoy teaching. If they do not enjoy what they are doing, the
students will be able to tell. They also must enjoy being around their students. A
teacher who cares for their students is going to help that individual succeed in their
life in the future. The teacher also needs to be enthusiastic about the subject matter
they are teaching. For example, a teacher talking about chemistry needs to enjoy the
art of chemistry and show that to their students. A spark in the teacher may create a
spark of excitement in the student as well. An enthusiastic teacher has the ability to
be very influential in the students’ life.

Lesson Activities

a. Define the term pedagogy

b. What is the relationship between teaching and pedagogy
c. What is teacher enthusiasm and what is its contribution in
learners education

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 LECTURE THREE: LEARNING

LESSON OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:

1. Discuss the concept of learning
2. Explain transfer of learning
3. Explain active learning

Learning
Learning is acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills,
values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information.
The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress
over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory; it is contextual.
It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already
know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of
factual and procedural knowledge. Learning is based on experience. Learning
produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively
permanent.

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling,

or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of
how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology, educational psychology, learning
theory, and pedagogy. Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical
conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities
such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur
consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't
be avoided nor escaped is called learned helplessness.

Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children
play, experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact. Lev Vygotsky

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agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of
their environment through play.

Transfer of learning

The transfer of learning can be defined as extending what has been learned in one
context to new contexts. Determining if and to what extent a person can transfer their
learned knowledge can be a strong indication of the quality of the learning
experience itself. Effective memorization of information does not equal a meaningful
learning experience, because the knowledge acquired might not be understood. The
ability to understand and apply learning implies a deeper knowledge gained. The
context of the original learning, time given to learn, motivation of learner, active
participation, and progress monitoring of learning are all important factors that affect
the degree to which learning is transferrable. Experts have found that learner-
responsible learning is an effective way to educate learners. As a result, educators
should focus on increasing the role of individual learners in education. New research
within cognitive science has helped unfold the multidisciplinary nature of learning.
Anthropology, linguistics, philosophy, psychology and neuroscience all play a role in
learning. More importantly, these factors play a role in the level of understanding one
person develops versus another person

Active learning
Active learning occurs when a person takes control of their learning experience.
Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for
learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they
can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to
have an internal dialogue in which they are verbalizing their understandings. This
and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within
metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is
usually at a stronger level as a result. In addition, learners have more incentive to
learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn.

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Domains of Learning
Learning is everywhere. We can learn mental skills, develop our attitudes and
acquire new physical skills as we perform the activities of our daily living. These
domains of learning can be categorized as cognitive domain (knowledge),
psychomotor domain (skills) and affective domain (attitudes). This categorization is
best explained by the Taxonomy of Learning Domains formulated by a group of
researchers led by Benjamin Bloom in 1956.

This group felt that such a framework could do much to promote the exchange of test
materials and ideas about testing. In addition, it could be helpful in stimulating
research on examining and on the relations between examining and education. After
considerable discussion, there was agreement that such a theoretical framework
might best be obtained through a system of classifying the goals of the educational
process, since educational objectives provide the basis for building curricula and
tests and represent the starting point for much of our educational research.

It refers to a classification of the different objectives that educators set for students
(learning objectives). Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives into three
"domains": Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor (sometimes loosely described as
knowing/head, feeling/heart and doing/hands respectively). Within the domains,
learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge
and skills at lower levels. A goal of Bloom's Taxonomy is to motivate educators to
focus on all three domains, creating a more holistic form of education.

1. Cognitive Domain
2. Affective Domain
3. Psychomotor Domain

1. Cognitive Domain

Skills in the cognitive domain revolve around knowledge, comprehension, and critical
thinking of a particular topic. Traditional education tends to emphasize the skills in
this domain, particularly the lower-order objectives.

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There are six levels in the taxonomy, moving through the lowest order processes to
the highest:

Knowledge

Exhibit memory of previously learned materials by recalling facts, terms, basic

concepts and answers

Knowledge of specifics - terminology, specific facts

Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics - conventions, trends and
sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology

Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field - principles and

generalizations, theories and structures

Comprehension

Demonstrative understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, comparing,

translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating main ideas

Translation

Interpretation

Extrapolation

Application

Using new knowledge. Solve problems to new situations by applying acquired

knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different way

Analysis

Examine and break information into parts by identifying motives or causes. Make
inferences and find evidence to support generalizations

Analysis of elements

Analysis of relationships

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Analysis of organizational principles

Synthesis

Compile information together in a different way by combining elements in a new

pattern or proposing alternative solutions

Production of a unique communication

Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations

Derivation of a set of abstract relations

Evaluation

Present and defend opinions by making judgments about information, validity of

ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria

Judgments in terms of internal evidence

Judgments in terms of external criteria

2. Affective Domain

Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their
ability to feel another living thing's pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the
awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.

There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest order
processes to the highest:

Receiving

The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level no learning
can occur. Receiving is about the student's memory and recognition as well.

Responding

The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a
stimulus; the student also reacts in some way.

Valuing

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The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information.

Organizing

The student can put together different values, information, and ideas and
accommodate them within his/her own schema; comparing, relating and elaborating
on what has been learned.

Characterizing

The student holds a particular value or belief that now exerts influence on his/her
behaviour so that it becomes a characteristic.

3. Psychomotor Domain

Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool
or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on
change and/or development in behavior and/or skills.

Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor
domain, but since then other educators have created their own psychomotor
taxonomies. Simpson (1972) among other contributors, such as Harrow (1972) and
Dave (1967), created a Psychomotor Taxonomy that helps to explain the behavior of
typical learners or high performance athletes. The proposed levels are:

Perception

The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory
stimulation, through cue selection, to translation. Examples: Detects non-verbal
communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then
moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct
temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by
comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: chooses,
describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.

Set

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Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets
are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations
(sometimes called mindsets). Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps
in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire
to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is
closely related with the “Responding to phenomena” subdivision of the Affective
domain. Key Words: Begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows,
states, volunteers.

