KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

EPS 205
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

TABITHA WANG’ERI

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON ONE ................................................................................................................... 9
MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ........................................ 9
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 9
1.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................... 9
1.2 DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. ........................................................... 9
1.3 THE CONCERNS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ..................................................... 10
1.4 AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY .................................................................. 11
1.5 RELEVANCE OF EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY .............................................................. 13
1.5.1 Activity ............................................................................................................. 14
1.5.2 The pre- scientific methods teachers use. ........................................................ 14
1.5.3 An Appraisal of the pre-scientific approach.................................................... 16
1.6 BENEFITS OF THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH .................................................................. 16
1.7 FOCUS AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ....................................................... 17
Activity ...................................................................................................................... 18
1.8 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 19
1.9 KEY TERMS.............................................................................................................. 19
1.10 REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................... 20
LESSON TWO ................................................................................................................ 21
LEARNING .................................................................................................................. 21
2.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 21
2.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 21
2.2 THE RELEVANCE OF LEARNING ................................................................................ 21
2.3 DEFINITION OF THE TERM LEARNING ........................................................................ 22
2.4 TYPES OF LEARNING................................................................................................. 22
2.4.1 Classical conditioning ..................................................................................... 23
2.4.2 Ivan Pavlov’s experiments ............................................................................... 23
2.4.3 The acquisition stage ....................................................................................... 23
2.4.4. Principles of classical conditioning................................................................ 24
2.4.5 Application of classical conditioning to the teaching learning process .......... 25
2.5 OPERANT CONDITIONING ......................................................................................... 25
2.5.1 Operant conditioning Experiments .................................................................. 25
2.5.2 Application of operant conditioning in the teaching learning situation.......... 26
Positive reinforcement .............................................................................................. 26
Negative reinforcement............................................................................................. 26
Primary and Secondary reinforces ........................................................................... 27
2.6 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ...................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 Vicarious conditioning..................................................................................... 27
2.6.2 Application of vicarious conditioning to school .............................................. 28
2.7 INSIGHTFUL LEARNING............................................................................................. 29
2.7.1 Application....................................................................................................... 30
2.8 INFORMATION PROCESS SYSTEM .............................................................................. 30
2.8.1 The short term sensory storage (STSS)............................................................ 30
2.8.2 The short term memory (STM)......................................................................... 31
2.8.3 The long term memory bank ............................................................................ 31

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 2.9 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 32
2.10 KEY TERMS............................................................................................................ 32
2.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS ............................................................................................... 33
LESSON THREE............................................................................................................ 34
REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING ..................................................................... 34
3.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 34
3.2 WHY STUDENTS FORGET THE CONTENT THEY LEARN ............................................... 34
3.3.0 THE BEHAVIORISTIC THEORY................................................................................ 34
3.3.1 The Disuse Theory ........................................................................................... 35
Rehearsal .................................................................................................................. 35
Reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 35
3.3.2 Interference model ........................................................................................... 35
Application................................................................................................................ 37
3.4 COGNITIVE EXPLANATION ....................................................................................... 37
The short term memory/working memory ................................................................. 37
Maintenance rehearsal ............................................................................................. 37
Elaborative rehearsal ............................................................................................... 37
The Long-term memory Bank.................................................................................... 38
What causes cataloguing errors? ............................................................................. 38
Application................................................................................................................ 38
3.5. IMPROVING MEMORY .............................................................................................. 38
3.5.1 Increasing attention ......................................................................................... 38
3.5.2 Rehearsal ......................................................................................................... 39
3.5.3 The use of mnemonic devices........................................................................... 39
3.7.0 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. 40
3.8.0 KEYWORDS ........................................................................................................... 41
3.9.0 REVIEW/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS .......................................................................... 41
LESSON FOUR .............................................................................................................. 42
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING ............................................................ 42
4.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 42
4.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 42
4.2.0 THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING ......................................................... 42
4.3.1 The Teacher ..................................................................................................... 42
4.3.2 The Teachers Grooming .................................................................................. 43
4.3.3 Teachers Competence ...................................................................................... 43
4.3.4 Classroom Management .................................................................................. 43
4.3.5 The Teachers Communication Ability.............................................................. 43
4.4.0 The Learning Environment .............................................................................. 44
4.4.1 Over crowdedness............................................................................................ 44
4.4.2 Appropriateness ............................................................................................... 44
4.4.3 Ventilation........................................................................................................ 44
4.4.4 Quality Of Buildings ........................................................................................ 44
4.5.0 The Learner Characteristics ............................................................................ 45
4.5.1 Personality dispositions ................................................................................... 45
4.5.2 Intellectual Giftedness ..................................................................................... 45

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 4.5.3 Motivational Levels.......................................................................................... 46
4.5.4 Conflicts of interest .......................................................................................... 46
4.5.5 The Social Economic Backgrounds ................................................................. 46
4.6.0 The Subject Matter........................................................................................... 47
4.6.1 Meaningfulness Of Material ............................................................................ 47
4.6.2 Readiness Of The Learner ............................................................................... 49
4.6.4 Discovery learning........................................................................................... 49
4.7 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 50
4.8 KEY WORDS ....................................................................................................... 50
4.5 REVIEW/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ............................................................................ 52
LESSON FIVE ................................................................................................................ 53
TRANSFER OF LEARNING....................................................................................... 53
5.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 53
5.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 53
5.2 DEFINITION OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING ................................................................ 53
5.3 ASPECTS OF TRANSFER ........................................................................................... 55
5.3.1 Discrimination ................................................................................................. 55
5.4.0 TYPES OF TRANSFER ............................................................................................ 56
5.4.1 Zero transfer .................................................................................................... 56
5.4.2 Negative transfer.............................................................................................. 56
5.4.3 Positive Transfer.............................................................................................. 57
5.5 TEACHING FOR TRANSFER ........................................................................................ 58
5.5.1 The substantive method.................................................................................... 58
5.5.2 High road transfer ........................................................................................... 58
5.5.3 The Procedural Method ................................................................................... 59
5.6 NOTE ....................................................................................................................... 59
5.7 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 60
5.8 KEY WORDS ............................................................................................................. 61
5.9 REVIEW/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ............................................................................ 61
LESSON SIX ................................................................................................................... 62
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING......................................................... 62
6.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 62
6.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 62
6.2 WHAT CAUSES INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING?....................................... 62
6.2.1 The hereditary position .................................................................................... 63
6.2.2 The environmental position.............................................................................. 63
6.2.3 The interactionist position ............................................................................... 63
6.3 WHAT GENES GIVE .................................................................................................. 63
6.4 DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS..................................................................................... 64
6.4.1 The environment before birth........................................................................... 64
6.4.2 The home environment..................................................................................... 65
6.4.3 The social economic status .............................................................................. 66
6.4.4. Effects of low SES on Achievement................................................................. 66
6.6. THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT .................................................................................. 67
6.7 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 68

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 6.8 KEY WORDS ............................................................................................................. 68
6.9 REVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................................................................. 69
LESSON SEVEN ............................................................................................................ 70
MOTIVATION ............................................................................................................. 70
7.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 70
7.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 70
7.2 DEFINITION OF THE TERM MOTIVATION ................................................................. 70
7.3 MOTIVATION IN THE SCHOOL SETTING ................................................................... 70
7.4 THEORETICAL APPROACHES .................................................................................... 71
7.4.1 The Behavior approaches ................................................................................ 71
7.4.2 Cognitive Approaches To Motivation .............................................................. 72
7.4.3 Social Learning Theories Of Motivation ......................................................... 72
7.4.4 Humanistic Approaches ................................................................................... 73
7.5 EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC MOTIVATION ................................................................. 76
7.5.1 Extrinsic motivation ......................................................................................... 76
7.5.2 Intrinsic motivation.......................................................................................... 77
7.5.3 ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION ................................................................................. 77
7.5.4 NURTURING ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION ............................................................ 79
7.5.5 PERSONALIZED GOALS AND INCENTIVES AS MOTIVATORS ..................................... 79
7.6 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 80
7.7 KEY TERMS.............................................................................................................. 81
7.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS ................................................................................................. 82
LESSON EIGHT............................................................................................................. 83
ATTITUDES................................................................................................................. 83
8.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 83
8.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 83
8.2 DEFINITION OF THE TERM......................................................................................... 83
8.2.1 Activity ............................................................................................................. 84
8.3.0 COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES ................................................................................ 84
8.3.1 The affective component .................................................................................. 84
8.3.2 The Cognitive Component Of Attitudes ........................................................... 85
8.3.3 The Behavioral Component ............................................................................. 85
8.3.4 Activity ............................................................................................................. 85
8.4 FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES ...................................................................................... 86
8.5 DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDES ................................................................................. 87
8.6.0 ATTITUDE CHANGE ............................................................................................... 88
8.6.1 Behavioristic theories ...................................................................................... 88
8.6.2 Cognitive theories persuasion.......................................................................... 89
8.6.3 Role models...................................................................................................... 89
8.6.4 The use of dissonance in attitude change ........................................................ 90
8.7 ATTITUDES AND SCHOOL SETTINGS .......................................................................... 91
8.7.1 How do attitudes relate to school settings? ..................................................... 91
8.7.2 The teacher and attitude change...................................................................... 92
8.8 PERSONALITY TRAITS THAT CHARACTERIZE PERSUASIBILITY .................................. 95
8.9 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 97