Guided Response

The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error.
Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. Examples: Performs a
mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model.
Responds to hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. Key
Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds

Mechanism

This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have
become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and
proficiency. Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a
car. Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

Complex Overt Response

The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns.
Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance,
requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation,
and automatic performance. For example, players will often utter sounds of
satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football,
because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce. Examples:
Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano. Key Words: assembles,
builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. NOTE: The Key Words

24
are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that
the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.

Adaptation

Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit
special requirements. Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences.
Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine
that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no
danger in performing the new task). Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges,
reorganizes, revises, varies.

Origination

Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem.

Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training
programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine. Key Words: arranges, builds,
combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.

Lesson Activity
1. Differentiate between the three Domains of learning
2. Discuss how active learning can be implemented in the
classroom and highlight several advantages of active learning

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 LECTURE FOUR: THEORIES OF LEARNING

LESSON OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to:

1. Discuss education theory

2. Differentiate the various learning theories

Educational theory
Education theory is speculative educational thought or a theory of education as
something that guides, explains, or describes educational practice.

In terms of speculative thought, its history began with classical Greek philosophers
and sophists, and today it is a term for reflective theorizing about pedagogy,
andragogy, curriculum, learning, and education policy, organization and leadership.
Educational thought is informed by various strands of history, philosophy, sociology,
critical theory, and psychology, among other disciplines.

On the other hand, a theory of education can be "normative (or prescriptive) as in

philosophy, or descriptive as in science. In the first case, a theory means a
postulation about what ought to be. It provides the "goals, norms, and standards for
conducting the process of education. In the second case, it means "a hypothesis or
set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation and experiment. Whereas a
normative educational theory provided by a philosopher might offer goals of
education, descriptive "theory provides concrete data that will help realize more
effectively the goals suggested by the philosopher." A descriptive theory of education
is a conceptual scheme that ties together various "otherwise discrete particulars. .
.For example, a cultural theory of education shows how the concept of culture can be

26
used to organize and unify the variety of facts about how and what people learn.
Likewise, for example, there is the behaviorist theory of education that comes from
educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes from
sociology of education.

In general, there are currently three main ways in which the term "theory" is used in
education:

 the obverse of practice—theorizing is thinking and reflecting as opposed to

doing;
 a generalizing or explanatory model of some kind, e.g., a specific learning
theory like constructivism;
 A body of knowledge—these may or may not be associated with particular
explanatory models. To theorize is to develop these bodies of knowledge. [5]

Philosophy of education
"Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of
[philosophical thought] and of factual inquiries about human beings and the
psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education
should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how
and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take. In a full-fledged
philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described,
there will normally be propositions of the following kinds:

1. Basic normative premises about what is good or right;

2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world;
3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the
dispositions education should foster;
4. Further factual premises about such things as the psychology of
learning and methods of teaching; and
5. Further conclusions about such things as the methods that education
should use.

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Common educational philosophies include: educational perennials, educational
progressivism, educational essentialism, critical pedagogy, Montessori education,
Waldorf education, and democratic education.

Learning theories
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is
absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Learning brings together
cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring,
enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views

There are three main categories of learning theory: behaviourism, cognitive, and
constructivism.

Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning.

Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning.

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs

or builds new ideas or concepts.

Merriam and Caffarella (1991) highlight four approaches or orientations to learning:

Behaviorist, Cognitivist, Humanist, and Social/Situational. These approaches involve
contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - and the
role that educators may take.

Behaviourism

John Watson (1878–1959) coined the term "behaviorism." Critical of Wundt's

emphasis on internal states, Watson insisted that psychology must focus on overt
measureable behaviors. Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or other
subjective experiences was unscientific. Behaviorism as a theory was primarily
developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of people like Edward
Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterize these investigators are their
underlying assumptions about the process of learning.

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There are two types of possible conditioning:

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as

in the case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he
saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight,
their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every
time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab
coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab
coat. In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these
phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If
the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to
associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell,
they responded by drooling. Pavlov's work laid the foundation for many of
psychologist John B. Watson's ideas. Watson and Pavlov shared both a disdain for
"mentalist" concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that the basic laws of
learning were the same for all animals whether dogs or humans.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a

punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and
is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which
behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in
reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or
punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important
to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not result in
the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are
determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are
particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior. In operant conditioning we
learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus to repeat
acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results.[6]

29
Since behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, educators
arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as
behavioral objectives, competency -based education, and skill development and
training.

Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based

measurement, and direct instructions have emerged from this model.

Behaviourism and Education

Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external

behaviour achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the
reward of good habits and the discouragement of bad habits.

In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of repetitive actions, praise
for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes.

In the field of language learning this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual
method, characterized by the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases,
dialogues and immediate correction.

Within the Problem Based Learning (PBL) environment, students may be

encouraged to engage with the learning process and their peers within the group by
positive reinforcement from a skilled facilitator to increase positive actions of
engagement, contributions and questioning.

Negative behaviours e.g. lack of engagement, negative contributions, could be

minimized by the facilitator using negative reinforcement.

Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher" is the dominant person in the
classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes from the
teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any
opportunity for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply
told what is right or wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this approach
could be considered "superficial" as the focus is on external changes in and
behaviour is not interested in the internal processes of learning leading to behaviour
change and has no place for the emotions involved the process.

30
2. Cognitive theory

Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology. Developed in Germany in the

early 1900s, it was transplanted to America in the 1920s. Gestalt is roughly
translated as "configuration," or "pattern," and emphasizes "the whole" of human
experience. Over the years, the Gestalt psychologist provided compelling
demonstrations and described principles by which we organize our sensations into
perceptions. The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929
by Bode, a gestalt psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent
on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the
patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been
incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key
assumptions underlie this cognitive approach:

The memory system is an active organized processor of information

Prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists

consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the
physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short
term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the
cognitive theory. The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the
focus of control over the learning activity: the individual learner is more key to
gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists emphasize.

Aspects of cognitivist can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition,
intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age.

Educators employing a cognitivist approach to learning would view learning as

internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory,
perception) where in order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning,
the educator structures content of learning activities to focus on building intelligence
and cognitive and meta-cognitive development.

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 3. Constructivism

Constructivism is a revolution in educational psychology. Built on the work of Jean

Piaget and Jerome Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the importance of active
involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves...

Constructivism emphasizes top-down processing: begin with complex problems and

teach basic skills while solving these problems. Constructivism explains why
students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook.
Learning sciences research is revealing the deeper underlying basis of how
knowledge construction works. To design effective environments, one needs a very
good understanding of what children know when they come to the classroom. This
requires sophisticated research into children's cognitive development, and the
learning sciences draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development
The learning theories of John Dewey, Marie Montessori, and David Kolb serve as the
foundation of constructivist learning theory.

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs

or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or
experience. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge
from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal
endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may
consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. Constructivism itself has
many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge
building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free
exploration within a given framework or structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator
who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct
knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be
found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, and experiential learning.

Lesson Activity
Research on any new developments on theories of
learning

32
 LESSON FIVE: AXIOLOGY AND EDUCATION

LESSON OBJECTIVES

1. Define the term axiology

2. Discuss teaching as a profession
3. Highlight qualities of a good teacher

Axiology

Axiology comes from Greek, word axiā, which means "value, worth"; and logos is the
philosophical study of value.

Axiology, also called theory of value, the philosophical study of goodness, or value,
in the widest sense of these terms.

Its significance lies :

1. in the considerable expansion that it has given to the meaning of the

term value
2. in the unification that it has provided for the study of a variety of
questions—economic, moral, aesthetic, and even logical—that had
often been considered in relative isolation.

Axiology focuses on questions about what “ought to be”. It deals with the nature of
values and relates to the teaching of moral values and character development. The
topics of morality, ethics and aesthetics fall into this philosophical category.

33
Teaching as a profession

Profession
A profession is an occupation which performs a crucial social function. To
accomplish this function it requires a considerable degree of skill and a body
of systematic knowledge grounded in theory. This acquisition of this body of
knowledge and the development of specific skill entails a specified level of
higher education. The period of education and training involves the process
of socialization into professional values. These professional values tends to
centre on the pre-eminence of essential for the professional to have the
freedom or autonomy to make his/her own judgements with regard to
appropriate practice

Professional
A Professional is one who has:
 a specialized knowledge based on the technical knowledge and culture)
 commitment to meeting client needs according to the set service ethics
 strong collective identity-professional commitment
 Professional autonomy.

Characteristics of professionals:

 possess a specialized skill enabling them to offer a specialized service

 undergo intellectual and practical training in a well-defined area of
study
 maintain detachment and integrity in exercising personal judgement on
behalf of a client
 establish direct, personal relations with a client, based on confidence,
faith and trust
 collectively have a sense of responsibility for maintaining the
competence and integrity of the professional as a whole

34
  are organized in bodies which, with or without state intervention, are
concerned to provide the machinery for testing competence and
regulating standards of competence and conduct

Qualities of a teacher

 A teacher is a Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert
and referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his
students well and is kind and respectful towards his students. He has high
standards and expectations coexisting with encouragement, support and
flexibility.
 The teacher empowers students and gets them to do things of which they did
not think they were capable.
 A teacher is a Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and
insights
 A teacher is disseminator of knowledge and skills
 Role model to the student; practises what he/she preaches.
 He /she uphold moral values and humanitarian principles in all his actions.
Teachers conduct their day –by-day doing in such a way that their behaviour
can be cherished by the learners.
 Teachers should be a human model for learners therefore; they must uphold
all codes of ethical conduct that are necessary and essential in human
modelling and moral education.
 Innovator, creative, resourceful and encourages diversity and individuality in
his students.

The teacher and Ethics

Ethical responsibilities to students

 Teachers will educate students to high standards of achievement. The

teacher shall use best professional practices and materials and the teacher is
knowledgeable of and delivers the standards-based curriculum
 Teacher shall engage in practices and select materials that include all
students, celebrate diversity and never exclude them from opportunities on the

35
 basis of their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, national origin, language, ability
or the status, behaviour or beliefs of their parents
 The teacher is committed to developing the skill sets needed to best
accelerate the learning of the students currently in their classrooms
 The teacher creates a classroom environment that is respectful, emotionally
secure and physically safe for students

Ethical Responsibilities to Family/Community

 The teacher shall inform families of program philosophy, policies and

personnel qualifications and explain why we teach as we do, which should
be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to students

 The teacher shall involve families in significant decisions affecting their

student and regularly communicate student progress with families

 The teacher shall inform the family of accidents involving their student, of
risks such as exposures to contagious disease that may result in infection
and of occurrences that might result in emotional stress

 The teacher shall maintain confidentiality and shall respect the family’s
right to privacy, refraining from disclosure of confidential information and
intrusion into family life, except when a student’s welfare is at risk

 The teacher shall be objective and accurate in reporting the knowledge

upon which we base our programs, assessments and professional
practices

 The teacher shall cooperate and team with other professionals who work
with students and families

 The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding students.

statements shall be respectful and based on first-hand knowledge

Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues

 The teacher shall show respect for personal dignity and for the diversity found
among staff members, and to resolve matters collegially

36
 The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding the professional
behaviour or conduct of co-workers and/or students.