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 8.10 KEY TERMS ............................................................................................................ 97
8.11 DISCUSSION/REVIEW QUESTIONS ........................................................................... 98
LESSON NINE................................................................................................................ 99
PERSONALITY ........................................................................................................... 99
9.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 99
9.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 99
9.2 DEFINITION OF THE TERM PERSONALITY .............................................................. 100
9.3 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY .......................................................................... 100
9.3.1 Genetic determinants of personality .............................................................. 101
9.3.2 Environmental determinants of personality................................................... 102
9.4 THE HOME INFLUENCES LOVE AND ACCEPTANCE ................................................... 102
9.4.1 Time spent at home ........................................................................................ 102
9.4.2 Personal identifications ................................................................................. 103
9.4.3 Methods of behavior control.......................................................................... 104
9.4.4 Security of environment ................................................................................. 104
9.4.5 Emotional climate of the home ...................................................................... 105
9.4.6 Negative home influences .............................................................................. 105
9.5 EDUCATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY .................................................. 108
9.5.1 Activity ........................................................................................................... 108
9.5.2 Readiness For School .................................................................................... 109
9.5.3 The emotional climate of the school .............................................................. 109
9.5.4 Academic success........................................................................................... 110
9.5.5 success in extra curriculum activities ............................................................ 110
9.5.6 School type ..................................................................................................... 110
9.6 PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT AND MALADJUSTMENT .......................... 111
9.6.1 Characteristics of a well adjusted person...................................................... 111
9.6.2 Maladjustment................................................................................................ 112
9.6.3 Characteristics of a maladjusted person ....................................................... 112
9.7 SUMMARY .............................................................................................................. 113
9.8 KEY CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................... 113
9.9 REVIEW \ DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ........................................................................ 114
LESSON TEN ............................................................................................................... 115
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT .............................................................................. 115
10.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 115
10.1 OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................... 115
10.2 THE RELEVANCE OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ............................................... 115
10.3 METHODS OF IDENTIFYING PROBLEM BEHAVIORS IN THE CLASSROOM ............. 116
10.4 WHY DO PUPILS MISBEHAVE? .............................................................................. 117
10.5 HOW PUPILS REACT TO PROBLEMS ....................................................................... 121
10.6 METHODS OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE ........................................................................ 123
10.6.1 Purpose of punishment................................................................................. 123
10.6.2 Facts about punishment ............................................................................... 125
10.6.3 The punishment of aggressive behaviors ..................................................... 125
10.6.4 Negative effects of punishment..................................................................... 126
10.6.5 Conditions under which punishment should be given.................................. 126

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 10.7 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES ............................................................... 127
10.7.1 Classical conditioning ................................................................................. 127
10.7.2 Reinforcement .............................................................................................. 128
10.7.3 Behavior contracting ................................................................................... 128
10.8 PREVENTIVE DISCIPLINE ...................................................................................... 129
10.9 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 130
10.11 DISCUSSION/REVIEW QUESTIONS ....................................................................... 130
10.10 KEY CONCEPTS .................................................................................................. 130
LESSON ELEVEN ....................................................................................................... 132
THE EXCEPTIONAL LEARNER............................................................................. 132
11.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 132
11.1 OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................... 132
11.2 DEFINITION OF THE TERM EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ............................................. 132
11.3 CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ............................................................ 133
11.4 CLASSIFICATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ...................................................... 133
11.4.1 The gifted and talented................................................................................. 133
11.5 HOW A TEACHER IDENTIFIES THE GIFTED CHILDREN ............................................ 134
11.6 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH GIFTEDNESS. ......................................................... 134
11.6 HOW TO MANAGE THE GIFTED CHILDREN ............................................................. 134
Activity .................................................................................................................... 135
11.6.1 The mentally handicapped children............................................................. 135
11.6.2 Causes of mental retardation....................................................................... 135
11.6.3 Categories of mentally retarded children .................................................... 135
11.7 THE LEARNING DISABLED CHILDREN .................................................................... 136
11.7.1 Are learning disabled children a homogeneous group?.............................. 136
11.7.2 What seems to be the problem ..................................................................... 137
11.7.3 How can they be helped? ............................................................................. 137
Activity .................................................................................................................... 137
11.8 PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES ....................................................................................... 137
11.8.1 Cerebral palsy.............................................................................................. 137
11.8.2 Physical challenges...................................................................................... 138
11.9 SENSORY EXCEPTIONALITIES ............................................................................... 138
11.9.1 Hearing impairments (the deaf)................................................................... 138
11.9.2 Classification of hearing impairments......................................................... 138
11.9.3 Causes of hearing impairment ..................................................................... 138
11.9.4 Characteristics of the hearing impaired children........................................ 139
What are some of the signs of hearing impairment? .............................................. 139
11.9.5 How are hearing impaired children managed?........................................... 139
11.10 THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED ................................................................................... 139
11.10.1 Causes of visual impairment...................................................................... 140
Accidents and injury to the eyes also cause blindness............................................ 140
11.10.2 Problems associated with visual impairment ............................................ 140
11.10.3 The management of the visually impaired students ................................... 140
11.11 INTERVENTION ................................................................................................... 141
11.12 SERVICES FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ............................................................. 141
11.12.1 Support staff ............................................................................................... 142

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 11.12.2 The curriculum........................................................................................... 142
11.12.4 Placement and referral .............................................................................. 143
11.12.5 Coordination of services ............................................................................ 143
11.12.6 Vocational Training ................................................................................... 143
11.12.7 Public Education and awareness.............................................................. 143
11.13 SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 143
11.14 KEY WORDS ....................................................................................................... 144
11.15 REVIEW QUESTIONS ........................................................................................... 145
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING............................................................ 146

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LESSON ONE

Meaning And Relevance Of Educational Psychology

1.0 Introduction
Dear learner, this is an introductory lesson of the module Educational Psychology. I am
going to explore the concepts relevant to the understanding of the teaching and learning
processes. This lesson has several sections:
• Definition of Educational Psychology.
• The concerns of Educational Psychology.
• Areas of Educational Psychology.
• Relevance of Educational Psychology.
• Benefits of the scientific approach.
• Focus areas of Educational Psychology

1.1 Objectives

• By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

• Define Educational Psychology.
• Outline the areas of Educational Psychology.
• Discuss the relevance of Educational Psychology for teachers.
• Identify the benefits of using the scientific approach in the teaching-learning process.
• Describe the focus areas of Educational Psychology.

1.2 Definition Of Educational Psychology.

What is Educational Psychology?

We cannot define Educational Psychology without knowing what psychology is.

Psychology is defined as the scientific discipline that studies animal and human
behaviour and mental process. As a science psychology is used in the understanding of
behaviour, prediction of behaviour and control of behaviour. Behaviour can be defined as
anything we do, such as thinking, talking, sneezing, sleeping, loving and so on.

As a science of behavior psychology has many branches and approaches. The following
are some of the branches of psychology:
• Industrial psychology.
• Experimental psychology.

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• Developmental psychology.
• Counseling psychology.
• Social psychology.
• Educational Psychology.

Looking at these branches of psychology we can deduce that Educational psychology is

one of the branches of psychology. It is one of the newer branches of psychology which
is slightly over a century old today, (Woolfolk, 1998).

Educational Psychology is defined as an applied branch of Psychology it is concerned

with the application of the principles and techniques of psychology to the solution of the
problems confronting the teacher in the classroom, (Gage/Berliner, 1992).

Educational Psychology is also defined as the study of what people think, do and feel as
they teach and learn in a particular environment where education and training are
intended to take place, (Woolfolk, 1998).

As an applied branch of psychology Educational Psychology focuses on the

psychological study of everyday problems of Education from which the teacher derives
principles, models, theories, teaching procedures and practical methods of instruction and
evaluation. This involves the selection from the total field of psychology of those facts,
principles and techniques, which relate to the teaching-learning process as they operate in
and out of the classroom.

Although Educational Psychology borrows heavily from Psychology it has evolved as a

distinct science with its own methods and theories.

1.3 The concerns of Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology is concerned with the learning situation. The learning situation
involves group dynamics as they operate to affect learning.
• Educational Psychology is concerned with the learning. This refers to the means by
which learning can be made more effective.
• Educational Psychology is concerned with the teacher’s role as the facilitator of
learning.

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Activity

• Write down four things you remember about your best teacher in high school.
• Try to remember how he/she was different from the other teachers?
• What can you remember about your worst teacher?
• Why do you think he was the worst teacher on the school staff?

1.4 Areas of Educational Psychology

We have already learned that Educational Psychology is an applied science. As an
applied science it borrows from many areas within the wider field of psychology. The
following are some of the areas Educational Psychology borrows from:

1. Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with the mental processes that
are involved in understanding behavior. These are thinking, remembering, forgetting,
problem solving and perception. From this area of psychology the teacher applies the
principles of enhancing memory of learned material. He also learns what to do in the
learning situation in order to minimize forgetting of the learned material.

2. Developmental psychology
Developmental psychology is the science that studies the changes that take place in the
lifetime of a person. The changes take place in the body from the time of conception
through uterine life, infancy, Early childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence,
young adulthood, middle adulthood, later childhood, aging and dying.

Developmental changes also take place in the intellectual dimensions. These changes
refer to the development of thought and the ability to acquire knowledge and use it
through out the chronological and mental ages of children. In this dimension the child
develops intellectually for example Purgation stages of cognitive development.
According to Piaget, child development is based on the reflexes that are present at birth.
These reflexes lead to the sensori motor that is present from birth to two years of age.
Intelligence from sensori motor stage of cognitive development the child develops pre-
operational reasoning, concrete operations and formal operational stage. These stages are
well covered in the Human Development course. Our duty here is to point out that the
teacher applies the knowledge in order to develop curriculum that is in the line with the
intellectual stage of development of the child. It also helps the teacher to gauge the level
of difficulty of content so that he can organize teaching and learning activities that
present the right level of difficulty to learners.

From the Purgation theory the teacher also derives the teaching procedures that are
appropriate to the level of cognitive development of the learner. For example, if learners

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are concrete thinkers then the teacher uses concrete things in teaching them but if the
learners are formal thinkers then the teacher can use abstract concepts. The application of
information gained from cognitive psychology makes teaching and learning very
effective.

From Developmental psychology the teacher understands the learners emotional, social
and moral development. With this understanding he is able to develop learning activities
that help the learner to develop positively in these areas. This ensures that the learner is
well rounded, in development intellectually, physically, socially, morally, emotionally
and even spiritually.