 The teacher agrees to carry out the program at the site to which we are
assigned. When we do not agree with the program policies, we shall first attempt
to effect change through constructive action within the organization

 Teachers who do not meet program standards shall be informed of areas of

concern and, when possible, assisted in improving their performance

 In making assessments and recommendations, the teacher shall make

judgements based on fact and relevant to the interests of students and programs

The Teacher’s Accountability

Teacher accountability refers to the responsibility towards one’s teaching profession

1. Job accountability
 Performs curriculum and co-curriculum activities
 Follow job procedures
 Internalize one’s work ethics
 Responsible and perform job with dedication and commitment

2. Accountability towards nation

 knowledge practitioner and educate citizens of a country
 inculcate moral values, develop and preserve our culture
 realization of the national philosophy of education and vision of the
country
 instil national integration
 develop a progressive generation

3. Accountability towards students and parents

 disseminate knowledge and skills to students
 educate and inculcate moral values
 inculcate good behaviours

37
  develop students’ potentials intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and
physically

4. Accountability towards self

 as a model for students
 maintain good behaviours
 update oneself on current knowledge and skills
 perform one’s job sincerely

Lesson Activities
1. Mention the various ethical responsibilities given to a
teacher
2. Discuss teaching as a profession

38
LECTURE SIX: THE TEACHER AND THE WORLD OF EDUCATION

Lesson objectives
1. Discuss the role of the teacher in education.
2. Define the term curriculum
3. Discuss the factors that influence a nations
curriculum

The teacher and the curriculum

In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a
school or university. curriculum came from the Latin word "Currere" which means
race course/ to run/ , referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which
children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on
a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and
to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.
A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which
students must fulfill within a specified period of time in order to pass a certain level of
education. For example, an elementary school might discuss how its curriculum, or
its entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve national testing
scores or help students learn the basics.

Factors that affect a country’s curriculum design

 Government’s policy
When a government adopts a new policy relevant to education, this may lead to
introduction of new topics in a subject, or introduction of a new subject, or abolition of
some subjects and topics, or entire restructuring of the entire education system
and/or level.

39
  Political

Both private and public educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel,
building and maintaining facilities and equipment. All aspects of curriculum depend
on local, state and national political standards. From defining goals, interpreting
curricular materials to approving examination systems, politics affects curriculum
development.

 Economic

Curriculum developed for in house training in corporations focuses on educating

employees for promotions that bring better returns in profits. Nations financing
education expect an economic return from educated students contributing to the
country's economy with global competition abilities in technical fields. Curriculum
content influences learner goals, standards for academic achievement with an
underlying influence of the nation's economy.

 Technology

The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at

every level of learning. Learning centers and classrooms increasingly provide
computers as requisite interaction for studies among students. Technological
multimedia use influences educational goals and learning experiences among
students. Undergraduate and graduate degrees in computer technology increases in
popularity.
.

 Diversity

Social diversity including religion, culture and social groupings affects curriculum
development because these characteristics influence the types of topics and
methods for teaching information. Developing relevant curriculum takes into account
society's expectations, accommodating group traditions and promoting equality.

 Learning Theories

40
Both child and adult learning theories within the psychology field influence curriculum
development. Understanding the psychology behind learning theories implemented
in curriculum development maximizes learning with content, delivery, interactive
activities and experiences initiated at the most opportune teaching moment.

 National goals and objectives

The national goals and objectives target achievement of various needs which
include:
 Individual Needs
A curriculum is formulated based on the needs of the individual such as interest,
basic skills (3R) and wholesome development of the child. Individual needs are
fulfilled to enable the student to acquire social skills, able to understand one, develop
interest and potentials and character development.

 Need of the society and nation

Society wants its members to acquire basic skills; basic concepts and techniques in
life in the political, social and economic point of view for the sole purpose of fulfilling
the aspiration of society, ambition and ideology of the nation. The curriculum
emphasizes on values, sentiment, knowledge and skills to ensure societal stability,
individual motivation and behaviour controls.

 Universal Needs
Curriculum to disseminate knowledge and training to students to enable students to
inculcate universal understanding and cooperation in order to improve the way of life
of the population and nation as a whole.

41
The role of the teacher in education

1. Knowledge and skill practitioner

1.1. The teacher is a professional is an educator and a practitioner in knowledge

and skills. He/she is an effective practitioner and analyst who, through
teacher education, are competent in applying his/her theoretical knowledge in
various pedagogic contexts. He/she provides education for discipline, for
knowledge, for character, for life, for growth, for personal fulfilment and
aesthetic refinement.

1.2. The practitioner understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the discipline he or she teaches and creates learning
experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for
students.

1.3. He/She understands how children learn and develop and can provide
learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social and personal
development. He/she also understands and uses a variety of instructional
strategies to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem
solving and performance skills.

1.4. He/She is eclectic in the sense of being able to synthesise rather than merely
select what is available. The teacher should possess the ability to
harmonically arrange what has been selected to be offered to the students.

1.5. The practitioner has to adopt technology as a means for becoming more
effective in producing his/her own materials, accessing the Internet to gain
information, ideas and core materials which will provide the basis for
presentation to the students.

2. Educare and Educere

2.1 Education arises from two Latin terms that is educare and educere. Educare
is ‘

42
 to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe. The etymology emphasizes the
militaristic aspect of the word; the word involved leading or bringing out the
troops or unsheathing one’s sword- the notion of preparing for battle.

Questions pertaining to the effects that emerge when one think of education in
this way:

- What or where are we trying to lead students to?

- What are we trying to bring out of them?

- Can we truly draw out some pre-determined intellectual and personal

qualities?

- Do we really think that children are all really alike, the same inside, and
that if we locate the best method, then we can teach them all and they
will learn the same thing?

2.3 Educere is to rear or bring up; allow to emerge as needed. If educere is

the act of emerging, then as teachers, we must begin to ask ourselves:
‘What will emerge? ; Can we control what emerges? and Should we try
and control what learning emerges or what the student’s response to your
teaching will be?’

2.4 Educere is very parental, almost feminine approach to education because

it focuses on the nurturing and caring or what emerges when a student is
engaged in the learning process. Educere emphasizes what has become
understood in Western civilization as the feminine principle. Educere is
indeed the act of nurturing the young, being creative, compassionate,
giving. These are perceived as positive qualities. However, at the same
time there is the potential for nurturing to turn into the act of controlling
and oppressing, as in the mother who hovers over too much and does
not allow enough freedom for growth.

2.5 Educere emphasizes the main principle of leading the young forth for
some grand, great purpose; the act of instilling discipline, decisiveness,
willingness to die for a cause. As a teacher, this type wants to marshal

43
 the students towards something beyond him or herself, which can be a
wonderful moments of growth – intellectual and emotional. As a teacher
one has to discover which principle he or she embodies and reflect on the
positive and negatives of each.

3. Social Agent

3.1 The teaching/learning process is basically and essentially an interaction

between humans. This interaction is carried within a social context. There are,
generally, clearly defined teacher and student roles in these learning
environments. The student tends to expect that the teacher will influence the
learning environments. The student tends to expect that the teacher will
influence the learning process to some significant extent.

3.2 The role of the teacher as a social agent is an important part of the learning
process. This is very clear as different individuals interact with a teacher and
other students to widely varying degrees.

3.3 The teacher’s role may be include the management of the social interaction
that is conducted as part of the learning process. In the primary school, the
teacher has a large role in guiding the behaviour of the young pupils. Often the
teacher is required to set boundaries as to where pupils may be at a particular
time, whether they may talk or need to be quiet and listening and what
activities they should be performing.

3.4 The teacher plays a number of other social roles in the teaching/learning
process. The teacher is often a motivator for pupils, encouraging or reproving
them as appropriate. The approval of the teacher can be a strong motivating
factor, particularly for younger pupils. The teacher is also an arbiter of
success; measuring and quantifying pupils’ efforts. The teacher may also pass
on cultural and social values.

3.5 The role of the teacher as social agent is an important part of the learning
process, it is also clear that different individuals interact with a teacher and
other students to widely varying degrees. These individuals are self-motivated,

44
 do not require any third party encouragement to learn, and can seek out and
assimilate the required body of knowledge.

4. Agent of Change

4.1 A change agent is an individual who influences clients’ innovation decisions

in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency. As a change agent,
one has to directly work with the teachers to adopt an innovation and
encourage them to become opinion leaders in their own interpersonal
network.

4.2 One has to teach the teachers to use the various pieces of technology and it
goes further by assisting the teachers to learn to be constructivist teachers
that can incorporate technology into their curriculum. It is this balance of
bringing the technology into the curriculum through constructivist methods
that is the innovation.

4.3 Agent of change develops his/her own professional learning which has
encompassed strategies and interpersonal skills essential for managing
change within the school. Through significant steps, one has to update and
improve the culture of the school, to influence the staff to become more
collaborative and reflective in their practice, to be flexible and more
responsive to the positive outcomes of change and the development of their
own professional learning, creating a learning community.

5. Researcher

5.1 Teacher as a researcher involves the commitment to systematic questioning

of one’s own teaching as a basis for development. The commitment and skills to
study one’s own teaching and concern to questioning and testing theory in
practice by using skills and readiness to allow other teachers to observe your
work directly or through recordings and to discuss it with them on an honest
basis.

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 5.2 Teacher plays a role in investigating pedagogical problems through inquiry.
According to Dewey (1929) teacher’s investigations not only lead to
knowledge about the school but also led to good teaching.

5.3 The benefits for teachers who attempt to become researchers in their own
classrooms are:

- the development of clearer theory of language and learning

- increased knowledge and understanding of classroom practice, and

increased teaching skills

- easier collaboration with pupils and the potential to develop a shared

commitment to the desired improvements

6. Mentor

6.1 A mentor is one who guides and supports trainees to ease them through
difficult transitions; it is about smoothing the way, enabling, reassuring as
well as directing, managing and instructing. He/She should be able to
unblock the ways to change by building self-confidence, self-esteem and a
readiness to act as well as to engage in on-going constructive interpersonal
relationships.

6.2 Individual engaged in a one-to-one teaching/learning relationship in which the

mentor serves as a fundamentally important model with respect to values,
beliefs, philosophies and attitudes as well as a source of more specific
information.

6.3 Mentoring implies a close relationship within which the model may be a role
model, consultant, advisor, and source of wisdom –even a sort of protector.

6.4 Mentoring is defined as a nurturing process in which a more skilled or more

experienced person, serving as a role model, teachers, sponsors,
encourages, counsels and befriends a less skilled or less experienced
person for the purpose of promoting the latter’s professional and/or personal

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 development. Mentoring functions are carried out within the context of an
on-going, caring relationship between the mentor and the protégé

6.5 Mentoring is used to describe a combination of coaching, counselling and

assessment where a classroom teacher in a school is delegated
responsibility for assisting newly qualified teachers in their professional
development

6.6 A mentor tries to develop individual’s strengths to maximize their professional

and personal potential and also that of students who come under their care
within a classroom situation.

7. Manager

7.1 The teacher structures the learning environment. In this role, all decisions
and actions required to maintain order in the classroom, such as laying
down rules and procedures for learning activities.

7.2 Teacher must manage a classroom environment. Teachers are

environmental engineers who organize the classroom space to fit their goals
and to maximize learning. The way the physical space of the classroom is
organized can either help or hinder learning.

7.3 It involves modelling a positive attitude towards the curriculum and towards
school and learning in general. Teachers who reveal a caring attitude
towards learning and the learning environment help to instil and reinforce
similar attitudes in their students.

7.4 Teachers are required to manage and process great amounts of clerical
work. There are papers to be read and graded, tests to be scored, marks to
be entered, attendance records and files to be maintained, notes and letters
to be written etc.

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Lesson Activity

1. Carry out a research and discuss the various challenges

teachers are facing in carrying out their key objective in
education.
2. Discuss the role of the teacher in education.

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LECTURE SEVEN: VARIOUS TEACHING METHODS IN THE CLASSROOM

Lesson objectives

1. Discuss the various teaching methods a teacher can

use in curriculum delivery.

Introduction

The old adage "if all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail" is equally
true of teaching strategies. If the only classroom teaching strategy you know is
traditional lecturing, that's the teaching tool that you're likely to use for all classroom
situations. If, on the other hand, you have more tools in your toolbox, you will have
the opportunity to choose the most appropriate tool for the task at hand. In this
section of the tutorial, you will explore various teaching strategies in which most
students are active rather than passive in the classroom and in which the focus is
less on the teacher presenting and more on the student learning.