3. Social Psychology
The teacher also borrows from the area of social psychology. Social psychology refers to
the study of social interactions and their influence on individual and group behavior.

From social psychology the teacher understands how attitudes are acquired and changed.
For example how learners acquire positive or negative attitudes towards a teacher, a
subject, school or even the schools administration and how the acquired attitude affects
learning and adjustment to school. From social psychology the teacher gains insights as
to how biases and prejudices are acquired and how they can affect learning. The teacher
also acquires information regarding how friendships develop and how friendships are
maintained. This has a bearing on the learners’ social adjustment and acceptance by the
peers and its effects on learning.

4. Psychometric psychology
Psychometric psychology deals with the measurement theory, which equips the teachers
with the skills, needed in the measurement and evaluation of relevant variables. These are
variables like achievement and personality traits in educational settings. Equipped with
the measuring skills the teacher is able to evaluate learning and to make the necessary
adjustments so that effective learning takes place.

5. Personality psychology
Personality theories are concerned with individual differences. They explain why each
learner is unique in terms of his needs and his personality traits. Information gained from
personality psychology equips the teacher with the tools he needs in terms of
understanding each learner in particular and learners in general. This understanding helps
the teacher to organize learning experiences that cater for each learner. This is important
since the teacher deals with learners with differences in intellectual ability, emotional
experience and expression, moral thinking and behavior, sociability and other traits that
learners bring to class.

6. Mental hygiene
Mental hygiene refers to those factors that promote the child’s adjustment. These factors
may exist in the home, in the school among peer and in the community and may operate
to promote or hinder learning and adjustment. The teacher who is aware of these factors

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will be prepared to handle any problem that arises from any of the possible angles and
help the learner to cope adequately in all situations.

Guidance and counseling are major concerns of mental hygiene. The teacher who can
both guide and counsel learners will help to promote appropriate methods of solving
problems and dealing with the stresses of daily living in the learner.

1.5 Relevance of Education Psychology

The issue of relevance of Educational Psychology to the teacher is of great importance.
The relevance emanates from the fact that teachers in the schools do not teach
Educational Psychology. They teach other disciplines. For example English language,
Mathematics, Kiswahili, Biology, Geography, Physics, Chemistry etc. These are
languages, humanities, sciences and practical subjects. These are disciplines that require
scholarship. This means that a teacher may be very good in scholarship achieving high
grades in the area of academic pursuit. Another teacher could be an average achiever in
scholarship while another one merely passed his examinations.

Given this scenario it is inevitable for one to the wonder whether the person with
excellent performance in scholarship will of necessity become a good teacher while the
poor scholar consequently becomes a poor teacher.

The other issue of concern is whether teachers are born or made. Focusing on these
concerns one remembers the joke about teachers and jobs, which goes like this; “Those
who can find jobs do them, those who do not find jobs teach, while those who cannot
teach, teach teachers”. It is imperative to ponder on these issues in order to install
educational Psychology in its rightful place. Therefore it is important to point out that
being a brilliant scholar does not necessarily make one a good teacher, neither does being
a poor scholar make one a poor teacher.

The difference between a good teacher and a poor one is made by the knowledge and
application of Educational Psychology. Educational Psychology equips the teacher with
the scientific approach to learning and teaching. It equips the teacher with scientific and
practical insights into the various aspects of the learning- teaching process. The scientific
approach enables the teacher to know what can be done in the learning-teaching process.
He gets to know what will work and what will not work why some approaches work
while others fail totally. The teacher gets to know and to as well as apply what consists
realistic goals for learning and teaching. With this knowledge the teacher learns o avoid
the use of pre-scientific methods in the learning teaching process. We shall briefly look at
pre-scientific approaches to learning and teaching.

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1.5.1 Activity

1. Can you remember the methods your teacher used in order to get you to learn the
multiplication tables or even historical dates and scientific formulae?
2. Can you remember the teachers who made the subject difficult so that few people did
well in it? What was the subject and what did the teacher do to ensure that few
students passed well in it.

1.5.2 The pre- scientific methods teachers use.

Pre-scientific methods are those that are not founded in any scientific research or theory.
These are methods that have not been tested for their applicability or validity. When the
teacher uses them they posses the likelihood of inhibiting or preventing learning. We
shall mention a few of them here:

1. Certain Habits
There are certain habits, which are pre-scientific, and if used by the teacher could be
detrimental to learning. These are habits like being unprepared. A teacher may imagine
that there is no need to prepare for a lesson because he has taught the lesson for many
years and therefore has control over the content. This teacher may not take time to
prepare the lesson plan or lesson notes and therefore goes to the class with the textbook
alone. This teacher cannot run an effective lesson because of being unprepared. Although
it is true that he has taught the content for many years it is important to take time and
interact with the content by making a lesson plan and lesson notes.

2. Pre-established beliefs
Teachers or school heads may hold certain pre-established beliefs, which can inhibit
learning. There is the belief that anybody can teach anything. The school heads who hold
this belief will allocate teachers subjects that they are not comfortable teaching. For
example a teacher could be very good in teaching physics and since physics is a science
he could be allocated to teach all the sciences. This will result in the teacher producing
poor results in those subjects where he lacks competence. There is also the issue of
relying on untrained teachers because they will not ask to be paid a lot of money. These
teachers may have the potential of being good teachers but their untrained state translates
into poor performance. Also they do not posses the appropriate methods of dealing with
many aspects of the student’s life in the school.

3. The use of common sense

This is yet another pre-scientific belief. Teachers who lack the training in educational
psychology may rely on the use of common sense. For example, they may hold the belief
that any student can learn anything. They are not aware that for a student to be able to
learn there are many variables that interact in highly complex ways to promote or hinder
him from learning. These variables are the learner’s intellectual giftedness, which may be
genetically determined, the learner’s motivations, interests, needs and values. The teacher

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has to understand the learner very well in order to be able to determine what he can learn
and the conditions under which learning will occur.

4. Personal impressions
There are personal impressions which are pre-scientific and which will inhibit learning.
This teacher may have biased perceptions of particular learners or a class in general. He
may believe that a certain learner or a class is bad or poor. This belief may be a result of
staff-room tales. A teacher with these impressions is likely to cultivate very negative
attitudes towards the learners. The negative attitudes affect his interactions with the
learners both inside and outside the classroom. This will promote the development of
hostility between the teacher and the learners and as a result learning and adjustment is
affected negatively.

5. Popular beliefs
Every school has its own popular beliefs. One such belief is that learners cannot be
disciplined unless they are punished. A teacher with such a belief relies on punitive
measures in his interactions with learners. Reliance on punishment has very many
negative effects on learners. It is responsible for the development of hostilities and
negative emotions between the teacher and the learners and its effects on learning are
negative. They hinder learning and also promote the development maladjustment to
school.

6. Folklore
Folklore refers to the staff room tales. When the teachers are in the staff room they tell
each other stories about students. These stories may be told by a teacher or teachers who
have problems with a certain class or certain pupils. The stories may be full of biases,
prejudices and negative attitudes towards the students. These stories may be about the
teacher’s beliefs towards the students. He may believe that the students are disobedient,
lazy, poor academically, rude, or even outright bad. The teacher with these beliefs wishes
to bias the other teachers so that they too can hold the attitudes he holds. If the other
teachers too assume the same biases they approach students negatively and as a result
learning and teaching are grossly affected. These teachers approach students in a hostile
manner, which in turn affects both achievement and adjustment to school.

7. Subject- centered approach

The teacher who uses the subject-centered approach forgets that the content is meant to
be imbibed by the learner. They focus on the coverage of content. This teacher is also
teacher centered while the learner takes the passive role in the learning- teaching process.
What happens in this situation is that the learner is also lost most of the time and he lacks
competence and motivation to learn the content. This results in the learner’s
disorientation and failure to achieve in tests and examinations based on the content.

8. Drilling
Drilling is a method of teaching that relies on rote memory. Rote memory refers to
committing to memory meaningless content. Students who are subjected to drilling
concentrate in the passing the examination only. They do not learn the meaning or

15
usefulness of the content learned. They find it difficult to use or apply the knowledge in
life situations. The traditional methods of teaching mathematics and science relied a lot
on drilling accompanied by heavy punishment for those who failed to master the content.
Inherent with the drilling methods was the concept that the subject was taught because it
was difficult. As a result the content was so mystified that only a few bright students
were able to cope with it. As a result the teacher concentrated his attention on the few
students who could cope with it while he said that the other students were in class to
warm it up for the capable ones.

Question

Do you remember a subject that you found extremely difficult to learn? How was the
teacher going about it? Why did you find it difficult?

1.5.3 An Appraisal of the pre-scientific approach

A lot can be said about the negative effects of using the pre-scientific approach to
teaching. However we need to note that these methods may not be entirely wrong. Their
only problem lies in the fact that they could be detrimental to learning; they could prevent
learning because they are incomplete. Their incompleteness lies in the sense that they do
not take into account the psychological factors that play a highly significant role in
stimulating, directing and disinhibiting the learning process. It is also true that the teacher
who uses the pre-scientific approaches to teaching lacks the awareness of the complexity
and dynamism of the learning process.

1.6 Benefits of the scientific approach

At this juncture we need to find out what the teacher gains from using the scientific
approach in his interactions with learners. This is a teacher who demonstrates
competence in the following skills:
• He posses the traditional skills of explaining, demonstrating, informing and
evaluating.
• He can organize learning activities.
• He can diagnose learning difficulties of pupils.
• Can motivate children to learn so that they direct their energies and towards the
learning tasks.
• He is able to select materials appropriate to the level of learners’ attainment.
• He can identify the learning difficulties of children and refer them for treatment by
other specialists.
• The teacher has a better theoretical and functional understanding of the educational
process.