Factors that determine selection of teaching approaches

The following are some of the factors that may determine the methods the teacher
may choose to teach a given topic:

1. Target group
This involves consideration of age, background ability, needs, interests and
their behaviour
2. Set objectives

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 They should be clear and well thought out since all session activities are
directed towards their achievement.
3. Content
The methods should suit the content, pass the appropriate message and give
learners adequate opportunities to develop relevant life skills intended
4. Time frame
It requires proper planning and organization to ensure that activities are
carried out within the allocated time
5. Resources
Availabitlity, adequacy and appropriateness should be considered. The
teachers should be innovative while sourcing for resources
6. Sitting arrangement
The arrangement should vary from time to time to suit the techniques used
and ensure that participants feel at ease to participate more actively in
learning.

Methodology

Methodology refers to approaches and sets of methods used in presenting the

subject matter with the aim of achieving different specific objectives. This includes
approaches instructional methods and teaching/learning activities and how the
required skills are developed. For effective delivery of subject content, teachers need
to carefully choose suitable methods, teaching /learning experiences and sequence
them in a logical manner to ensure smooth flow of dialogue between teacher and
learner and among themselves. The teacher should make informed decisions about
the methods most appropriate for each topic and skill taking into consideration
developmental ages, background and circumstance of children. Methods chosen
should encourage active participation and involvement of learners in planned
learning activities to bring about positive behaviour change. the teacher should use
creativity and innovativeness as he/she uses various methods.

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Below, you will find brief descriptions of teaching strategies that promote active
engagement and participation of students in the classroom

Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is used to describe a lesson where the teacher has control.
Unfortunately, teachers and student teachers and students often mistake direct
instruction for the only way to teach. However there are concepts which are best
taught using direct instruction.

Direct instruction is an instructional method from the Transmission paradigm, and is

based on the learning theories of behaviourism and developmentalism.

In a direct instruction lesson: the teacher usually spends some time lecturing; then
the teacher guides the students through a complex problem, with the problem broken
down into simple steps; then the students are given, one by one, the simple steps to
carry out on their own; finally, the students are given one or many sample problems
to accomplish on their own.

There are variations of direct instruction. A teacher might present a video tape, and
the students are to watch the video. The teacher breaks this complex problem
(interpreting the video) into simple steps by giving the students questions to answer
during the tape. The teacher might guide the students through a reading in the same
manner with questions to guide them. The teacher might assign the students a task
to carry out. In each case, the timing of the lesson and the knowledge the student
will construct are very much under the teacher's control.

The disadvantages of direct instruction teaching

 It is based on old learning theories: that we must learn simple tasks before
complex ones, and that only measurable learning is worthwhile.
 Students do not have a sense of the overall purpose of the simple steps.
However, if you tell them the purpose, by using advance organizers, this
disadvantage is overcome.

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  Teachers cannot assess what the students’ prior knowledge is, so will be
unaware of why particular students cannot learn.
 Retention of how to solve the problems is low, because the students have not
struggled with the problem themselves. This disadvantage can be overcome
by having the students do many complex problems on their own. However,
this means that one of the advantages (time efficiency) is lost!
 Direct instruction as an instructional method works for only a small percentage
of students, not for a great variety. The students who have other than verbal
“intelligence”, or who come from different cultural world views will fail.

The advantages of direct instruction teaching

 The teacher has control of the timing of the lesson.

 Students are physically easy to monitor.
 The teacher has control over what will be learned, and who will learn. If you
want to reward the middle class students, this is the kind of teaching method
to use.
 The curriculum can be covered, so the teacher can say that s/he taught the
material.
 Some material should be taught this way! Any information for which there is
one right answer, and for which that answer is relatively simple, can be taught
efficiently and honestly by using direct instruction.

To use direct instruction well

Choose a concept for which direct instruction is appropriate.

The students must know what is coming. Give them an advance organizer what they
will be learning, in what order, and how much time each aspect will take.

Speak clearly, with a varied tone and speed. If you do not have a really interesting
voice, use as little direct instruction as possible, or have speeches written out for
your students, or use supplementary materials such as videos, etc.

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Enhance what you are saying with visuals and other teaching aids. Overheads or
power point relieve the monotony of one person’s voice. Also, not all students are
auditory learners.

Vary your lessons by not always speaking, but bring in activities, and other audio-
visuals.

In any lesson longer than thirty minutes, vary who is speaking. Ask the students
questions. Typically in a direct instruction lesson, the questions are low level memory
or comprehension questions. The kind of questioning is so common that it has been
given a name that many educational researchers recognize: IRE or QRE (which
stands for initiation or interrogation or question, response, evaluation). The teacher
asks a question, and then will often choose the student who will answer. Sometimes
the teacher expects a student to volunteer an answer, but almost always the student
is chosen by the teacher. The student then responds to the question, and the
teacher evaluates the response. In any lesson longer than forty minutes, the
students must have activities to do. Remember that for direct instruction, the
activities are ones which start with simple tasks, and then the simple tasks are
combined so the students can solve complex problems.

Summarize what the students have learned.

Lastly, give the students some sort of assignment which you can then use to
measure how much of the content they have learned that day.

An example of the kind of lesson you would want to use direct instruction for is
teaching the students how to use a Bunsen burner. Early in the year, probably the
first or second week of term, put a Bunsen burner on the demonstration desk. Each
pair of students should have one in front of them. Indicate and name each part of the
Bunsen burner, and have the students find that part on their Bunsen burners. Show
them how to light the Bunsen burner safely (you don’t have to worry about them
following along too closely, because they will just have free Bunsen burners not
ones that are hooked up to gas!) Turn the bunsen burner off, carefully describing
how this is done. Light the burner again, and turn it off again. Lastly, itemize the rules

53
you have for them for using the bunsen burner safely. (E.g.: Never strike a match if
you can smell gas, never point a loaded test tube anywhere except at the wall, etc.)