16
• He has a broader deeper and more effective understanding of the learning teaching
process based on scientific research. This approach is realistic and it leads to effective
teaching.
• Educational psychology fills the gaps in the teachers understanding of educational
processes. Corrects misconceptions so that the teacher sees education and its
processes in a different light. He sees possibilities, relations and problems.
• The teacher can identify problems in a given classroom situation and can find more
solutions to these problems.

1.7 Focus areas of Educational Psychology

What the focus areas of Educational Psychology?
The focus area can also be referred to as the elements of teaching –learning situation.
They are:
• The subject matter
• The learner
• The learning process
• The learning environment
• The social climate

1. The subject matter

The subject matter refers to the content. For the content to be learned with ease, it needs
to be selected, organized and presented in a manner that makes its learnable. The teacher
should also deliver the content in fluent and clear communication. In order to succeed in
this task the teacher should take into account the level of difficulty of content for the class
level in order to ensure that the learners assimilate the content.

2. The learner
The learner is a very important element in the teaching learning process. Without him
nobody is learning and of course if nobody is learning there is no teaching. For this
reason the teacher should understand learner characteristics. The learners in any
classroom situation bring differences in personality, learning styles, experiences, level of
motivation, abilities, emotional dispositions, cognitive styles and perception. They bring
differences in social economic backgrounds, cultural orientation, religious and family
backgrounds as well. For these reasons the teacher needs to use appropriate psychological
theories and principles in order to understand each learner and his personality dynamics.
He needs to understand learners in general and social dynamics that promote learning for
each of the learners.

3. The learning process

This is the process by which people acquire changes in behavior, improve performance,
reorganize their thinking, discover new concepts and information. The learning process
involves everything that people do when they learn. From educational psychology the
teacher gets to learn how pupil think and perceive, remember and forget. The teacher gets
to know the conditions that make these behaviors probable and also the conditions that

17
inhibit them. With this knowledge the teacher can ensure that learning has all the chances
of occurring.

4. The learning environment

The learning environment refers to the surroundings in which the learner finds himself in
and in which the learning process takes place. The learning environment can also be
defined as any factor that affects the learner or the learning process. This refers to the
facilities that are provided for learning. The facilities may be adequate or inadequate for
the use they are put in. They may be safe or unsafe, comfortable or uncomfortable
appropriate or inappropriate.

5. The social climate

When we consider the learning environment we need to focus on the social climate as
well. This is a very important factor as it helps to facilitate learning or to hinder it. The
social climate refers to the human interactions that take place in any classroom situation
between the teacher and the learners. The social climate can be cordial or hostile. The
hostilities may exist between the teacher and the pupils. Hostilities can also take the
nature of intra and inter class fights. A hostile relationship between the school and its
immediate neighbourhood can exist in situations where the school is characterized by
hostile social environment learning and teaching are affected negatively.

From the study of Educational Psychology the teacher gets to know the relationship
between the physical and social environment and their promotion or inhibition of
learning.

Activity

1. Do you know the relationship between poor ventilation, noise, poor arrangement of
seats and effective learning?
2. Are you aware of the role played by attitudes, morale, emotional climate and
community values in the learning process?

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1.8 Summary

This lesson has introduced the learner to Educational Psychology by doing the following:
• Defining the concept of Educational Psychology.
• Discussing the concerns of Educational Psychology.
• Identify areas of Educational Psychology.
• Explaining the relevance of Educational Psychology.
• Explaining the benefits of Educational Psychology.
• Discussing focus areas of Educational Psychology.

1.9 Key Terms

Educational Psychology: -An applied branch of psychology, which deals with the
application of facts, principles and techniques of psychology to the solution of the
problems confronting the teacher.

Pre-scientific methods: -Approaches that are not based on scientific theory or research;
Methods that have not been tested for their applicability nor validity.

Subject centered approaches: -these are approaches which make the subject or the
content the focal point of the lesson ignoring the person for whom content is intended for;
the learner.

Subject matter: -The content to be learned. This could be facts, rules, principles or
techniques in any subject, topic or sub-topic.

The learning environment: -the surroundings in which he learner finds himself in and in
which the learning process takes place.

The social climate: -Refers to the social environment, which is, composed of the people
around the learner.

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1.10 Review Questions

1. What do we mean when we say that Educational Psychology is an applied branch of

psychology?
2. “The teacher is merely a facilitator of learning”. Explain the significance of this
statement.
3. “A person may be good in scholarship but may not necessarily be a good teacher”.
Explain.
4. Show the importance of the following focus areas of Educational psychology
• The learner.
• The learning environment.
• The learning process.

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LESSON TWO

LEARNING

2.0 Introduction
In lesson one we have noted that Educational Psychology is a science that deals with
learning and teaching. In this lesson (I have discussed) the following:
• The relevance of learning.
• Definition of learning.
• Behaviorism and concepts that are applicable to the classroom situation.
• Modeling and how to apply some of the concepts in the classroom situation.
• Insightful learning and its application.
• The information processing model and its application.

2.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the teacher should be able to:

• Discuss the relevance of learning.
• Define learning.
• Discuss the various types of learning.
• Bring out the application of the concepts learned from the types of learning in a
classroom situation.

2.2 The relevance of learning

This is a question of why we should be concerned about learning. When we hear about
learning most of us think about studying and school. We think about subjects for example
mathematics, languages, geography, history, biology and so on. But we need to know that
learning is not limited to school subjects, (Woolfolk, 1998).

We need to understand that all learning is intended to enable the person to adopt
completely in life situations:
• To think and solve problems.
• Fit well in the community.
• Perceive the world in a realistic manner.

This actually means that learning is not limited to the formal school settings. There are
many informal settings where learning takes place. For example:

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• At home.
• In street corners.
• In the fields.
• In religious institutions.
• Through the mass media.
From these places children learn many unintentional things.

Even when children are in school they learn many unintentional things for example:
• They acquire certain attitudes positive or negative.
• They learn something about their capabilities.
• Their limitations.
• Their school.
• Their teachers.
• The subjects.

What is the teacher’s role in the learning process?

The teacher is very important in both the formal and non-formal settings within the
school. So although the teacher’s primary role is to deliver content knowledge he can
influence the student’s life in many other ways for example:
• He can provide experiences that contribute to the acquisition of behavior patterns that
are desirable and necessary for competent living.
• He should be the facilitator of learning. As a facilitator he should provide an enabling
environment for learning.

2.3 Definition of the term learning

What is learning?
The behaviorists define learning as an enduring change in behavior potentiality, which
occurs as a result of reinforced practice.

Cognitive psychologists define learning as the mental activity by means of which

knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired, retained and utilized, resulting
in the progressive adaptation and modification of behavior and conduct.

2.4 Types of learning

The types of learning are derived from the theories of learning. In this lesson we shall
focus on the following types of leaning.
• Classical conditioning.
• Instrumental conditioning.
• Observational learning.
• Insightful learning.
• Information processing model.

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2.4.1 Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is also referred to as respondent learning. It is a simple form of
learning through associations. Normally people tend to associate events that occur
together in time and place. These events are said to be contiguous because the appearance
of one indicates that the other event is to be anticipated. In every day life people know
that where there is smoke there is fire because the two events are contiguous. Also when
lightening is seen people anticipate thunder to follow suit because the two events occur
together in time and space.

2.4.2 Ivan Pavlov’s experiments

The classical example that illustrates how learning occurs through classical conditioning
is derived from the experiments that were conducted by Ivan Pavlov. Ivan Pavlov was a
Russian scientist. He was a physiologist who conducted experiments on the dogs’
digestive system. He won a Nobel Prize for his work. His experiments involved
harnessing the dog in the laboratory and giving it food and then measuring the amount of
saliva the dog produced. This means the dogs were used to being given food by Pavlov.
During the course of the experimentation Pavlov noted that the dog salivated when it
heard his footsteps and also when they saw the food bowl. Pavlov guessed that the dog
had learnt to associate his footsteps and even the sight of the food bowl with food and
that this association caused salvation. Pavlov deduced that this salvation was a learned
response. He then set out to conduct a series of experiments to confirm his believe. His
experiments have several stages.

2.4.3 The acquisition stage

During the acquisition stage Pavlov put a hungry dog in the experimental position, then
he sounded a tone and then gave the dog food. He repeated this sequence of events many
times. After many repeated trials the dog would salivate at hearing the tone alone. If the
dog hears the tone and salivates, it means that it has learned the association between the
tone and food. The acquisition stage may require a minimum of ten trials.

Bell food salivation * 10

Terminology used in classical conditioning

• The food
The food given to the dog before the conditioning process is referred to as the
natural stimulus, because under natural conditions the dog will elicit salivation
on being presented with it.
• The Natural response
Salivation is a natural response because naturally, salivation is elicited by the
presentation of food.
• The neutral stimulus.
Before the conditioning process, the bell or tone is called the neutral stimulus
because it has no relationship whatsoever with salivation. Dogs will not normally
salivate as a result of hearing a bell.
• Conditioning stimulus

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 The bell during and after conditioning is called the conditioned stimulus
because it acquires the power to elicit salivation by its association with the food.
• Conditioned response
Salivation, Because the dog has learned to associate the tone or bell with food is
called the conditioned response. It is the learned response.

2.4.4. Principles of classical conditioning

1. The principle of reinforcement

When the dog is put in the experimental situation and the tone is sounded and then food
is given this constitutes reinforcement. The food is a pleasant event presented to the dog
and it constitutes positive reinforcement

2. The principle of extinction

Extinction refers to the dying of the learned response, which occurs when reinforcement
is withdrawn. This occurs when a dog has been conditioned to associate the tone or bell
with presentation of food and after some time the food is not delivered. When the
experimenter rings the bell or sounds the tone without giving the dog food the learned
behavior disappears.

3. The principle of spontaneous recovery

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a learned response without the
reintroduction of reinforcement. It occurs if a dog that was initially conditioned to
associate the sound of the bell or tone with the presentation of food. This dog is taken
through the process of extinction. It is then given some resting time where no bells are
heard. If this dog is returned to the experimental situation again and the bell is sounded, it
will salivate even if no food is given. However this response dies very fast if
reinforcement is not reintroduced.

4. The principle of generalization

Generalization refers to responding to stimuli, which is similar to the original stimuli as
long as both are reinforced. This occurs when the experimenter reinforces the dog with
food every time he sounds different types or tones or bell sounds. In this training the dog
learns that every time there is a bell sound whatever the type there will be food.
Therefore, the dog learns to respond to similarities. So when there is a tone similar to the
one it was conditioned to, it salivates.

5. The principle of discrimination

Discrimination refers learning to pick out the differences in the stimuli and therefore
responding to a very specific stimulus. This occurs when a dog has been conditioned to
respond to a particular stimulus. If the experimenter introduces other stimuli he does not
accompany them with the reinforcement. As a result the dog learns to pick out the
differences in stimuli and to respond to very specific ones. Discrimination training takes a
much longer time and more trial to establish.

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2.4.5 Application of classical conditioning to the teaching learning process
In this section I have looked at the aspects of classical conditioning, which are applicable
in the classroom setting. The aspects are the following:

1. The learning environment

From classical conditioning we learn that it is important to provide a conducive learning
environment. The belief is that all behavior is controlled by environmental conditions and
demands. The learning environment should be enriched enough. It should be arranged in
manner that makes learning probable. It is true that if Ivan Pavlov had not provided the
right environment for learning the dog would never have been conditioned to learn the
association between the bell and the food.

2. The principle of contiguity

This principle states that events that occur together in time and in space are associated
together. These are the events that are paired. When we look at the school situation we
are concerned with the events that are paired. If the teacher pairs pleasant experiences
with the school experiences the students learn to approach school with enthusiasm. They
learn to enjoy school and learning.

On the other hand the teacher who pairs the school experiences with unpleasant events
makes pupils to fear and hate school. There are many unpleasant events that can be
present in school. These include the use of harsh words, insulting language and punitive
events. These negative events affect the pupil adjustment to school and performance.
They also create negative feelings and attitudes towards the teacher, the subject he
teaches and school in general. Teachers are there fore advised to pair school experiences
with pleasant events.

2.5 Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is the second type of simple learning through association. There are
differences between learning through classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Operant learning is a little more complex than classical conditioning. Its complexity is
observed in the following ways:
In classical conditioning the dog is a passive learner. It is given food and expected to
salivate without working for the food. Salivation in the dog is said to be elicited in
operant earns its reinforcement.

2.5.1 Operant conditioning Experiments

Experiments to illustrate how learning occurs through operant conditioning were
conducted by BF Skinner. Skinner devised an apparatus called the Skinner box. The
Skinner box was a small enclosure, which was equipped with a few gadgets. At one
corner of the box was a lever or bar. This lever was connected to a food magazine, which
contained food pellets. Skinner would put a hungry rat in the Skinner box. Hunger would
motivate the rat to move about in the box. Each movement was called a trial. The rat
would move all over the box without finding food. Accidentally it would touch the bar,

25
which would operate the food magazine. The food magazine would release a few pellets
of food which the rat would eat and continue the exploration of the box. After many trials
the rat learned to associate a certain corner of the box with food. This would reduce the
unnecessary movement all over the box as the rat would confine its exploration of the to
the particular corner, which yields food. Soon the rat would learn to associate the bar-
pressing behavior with the food and would press the bar until there was enough food.
Therefore the bar-pressing behavior was the learned response, which was accompanied
by the food, which was the reinforcement event.

2.5.2 Application of operant conditioning in the teaching learning situation

In operant conditioning, reinforcement is a key element in learning. The principle is that

reinforcement strengthens behavior and makes it more probable. This means that
reinforced behavior has the chance of occurring again and again.

There are two main reinforces in operant conditioning and these are, positive reinforces
and negative reinforces. These two reinforces have the power to strengthen responses that
they accompany.

Operant conditioning can be applied in the teaching-learning process in the following

ways:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Primary reinforcement
• Secondary reinforcement
• Learner involvement

Positive reinforcement
This is the administration of a pleasant event contingent upon the desired response.
Positive reinforces are like food, candy or something valued by the learner like a smile, a
nod an exclamation of “good”, “great” or even permission to do something the child
desires.

Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement refers to the removal of a noxious stimulus in order to encourage
the desirable behavior. Noxious or unpleasant stimuli include:
• Annoying noise
• Harsh criticism
• A teachers nagging.
Students always want to escape from these events. This reinforcement works in the
following way; when the child is under negative stimuli like a teacher nagging or harsh
criticism he is in a state of discomfort. This state of discomfort reinforces him to do the
desired task. When the desired task is done the nagging stops. This type of reinforcement
ensures that the desirable behavior is strengthened and repeated by the child in order to
escape or avoid the unpleasant stimulus.

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Primary and Secondary reinforces
We need to make the distinction between primary and secondary reinforces. Positive
primary reinforces are stimuli like food, water, pain avoidance, temperature regulation
and sex. These are physiological states that arouse the physiological needs. By satisfying
physiological needs we can strengthen behavior both in human being and animals.
Physiological needs are unlearned and survival related.
Secondary needs on the other hand are learned or acquired. They are not related to
survival. The person acquires these needs as he interacts with other people. Secondary
reinforces are things like, the need for money, power or prestige. In school, good grades
are very reinforcing. The learner who is achieving well is liked by the teacher and the
parents and is also envied by the peers.

Learner involvement
From operant condition we can also apply the principle of learner involvement. This is
because when skinner put the rat in the Skinner box he wanted it to learn actively. The rat
had to explore the box and as a result on its own discovered the relationship between bar
pressing behavior and food. Likewise the teachers should encourage learner involvement.
The learners should be given the chance to be searchers of knowledge. If they search
knowledge it becomes very significant for them. They should be allowed to discover
knowledge under conditions of reinforcement.

2.6 Social learning theory

This type of learning is also referred to as observational learning. The theory is based on
the belief that people acquire knowledge, belief, attitudes and values through observing
others in their social world, (Atkinson, 1990). Children observe their parents, siblings,
teachers, teachers and community figures, and imitate what they see.

This theory was developed by Albert Bandura, (1986,1977), Bandura believed that
traditional behavioral views of learning although accurate were incomplete because they
gave only partial explanation of learning. The behavioral theories overlooked important
elements because they ignored social influences on learning, (Woolfolk, 1998).

According to the Bandura’s theory people learn new behaviors through two types of
observational learning namely: Vicarious conditioning and Modeling.

2.6.1 Vicarious conditioning

Let us look at vicarious conditioning. This is learning that occurs when the child observes
another child’s behavior and its consequences. For example, a young sibling could
observe an older sibling being praised or rewarded for demonstrating positive behavior
patterns like obedience, obedience, hard work, honesty and good grooming or even
excellence in field events.

In vicarious conditioning the learner is the young sibling who will be motivated to engage
in the behavior the older sibling is rewarded or praised. This child tries to excel in that
behavior in order to be treated like the older sibling. The younger sibling can also observe

27
the older sibling being punished for bad behavior like cheating, bullying others, laziness,
poor grooming and so on. The younger sibling watches as the older sibling suffers as he
carries out the punishment or as he takes blame from either the parents or the teachers.
The younger sibling learns to avoid all those behaviors the older sibling is punished for.
He learns to behave differently in order to be praised or rewarded instead of being
punished.

2.6.2 Application of vicarious conditioning to school

From vicarious conditioning we learn the importance of exposing learners to models of
good behavior. At the same time we ensure that, when good behavior occurs it should not
be ignored. It should be rewarded in order to encourage its occurrence and its spread to
other children. When good behavior is ignored it dies out. To avoid this the teacher
should recognize the efforts that learners are making and reinforce them so that they are
strengthened and given the chance of being observed and emulated by other learners.

Modeling
Modeling refers to learning through direct observation. It involves a model and an
observer. The model may be the father, mother, sibling, teacher, or peer, while the
observer is the learner. The model demonstrates behavior, which the learner imitates. The
behavior could be mannerisms, gestures, dressing style, language use, walking style,
display of aggression, manner of working, attitudes and even values. In order to acquire
any of the above behaviors the observer watches the model demonstrate the behavior and
practices it.

The process of behavior acquisition

For the observer to acquire the behavior and demonstrate it just like the model he must do
the following things:
• Attend the behavior. That is, see it, hear and even experience it.
• The behavior must be retained. This means that it must be stored in memory.
• The behavior must be produced. In order to produce the behavior it must be practiced
well until it is perfected.
• The behavior must be motivated and reinforced. This means that for the behavior to
be produced there must be an incentive. Good incentives could be, complement,
encouragement or even tangible rewards.

Application
To apply the concept gained from the modeling theory the teacher should do the
following.
Become models of good behavior like good grooming, punctuality, handwork, positive
attitudes, responsibility, honesty and so on.
The teacher should recognize models of good behavior from among the students and
reinforce them positively.
The teacher should also invite models of the desired behavior from the community to
come and speak to the students. For example, models of women who earn a living
through mathematics, physics, chemistry or even biology can be invited to talk to the

28
girls and encourage them to take these subjects seriously and also to confirm to them that
women can actually excel in them.