Next, the students take their bunsen burners to the gas outlets, plug them in, and
then practice lighting them and getting a good flame.

Lastly, give them a quiz or some sort of assignment to assess their learning. You
might have them sketch the Bunsen burner, labelling the parts; you might have them
do a fast write of safety rules, etc.

This is an appropriate use of direct instruction. We certainly do not want students

playing around with bunsen burners to learn how to use them! They must know how
to use them correctly before they light them the first time.

Overheads

There are a number of purposes for overheads:

1. to provide an advance organizer for the students

2. to illustrate a point
3. to emphasize a point
4. to provide an organizational scheme for your lesson.

The overhead gives you instructions about what points to cover in what order. At the
same time, the overhead can give the students an organizational framework.

Do not use overheads to deliver content. Instead of listening to you, the students will
be copying word for word what is written on the overhead. If you want the students to
have notes, word for word, give them a hand-out. There are several kinds of hand-
outs you can give you could give them the actual notes basically summarizing the
text book. Or you could give them what is called semi-notes, which leaves out some
of the information. The students are to pay attention to what you are saying, and to
the overheads, and fill in the missing information in the hand-out of semi-notes.

To make a good overhead, use the seven and ten rule no more than seven words
per line, no more than ten lines per page.

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Do not add pictures to the overheads which are organizers or making notes.
Students think they should copy what you have on the overheads word for word,
picture for picture. The more complex the overhead, the longer it will take them to
copy it! Use schematic diagrams also for your overheads, but do not ask your
students to copy these. Rather, tell them to pay attention to you, and give them the
schematic as a hand-out.

Discussion

Discussion is an excellent way to engage students in thinking and analysing or in

defending one side of an issue, rather than listening to lecture. Students must also
respond to one another, rather than interacting intellectually only with the instructor.
A Discussion could be used for any objective.

Getting Started

 Create a comfortable, non-threatening environment by explaining the

objectives of the topic and encourage questions from the outset.
 Arrange the chairs in a configuration that will allow students to see and speak
with one another.
 Get to know your students and the skills and perspectives they bring to the
discussions.
 Understanding your students’ skills and perspectives can help you to develop
specific ways of challenging each of them to think critically and express ideas
clearly.
 Clarify the rules and expectations for discussions at the outset.
Define what you think of as a successful discussion (for example, one that
includes participation by all group members, stays on topic, and explores
issues in depth and from a variety of perspectives.) Make it clear that good
discussions rarely happen without effort. Distribute or post on the board a list
of rules and expectations that will promote successful discussions. For
example, to discourage students from monopolizing the discussion or

55
 interrupting one another, indicate whether it will be necessary for students to
raise their hands and be called on before speaking; this decision will depend
on your preference and on the size of the class.
 Communicate to students the importance of discussion to their success in the
course as a whole.

Plan and prepare the discussion.

 Develop clear goals and a specific plan for each session. Compose specific
questions that will move the discussion forward, illuminate major points, and
prompt students to offer evidence for their assertions and to consider other
points of view.
 Accommodate different learning preferences. Expect that your students will
bring into the course different learning preferences. For example, while some
may be active learners who prefer to solve problems in order to learn
concepts, others are reflective learners who prefer to master concepts
through uninterrupted reflection. Recognize your own learning preferences
and make efforts to extend your approach beyond those preferences. In other
words, do not assume that you can teach something in the same way that
you learned it and get the same results with all of your students. You can be
most effective if you combine teaching methods to reach as many students
as possible: for example, combine verbal and visual explanations, explain
concepts using both a “big-picture” and a detail-oriented approach, and give
students opportunities for active learning and reflection.
 Provide a structure. Write an outline or list of guiding questions on the board
before you begin the discussion. Each session should have a clear
beginning, middle, and end. Respond to student contributions in ways that
move the discussion forward and keep it focused on the topic at hand.

Throughout the Discussion

 At appropriate points in the session, summarize the major ideas and write
them on the board. If you do not do this, students will have a hard time picking
out the most important ideas from the discussion and understanding their

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 significance. Writing on the board is particularly helpful for students who are
visual learners.
 Combine discussions with other methods. Plan to use brief lectures to
introduce complex topics or to clarify the larger concepts that the current set
of readings investigates
 Integrate student responses into the discussion without making the discussion
merely a student-teacher interaction.
Ask students to respond directly to one another’s ideas. The use of small-
group discussions will allow students to become better acquainted and thus
facilitate their communication with one another.
 Use verbal and non-verbal cues to encourage participation.
call on all students to answer questions, not just those who consistently raise
their hands. Make eye contact and move around the room to engage the
attention of all the students and to communicate that you expect each of them
to participate.
 Create a balance between controlling the group dynamic and letting group
members speak. While you are charged with facilitating the discussion from
the perspective of an expert knowledgeable in the subject, the aim of the
discussion is not to bring students around to your way of thinking, but rather to
create the opportunity for students to think critically—to question assumptions,
to consider multiple viewpoints, and to develop knowledge of the subject.
Actively seek contributions from as many students as possible in a given
session; if a few students want to speak all the time, remind them that you
value their contributions but would like to hear from others as well.
 Show respect for all questions and comments.
Listen carefully. Thank students for their contributions. Point out what is
valuable about your students’ arguments, whether or not you agree with them.
Develop helpful responses to incorrect answers or comments that are not
sufficiently related to the issue currently being discussed. Take students’
ideas seriously: help them clarify their thinking by asking them to provide
evidence for their arguments and to respond to ideas and arguments offered
by other students.

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  Do not answer your own questions.
Give students 5-10 seconds to think and formulate a response. If 10-15
seconds pass without anyone volunteering an answer and the students are
giving you puzzled looks, rephrase your question. Do not give in to the
temptation to answer your own questions, which will condition students to
hesitate before answering to see if you will supply “the answer.” Patience is
key; do not be afraid of silence. The longer you wait for students to respond,
the more thoughtful and complex their responses are likely to be.