2.7 Insightful learning

This type of learning is also referred to as field learning. It is a cognitive type of learning
which focuses on the use of mental process like thinking, perception and insight in the
solution of the problems confronting the learner. This theory focuses on the ability of
animals and people to solve problem through reorganizing the perceptual world and using
the facilities available to solve problems. The experiments to demonstrate how learning
occurs through insight were conducted by Wolfgang Kohler in the 1920’s. Kohler
worked with chimpanzees. He had one bright chimpanzee called Sultan, (Atkinson,
1990). Kohler put sultan in a cage and then put a banana outside the cage, but out of
Sultan’s reach. In the cage Kohler put a stick. Sultan reached out for the banana but he
could not retrieve it with his hand because it was out of reach. When he did not get the
banana he looked around the cage and saw the stick. Quickly he went for the stick and
used it to retrieve the banana. On the next day Kohler put the banana further away outside
the cage but at the same time placed two bamboo sticks in the cage. Sultan run for one of
the sticks and tried to retrieve the banana. He failed to pull the banana within arms reach
because the stick was not long enough. He then sat frustrated at one corner of the cage.
Then he saw the other sticks and went for it. Initially he did not know how to use both
sticks to get the bananas. However as he played with both sticks, one end of the stick
entered into the hollow side of the other stick. Sultan looked at the joined sticks and
immediately run to solve his problem. With the now lengthened stick he pulled the
bananas in and ate them. Following this story insight refers to that moment in time that
Sultan is able to mentally “see” the relationship between the stick or sticks and the
bananas. Insight then is that mental activity that is very rapid; almost immediate that
helps us to solve a problem, when we mentally “see” the relationships of things in our
immediate environment. It is a rapid perception of relationships, which helps us to
restructure or reorganize our perceptual world. For example Sultan was able to
restructure his environment and reorganize it to solve his immediate problem.

Activity

• What do you think will happen if mother puts some cookies on the cupboard out of
the reach of a child in a situation where there is a table, chair and a stick?
• What will students do if the bulb in their class is blown and they want to replace it
with a new one? The ceiling is higher than they can reach standing or even climbing
on their desk?

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2.7.1 Application
From the theory of insightful learning we need to take note of the following:
• The teacher should enrich the learning environment by providing facilities
learners could use to solve learning problems
• The teacher should have faith in the learner’s mental abilities to work over
information until they solve the problems confronting them.
• The teacher should realize that learners like to make sense of what they learn by
cognitively restructuring events.
• Insightful learning is whole, complete and unforgettable.

2.8 Information process system

The information processing system deals with the ability of the human mind to take in
information (encode). Store it by maintaining it in memory and the ability to retrieve or
recover information from memory. There are a number of theories of information
processing system, but I will focus on the model developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin,
(1968). This model draws on the similarity between the human mind and the computer.
The human mind senses, stores and retrieves information much as a computer does.

The model discusses three hypothetical memory levels or stages. These memory levels
explain how learners acquire complex concepts, how these are attended to, how they
enter the memory banks and how they are accessed when needed. The memory banks are
the following:
• The short-term sensory storage.
• The short-term memory/working memory.
• The long-term memory.
We need to look at what happens to information art each memory bank in order to
understand the conditions that facilitate learning or those that hinder learning at each
level.

2.8.1 The short term sensory storage (STSS)

This memory bank is also called the sensory register. Its function is to receive sensory
information from the environment. This information is stored briefly at the short Term
sensory register. This memory bank has limited capacity. The STSS memory consists of
the exact replica of sensory information. The visual memory is called iconic memory. It
looks like a snap shot that fades away in about 0.5 seconds. It is visual spatial. This
means that objects are seen in different positions in space. That is, we see objects that are
near or far from us.
The auditory memory is called echoic memory and lasts for 4 seconds. This memory is
phonological; it contains the echo of the sounds that we hear. The STSS is bombarded by
information all the time. Therefore it must select what information to focus on or to
attend to. Any information that is not intended to is lost and we do not even remember
nor register it.

30
However, the information that is attended to is processed and encoded enabling it to
move further along the memory levels. It moves to the short-term memory.

2.8.2 The short term memory (STM)

This bank is also called the working memory. It receives all the information that is
attended to at the STSS. At this memory level information is processed based on what it
looks like, sounds like or means. This memory bank has limited capacity, which last for
20 to 30 seconds. It can contain 7 to 9 pieces of information at a time. Information is
stored acoustically and semantically; this refers to how it sounds like and what it means.

Two things are likely to happen to information at this bank. We may get information that
we do not want to keep for a long time. For example, we may want to go to the shop to
buy a few items but you do not write a shopping list. On your way to the shop you will
rehearse the items we want to buy until we buy them. Once we have bought them we do
not need to rehearse the information again and you quickly forget it. This kind of
rehearsal is called maintenance rehearsal and its purpose is to keep the information in
memory for a short time. This information does not move further along the memory bank.
The second thing that could happen to information is that we may want to process
information for the purpose of storing it in the long-term memory bank. In this case you
will engage in elaborative rehearsal. This rehearsal involves a repetition of information
and a memory search. We will search our memory to find out whether there is
information there that is similar to the incoming information. This enables us to link the
new information with the information already in memory. For example if we are
introduced to our lecturer for the first time and we are told that he is called Mr.
Odhiambo we will search our memory and finds another Odhiambo stored there. We will
link the new Odhiambo to the old one to help us remember him next time he comes to
class. Maintenance rehearsal helps to get information into the long-term memory bank.

2.8.3 The long term memory bank

The long-term memory is the permanent storehouse of information. We store first dates,
special birthdays, capital cities and other information accumulated throughout ones
lifetime there. This memory bank has unlimited capacity. We may want to look at how
information enters this memory bank. In our discussion of the short term memory we
have noted that information is kept in memory through both maintenance and elaborate
rehearsal. The maintenance rehearsal is for information that we do not intended to keep in
memory for long. The elaborate rehearsal is for memory we want to make permanent. It
involves a recreation of information through repetition and also giving it meaning
through its connection with already existing information. This information is then stored
in memory bank. It is easier to remember if it has gone through elaborate rehearsal.

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2.9 Summary

This lesson discussed the topic learning by doing the following:

• Showing the relevance of the topic.
• Defining learning.
• Discussing types of learning.
• The application of concepts.

2.10 Key Terms

Classical conditioning: - Also called respondent learning. A type of association learning

in which events that appear together in time and place are associated.

Information processing model: -A theory of learning that draws an analogy between the
human being and information processing system.

Learning: -an enduring change in behavior potentiality which occurs as a result of

reinforced practice.

Operant conditioning: -A type of association learning in which the organism produces an

expected behavioral response in order to receive reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement: - The administration of a pleasant event contingent upon the

desired behavior.

Social learning: -Learning through observing other people and imitating them.

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2.11 Review questions

1. Discuss situations in life that can be explained by:

I. Classical conditioning.
II. Operant conditioning.
III. Insightful learning.
2. Discuss the role played by attention and rehearsal in learning.
3. Explain instances where the theory of insightful learning is applicable at home and
classroom situations.

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LESSON THREE

REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING

3.0 Introduction
The classroom experiences show that learners forget the information they acquire or
learn. The teacher is a witness that the majority of learners in most of the tests taken
hardly ever get full marks. The explanation for this phenomenon is that between the time
material is learned or even revised and the time the test is taken some information is lost
through forgetting.

In this lesson I have discusses why forgetting occurs as well as how memory can be
improved. I have drawn heavily from the behaviorism and information prossesing theory

3.1 Objectives

By the end of the lesson the student will be able to:

• Explain why forgetting occurs using the disuse theory.
• Describe two types of interferences that cause forgetting.
• Explain the importance of attention.
• Discuss the role played by rehearsal in promoting memory.
• Discuss various methods learners could use to improve memory.

3.2 Why students forget the content they learn

Educational experience show that some things are remembered very well, others are
‘there’ but sometimes difficult to find. While still others things are completely forgotten.
A good teacher should know why this happens so that he can try and create conditions
that promote memory all the time. Different theories give different explanations as to
what causes forgetting. I have discussed the behavioristic theory and the cognitive theory.

3.3.0 The Behavioristic theory

The behaviorists developed the following explanations:
The disuse model and the interference model

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3.3.1 The Disuse Theory
This theory submits that people forget the S-R connections or associations made
previously because they grow rusty or fade away through lack of use. This concept can be
explained through the Pavlovian or Skinnerian experiments. In Pavlov’s classical
conditioning it refers to the withdrawal of reinforcement. If the food, which served as the
reinforcer to keep the association between the bell and the food alive, was removed,
extinction occurred. If the dog was subjected to this state for long i.e. the bell ringing
without the accompaniment of the food then the stimulus-response connections were lost.
In Skinners operant conditioning if the rat continued to press the bar without the
accompaniment of food as a reinforcer this bar pressing behavior disappeared because the
connections or associations between it and food was lost. This information can be applied
in the classroom situation for the purpose of helping the teacher to understand the
dynamics involved in forgetting and remembering. Just like Pavlov’s dogs and Skinners
rats would forget the S-R associations they had learned, pupils too forget what they learn
under similar principles. To promote remembering the teacher needs to ensure that
learned material is rehearsed under conditions of reinforcement.

Rehearsal
Learners who do not rehearse content often lose the S-R connections they had learned.
Rehearsing refers to the constant repetition and review of content. For rehearsal to benefit
learners, the teacher should give them time and place to do their rehearsal (Study time).
The teacher should also ensure that the learners rehearse content, which is meaningful to
them, because there is tendency to forget content if it is meaningless. There is the need to
show learners how the content they are learning is related to what was learned earlier.
These activities help to stamp in the S-R connections already learned keeping them alive
and hence minimizing forgetting.

Reinforcement
Remembering is best promoted if learning is reinforced. Withdrawal of reinforcement
causes extinction, which is the disappearance of the learned response. If a learner
displays the desirable behavior without being reinforced, forgetting occurs. The teacher
should never lose sight of the fact that reinforcement strengthens behavior and makes it
more probable. Making it mare probable means that that behavior is given the chance to
occur again.

3.3.2 Interference model

This is another behavioristic explanation of forgetting. According to this model learners
forget content that they learn because other learning’s interfere. For example learners will
forget old content because new content interfere with its memory. They will also forget
new content because old content interferes with its memory. When old content interferes
with the memory of new content, we call this proactive inhibition. If new content
interferes with the memory of old content we refer to this as retroactive inhibition.