After the Discussion

Rethink, retool, and revise.

Each time you facilitate a discussion, you learn something about how best to
approach the topic. Take brief notes on how each discussion went and use these as
the basis for reorganizing your plan for the discussion, improving your presentation
skills, rethinking the material included, or developing ideas for future teaching and
research projects. Include these notes in your file for the course so that they are
readily accessible the next time you teach the course.

Speak with your colleagues about their approaches and ideas. Stay abreast of new
scholarship on teaching and teaching with technology.

Advantages of discussion

 Emphasis on Learning instead of Teaching,

Discussion Method emphasises pupil-activity in the form of discussion, rather than

simply telling and lecturing by the teacher. Thus, this method is more effective.

2. Participation by Everybody.

In this method, everybody participates in the discussion, and therefore thinks and
expresses himself. This is a sure way of learning.

3. Development of Democratic way of Thinking.

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Everybody cooperates in the discussion, and the ideas and opinions of everybody
are respected. Thus, there is a development of democratic way of thinking and
arriving at decision.

4. Training in Reflective Thinking.

Students, during the course of discussion, get training in reflective thinking, which
leads to deeper understanding of the historical problem under discussion.

5. Training in Self-expression.

During discussion, everybody is required to express his ideas and opinions in a clear
and concise manner. This provides ample opportunities to the students for training in
self-expression.

6. Spirit of Tolerance is inculcated.

The students learn to discuss and differ with other members of the group. They learn
to tolerate the views of others even if they are unpleasant and contradictory to each
other’s views. Thus, respect for the viewpoints of others is developed.

7. Learning is made Interesting.

More effective learning is possible when the students discuss, criticise and share
ideas on a particular problem. Active participation by the students in the discussion
makes learning full of interest for the students. This also ensures better and effective
learning. A discussion from a point of ignorance can get students interested in the
topic. They will have expressed their opinion on the topic, and will more actively
search for information to support their opinion. Thus, a discussion can be a good
motivator at the beginning of a unit.

8. AS a way of assessing students

A discussion in the middle of a unit can be a way to assess student understanding of

the topic. Who participated? What did those students say? Did their comments
express understanding of the topic? What concepts need to be re-taught or
addressed in a different way to ensure students construct the appropriate
information?

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Limitations

1. All types of topics cannot be taught by Discussion Method.

2. This method cannot be used for teaching small children.

3. The students may not follow the rules of discussion.

4. Some students may not take part while others may try to dominate.

5. The teacher may not be able to guide and provide true leadership in the
discussion.

Role play:
A role play is an actment of a real situation. The actors assume the role of the real
person in a real life situation. Role plays can be used when:
 Developing specific skills
 Discussing sensitive issues
 Clarifying new and unfamiliar concept
 Demonstrating how a skill, knowledge and attitude can be utilised and
applied in real life

Why Use Role-Playing?

Role-playing is simultaneously interesting and useful to students because it

emphasizes the "real-world" side of science. It challenges them to deal with complex
problems with no single "right" answer and to use a variety of skills beyond those
employed in a typical research project. In particular, role-playing presents the
student a valuable opportunity to learn not just the course content, but other
perspectives on it.

How to Teach Using Role-Playing

The instructor needs to decide the context for the exercise and the role(s) that the
students will play. If the students are taking human roles, the context is generally a

60
specific problem such as global warming or dealing with an active volcano. Lessons
need to be carefully explained and supervised in order to involve the students and to
enable them to learn as much as possible from the experience. However, a well-
done scenario never runs the same way twice, teaches people things they might not
ordinarily have learned, and tends to be fun for all involved.

Debates
These are discussions which involve two opposing parties with each group
expressing opinions or views about a given topic or subject. Each group
competitively attempts to win the other to their side of the argument. At the end of
the debate the group with more points is declared winner.

Brainstorming
It is a spontaneous expression of ideas, views and opinions on a given topic, issue
or situation. Brainstorming can be used when;
o Seeking different views or opinions of a given situation
o Establishing the entry behaviour of the learners can be applied in a
given situation
o Exploring new concepts encouraging involvement of all learners
o Building consensus or agreement
Story telling
This involves telling of narratives with particular theme, based on actual events,
myths and legends. They give account of detailed information about an event or
situation in an interesting way while still passing on a moral message, attitude and
value
Songs and dances:
Songs are musical composition on topical issues and themes. They may convey
message on contemporary issues in the society.
Case studies:
It is an account depicting a real life or imaginary situation, scenario or problem. It
may be a dilemma in which the learners should come up with options on how they
would resolve the conflict.

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Games:
A game is a play that is guided by a set of rules to be observed by the participants.
Games are interesting and exciting activities in which learners play different roles.
The teacher is encouraged to develop his/her own games or use documented ones.
Games in life skills education can be used when:
 Clarifying difficult issues
 Discussing value laden and sensitive issues
 Enhancing the quality of interaction in a group
 Learning and practising new skills
 Increasing the participants knowledge of each other
Question and Answer method
Question and answer method is used both by the teacher and learner to find out
information through asking questions and getting answers from the respondent. It is
effective method of teaching Life Skill Education because it stimulated learners
thinking, creativity and ability to recall past information, knowledge and experience.
 Miming:
 Poetry and recitals

Lesson activity
 Discuss factors that a teacher needs to consider before selecting
teaching approaches
 Discuss several methods a teacher can use in curriculum delivery

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REFERNCES AND RECOMMENDED BOOKS

 Bogonko Sorobea (1992) Reflections on Education in Africa: Oxford

University Press
 Douglas B (2007) Teaching and Principles. An Interactive Approach to
Language Pedagogy: longman San-Francisco
 Knowles Malcom, Holton E.F Swanson R.A (2007): The Adult Learner
 Knoeles M (2005) Andragogy Pedagogic Issues
 Namwamba T (2007) ; Elements and Pedagogy of critical Thinking: Dale
publications
 Wilder P.B S (2009) Fundamentals of Pedagogy; London Routledge
Publishers

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