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 Proactive inhibition
Proactive inhibition is the forgetting that occurs when old information makes it difficult
to remember new information. For example a teacher gives learners a list of words and
asks them to study it. Call it list A. The teacher does not test for the memory of this list at
this time. He gives the learners another list of words to study. Call it list B. Then tests the
learners on the recall of the second list of words (List B) not the first (List A).
What normally happens is that as the learners try to recall words on the second list they
experience some mix-up. They remember some words and they forget others. At the
same time some of the words from 'list A' are recalled. The words from 'list A' are said to
interfere with the recall of List B. This interfere is called proactive inhibition.

Retroactive inhibition
Retroactive inhibition occurs when new learning’s make it difficult to remember old
learning’s. For example, this occurs if a teacher gives learners lists of words to learn.
First list A and then List B and then tests them on the recall of List A. As the learners try
to recall words on List A some of the words will be forgotten and some of the words from
list B will be recalled because the memory of B interferes with the memory of A. This
interference is retroactive because later memory acts backwards to interference with
earlier memory.

Activity

Practice the above tasks by giving learners the following lists and then tests for
proactive and then retroactive inhibition.

List A List B LIST A LIST B

Cat Cut Dip Deep
Hut Hat Reed Rind
Fat Fit Feat Feet
Rut Rat Ship Sheep
Further Father Leap Reap
Goat Gate Rate Late
Lot Rot Creek Crack
Cup Cap Arrive Alive

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Application
The teacher should take note that both retroactive and proactive interference are greater
when the items in memory are similar.
Therefore to promote memory he should do the following:
• Make new learning’s clear by bringing out the similarities and differences between
the old and new information
• A learning task must be practiced until it is mastered and even over learned. The
principle is that partially learned tasks interfere more with other partially learned
tasks.
• Over learning means going beyond the mastery of a task and ensuring that the content
is at the “finger tips”. This means that content can be recalled with ease.

3.4 Cognitive Explanation

According to the cognitive theory. The key to memory is the way in which the material is
coded and organized as it is stored in the long-term memory bank. Something important
happens at every stage of information processing to either promote memory or forgetting.

At the short-term sensory storage the key to memory at this level is attention. For
information to be retained in memory it should be focused on and rehearsed briefly so as
to be registered for further processing. Any information that is not attended to is lost or
forgotten.

The short term memory/working memory

The most important process at this level is rehearsal. Rehearsal takes two forms
depending on the reasons why we want to retain the information in memory.

Maintenance rehearsal
Sometimes we want to keep information in memory briefly and then discard it. For
example we meet old friend in town and he gives us his cell phone number. Before we
enter this number in our own cell phone or in our diary we shall rehearse it. Once the
number is entered in the relevant place we stop rehearsing it. Another example to
illustrate this type of rehearsal is a shopping list. We may want to go to the market to buy
some items e.g. ripe bananas, cabbages, potatoes, tomatoes, beans, green maize and
carrots. Before we make our shopping list we rehearse these items until we write all of
them on paper. Again once they are on paper we stop rehearsing them. These two
examples illustrate maintenance rehearsal. This is rehearsal of information, which is not
intended to move to the long-term memory bank. It involves repetition of information
over and over again. When the information is no longer needed it is forgotten.

Elaborative rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal is used for all the information that we wish to transfer to the long-
term memory bank. This rehearsal involves repetition of information and linking it with
information already existing in the long-term memory. These two processes ensure that
the information is catalogued and filed in the long-term memory.

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The Long-term memory Bank
The following memories exist at this bank:
• Declarative memory. This is the memory for things that can be expressed in
words.
• Semantic memory. This is the memory for general facts.
• Episode memory. This is the memory for personal experiences.
• Procedural memory for actions and skills.
At this memory bank information is organized in categories. Items that are similar
are stored close together in a method that is close to labeled. For each item in
memory there is an imaginary index card which is appropriately catalogued.
Forgetting occurs if there are cataloguing errors i.e. a card can be catalogued in
the wrong place or a card can get lost.

What causes cataloguing errors?

Cataloguing errors can occur if a learner takes in too much information within a short
time. For example if you attend a function and are introduced to about ten people within a
short time you will find it difficult to match the right names and faces due to cognitive
bottlenecks. But if you are introduced to one person every day for ten days you will not
have a problem remembering each one of them because you have processed all the
information properly.
If two things are similar one may be remembered in the place of the other.

Application
In order to ensure that content learned is remembered it is important to give it time to be
processed at all memory levels until it enters the long term memory bank because
everything that gets there is permanent.

3.5. Improving memory

In this section I have discussed a few methods that learners can use in order to improve
their memory.

3.5.1 Increasing attention

As we have noted above attention refers to focusing on information and registering it,
isolating it from all possible distracters. This is an important prerequisite for all memory.
With this in mind, it is important to think how one can increase attention.
• Selecting a study environment, which does not contain too many distractions, can
increase attention. Distractions will refer to unnecessary noise, heat, cold
activities and things that appeal to sight or hearing.
• They refer to any environmental event, which interferes with taking in of
information. If learners are studying in a classroom or in a laboratory there
should be minimal distractions.

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3.5.2 Rehearsal
Rehearsal refers to the repetition of what has been learned in the school setting. It may
refer to what is commonly referred to as study. As learners conduct their study it is
important to ensure that they engage in repetition of correct responses with the awareness
what the responses relate to. They should not engage in repetition of meaningless
material. For the study to be successful, the teachers should ensure that:
• The school organize study timetables
• Give the learners the time and classrooms convenient for the purpose
• They should train learners how to conduct individual study, for example, how to pick
out important facts, review them immediately and again later
• Learners should be trained how to engage in distributed practice or massed practice
depending on reasons for study.
Distributed practice involves taking short periods of study at a time and taking a break
after each period. This method is very beneficial when the learners want to process
information and store it in memory permanently. The short periods of study could be
taking two hours of study at a time and then breaking to do a totally unrelated activity
before resuming the study again. The unrelated activity could be taking a shower, a walk,
a snack or even a nap. This activity should be one that helps one to relax as well as
reward oneself.
Massed practice refers to sitting for long hours of study
• The learner can be introduced to the model of study developed by Robinson (1970)
called SQ3R. This refers to the following:
• Survey the material through once.
• Raise questions about it
• Read it looking for answers
• Recite it and by doing so committing it to memory
• Review it
• By the time the learner is through with the last step the material is well committed to
memory.

3.5.3 The use of mnemonic devices

Mnemonic Devices are techniques that have been developed to improve memory-
particularly memory for bits of unrelated information.

One mnemonic devise is the peg word method. To use this method you must first learn a
series of words to go with numbers, for example, one is bun, two is shoe, three is tree and
four is door. The words and numbers rhyme. When you want to learn a list of unrelated
words you think of some image that combines the peg word and the word you are trying
to remember. Let us imagine that you wish to remember a grocery list, if the fist item on
the list is soap you imagine a bun covered with soap bubbles. If the second item is apples
you picture a shoe stuffed with apples. If the third item is Eggs, you imagine a tree with
eggs for fruits. If the fourth item is Cabbage, you imagine a door with a large cabbage as
the lock knob.

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The Loci method
Another technique is the loci method, pronounced Losi. This was a method used by
ancient Romans as old as 86 and 82 BC. First you think of a location. Then for each item
you want to remember you think of a representative image something that symbolizes
that item to you then you imagine each image in place in the location e.g.
Bedroom floor-------------------------soap bubbles
Your bed--------------------------------two large apples
Your dressing table---------------------filled with eggs
Your coffee table----------------------two huge carrots
The clothes wardrobe----------------cabbage hanging there

These techniques use imagery, which is a representation in thought of visual scenes

forming a vivid, unusual image of each object, which is unforgettable.

3.7.0 Summary

In this lesson Remembering and forgetting have been discussed under the following
theories: -
The behavioristic theory
The disuse model of forgetting
The interference model
Proactive
Retroactive
The information processing theory, which focuses on the importance of
Attention
Rehearsal: - Maintenance rehearsal, Elaborative rehearsal
Cataloguing
Also examined are methods for improving memory
Selecting a study environment that enhances attention
Distributed practice
Massed practice
The SQ3R method
Use of mnemonic devices
Peg word
Loci

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 3.8.0 Keywords

Disuse theory -forgetting information due to lack of use.

Elaborative rehearsal - repetition of information for the purpose cataloguing it in the long term
memory.

Forgetting - the loss of information from memory through failure to retrieve it from memory.

Interference-forgetting information caused by inhibition either proactive or retroactive.

Loci method-committing familiar places in memory in order to aid memory of unrelated

information.

Maintenance rehearsal - repetition of information again and again for the purpose of retaining it in
memory for immediate use.

Mnemonic pegwords - words that are memorized to help a person remember a list of unrelated
words.

Remembering -the ability to recall information by means of retrieval.

3.9.0 Review/Discussion questions

1) What will you advise learners to do in order to minimize forgetting caused by:
a) Disuse.
b) Interference.
2) Discuss the role played by the following processes in aiding memory:
a) Attention.
b) Maintenance rehearsal.
c) Elaborative rehearsal.
3) Explain how you could help learners to engage in practice of learned material.

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LESSON FOUR

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING

4.0 Introduction
The learning-teaching process is a highly complex one. The complexity arises due to the
fact that many variables interact with each other to enhance or hinder learning. This
lesson examines these factors as they operate inside and outside the classroom and their
effect on learning.

4.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to

Discuss how each of the following factors operates to either promote or hinder learning
• The teacher
• The learning environment
• The learner
• The subject matter

4.2.0 The Factors That Influence Learning

When we think about learning, the concern is about delivery of content assumably from
the teacher to the learner. The teacher is seen as the source of knowledge and his role is
to deliver the content for learners to imbibe. This lesson intends to bring out the fact that
delivery of content by the teacher or even the imbibing of the same by the learner is not a
simple matter. It is complicated and involves dynamic interactions of multi-faceted
variables. This lesson discusses the following variables and the operation of each one of
them in influencing or hindering learning.
• The teacher
• The learning environment
• The learner
• The subject matter

4.3.1 The Teacher

When we look at the teacher’s role in influencing learning, there is need to take into
account several factors. Crucially we should recognize the role of the teacher as a

42
facilitator of learning. As a facilitator of learning the teacher has the enormous
responsibility of ensuring that everything he does goes a long way in facilitating or
hindering learning. Even before we consider the delivery of content it is imperative to
look at other issues pertinent to the teachers role. Some of the issues may look minor or
irrelevant but their impact is not to be ignored. For example

4.3.2 The Teachers Grooming

This refers to the teacher’s management of self in terms of dressing and general
appearance. The teacher should be consciously aware of his role as a model. While the
teacher may not afford designer clothes, he is required to take good care of what he
wears. It should be clear to the students that the teacher takes time every morning to
make himself presentable in every possible way. Any teacher whose personal
presentation is shoddy does himself and the student a disservice. The teacher should dress
in a manner that is compliant with the expectations of required decency. Both males and
females can be indecent. We realize that what is decent or indecent is relative and
therefore leave it to individual teachers to use their good discretion in order to observe
acceptable modes of dress. In any case the manner of dress and grooming tell a lot about
a person. When people first see you as a teacher, they judge you by your appearance
before they know whether you can teach or not.

4.3.3 Teachers Competence

The teacher’s competence is considered in several issues. First among them, is his ability
to handle the subject matter and secondly his classroom management skills. Thirdly but
not the least in importance is his communication ability. The teacher’s competence in
these areas is paramount because it can determine the amount of learning that takes place.
We need to be emphatic that the teacher should be well informed regarding the subject
matter, conversant and comfortable with its scholarship and methods of delivery.

4.3.4 Classroom Management

Classroom management is a lecture discussed in this module and therefore it cannot be
covered in any depth here. However it should suffice to say that a good teacher is a good
classroom manager. He knows what to do when confronted with the specific challenges
that present themselves in any classroom situation. He posses the necessary skills to
adequately handle all manner of issues that arise inside the classroom. A good classroom
manager is a good organizer. He is organized in his daily operations and in the classroom.
Good organization helps to save time and other resources.

4.3.5 The Teachers Communication Ability.

Good communication is an art. It does not necessarily require the teacher to use huge
bombastic words so that pupils know that he went to school. It does not require him to be
a walking dictionary either. It calls upon the teacher to gauge the weight of his words
depending on the recipients’ level. He should be fluent clear and simple. Of course we do
realize that each subject has its own technical jargon. The teacher should ensure that
these technical words are well understood by the learners.
A good teacher is a good businessman. He has something to sell and the buyers are the
learners. For this reason he should maintain a pleasant atmosphere and not show hostility.

43
Some teachers behave as if the classroom is a war zone and sometimes they have good
reason to do so. If the teacher knows that he is unprepared for the lesson or lacks the
necessary mastery of content he may result to the use of defense mechanisms like fault
finding, being excessively punitive among other negative practices. One important aspect
of teacher behavior is his attitude towards the profession, the school, the pupils, or even
himself. If the teacher’s general attitude is positive he will most likely maintain
conditions favorable for learning.

4.4.0 The Learning Environment

The learning environment refers to the facilities available for use by the learners. These
are: the classrooms, the fields, the laboratories, the dining room and the dormitories. The
issues of concern here are appropriateness or inappropriateness, overcrowded-ness,
ventilation and the psychosocial environment

4.4.1 Over crowdedness

Speaking to teachers reveals that many classrooms in Kenyan schools are overcrowded.
In some classrooms the teacher does not have space to stand or even move around. This
means he cannot monitor learners’ behavior effectively. A classroom that is overcrowded
is uncomfortable for both the teacher and the learners. Over crowdedness is a factor
causing maladjusted behavior. If the teacher is unable to access every pupil in the
classroom there are those pupils who will engage in divergent acts like writing letters,
reading novels, dozing or even daydreaming while the lesson is in progress.

4.4.2 Appropriateness
There are learning environments, which are inappropriate for use, For example:
• Lessons that are scheduled in the dining hall next to the school kitchen. In this
environment learners are exposed to the various stages of food preparations as
well as the changing smells as the food gets ready. Hungry learners will not be
motivated to be very attentive during the last two lessons just before lunchtime
break.
• Also there are schools whose locations are inappropriate, her I have in mind
those schools in the middle of towns sandwiched between bars, hotels and noisy
operations that go on in the heart of town. These school locations are a big
hindrance to learning.
4.4.3 Ventilation
Ventilation refers to the amount of air circulating in the classroom. Fresh air is important
because it burns food into energy. If there is enough air circulating in the classroom the
pupils are likely to keep awake, alert and attentive. However if the classroom is poorly
ventilated the learners are likely to be dull, lethargic and inattentive. Poor ventilation can
be caused by overcrowded-ness and inappropriateness of a learning environment. For
learning to be influenced positive by then the issue of proper ventilation should be
addressed in every school facility.
4.4.4 Quality Of Buildings
The overall quality of the school buildings is an important factor in either promoting or
hindering conditions for learning. Buildings provide security and warmth. Properly

44
constructed buildings keep the natural elements away i.e. the rain, the wind, the sun, the
cold.
• If the school buildings are not firm the wind blows away the roofs and sometimes
children are harmed or even killed.
• During the rainy season children feel unsafe particularly in lightening prone areas.
If no highlighting arrestors are installed then children live in fear because they
know they are likely to be harmed or even killed by highlighting. Even issues
such as ensuring that the classroom has a ceiling can affect learning.
• Without a ceiling the classroom can become unsafe particularly when it is raining.
Pupils can have most of the rainy afternoon wasted because the teacher’s voice
gets drowned in the din of the raindrops on the iron roofs.
• Sometimes pupils learn in buildings that have been condemned and therefore
unusable. They may be afraid that walls or roofs will cave in and injure them.

4.5.0 The Learner Characteristics

The learner is the person for whom the learning process is intended. The teacher should
always bear in mind the fact that learners bring to class a wide range of differences in any
one-classroom situation. These differences are bound to influence learning. In this lesson
the following learner characteristics are addressed:
• Personality dispositions.
• Intellectual giftedness.
• Motivational levels.
• Conflicts of interest.
• Social-economic backgrounds.

4.5.1 Personality dispositions

Some of the personality dispositions of learners that the teacher needs to understand are
the following: emotionality, sociability, and ability to cope with stress and even learners’
management of problem situations.
There are learners who have serious problems managing anger, frustration and other
emotions they experience and as a result learning is affected negatively. Also there are
those pupils who have problems making and keeping friends due to deficiency in social
skills. They may be in constant conflict with peers and classmates a situation which will
affect learning for them and their peers. Coping with stress and even managing problem
situations cause difficulties for some pupils. Basically, the teacher should be aware that if
there are problems emanating from any of these issues, learning will not be promoted.

4.5.2 Intellectual Giftedness

Learners bring to class differences in intellectual giftedness. There is the high, the
average and low intellectual giftedness. Sometimes a teacher may run a lesson that favors
the highly gifted learners. It is the intention of this lesson to remind the teacher that every
learner has the right to benefit from classroom interactions. Every learner should be given
a chance to benefit from the lesson. The view that the classroom is owned by a few
learners while the majority of learners is there to warm the classroom for the gifted ones
should be discarded. The teacher should cater for individual differences to ensure that
every learner is attended to. The teacher should also make sure that each learner is helped

45
to realize their potential so that an “A” student gets the “A” the “B” student gets the “B”
and so on. Any “A” student who gets a “B” is underachieving and any “B” student who
gets a “C” is underachieving and this situation should not be accepted nor allowed. If a
learner is under achieving proper investigation as to why this is happening should be
carried out.

4.5.3 Motivational Levels

Motivation refers to the amount of energy and the time the learner puts in an activity. A
learner may be highly motivated and therefore spends a lot of time and energy pursuing a
subject. Another learner may have only average motivation while yet another learner may
lack motivation completely. The teacher should discover ways and means of maintaining
the high levels of motivation in highly motivated learners. He should also find out why
learners may lack motivation to pursue a subject. Motivation and achievement are related
in that the highly motivated learner is expected to show high performance in tasks and
conversely the low motivation translates itself in poor performance. The teacher should
discover both the teacher and learner factors that cause low motivation. Lesson seven
which is on motivation will help the teacher to develop skills to use to motivate the
learners. All the pertinent issues on motivation are handled in detail in that lesson.

4.5.4 Conflicts of interest

Sometimes learners fail to attend to the learning task even when the teacher is doing his
best to promote conditions for learning. This can happen if the pupil has other interests
that conflict with the learning tasks. Sometimes the pupil has a problem that is social in
nature, may be he has received news from home that somebody is unwell or there is
disharmony. During the lesson those home issues distract this particular learner. May be
the pupil has quarreled with a friend or has been wronged by another and tends to focus
his interest in this direction other than to the ongoing lesson. There are many things that
could distract a learner at any one time and the teacher should handle each issue with a
lot of sensitivity.

4.5.5 The Social Economic Backgrounds

The pupil’s social economic backgrounds is a factor that will influence learning one way
or the other. Some learners come from backgrounds where they have few resources that
are needed for learning. They may not have books or writing materials or even adequate
facilities to do their homework or further study. When these pupils come to school with
unfinished work, untidy work or even late, the teacher should handle each situation with
sensitivity because at times the teacher’s approach to a problem may actually aggravate it
instead of easing it.

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4.6.0 The Subject Matter
Many years ago Ausubel, (1978), Brunner, (1960) stated that schools exist to foster
intellectual growth by transmitting knowledge and basic skills. They further acknowledge
that learning should facilitate intellectual growth. For this reason it is important to
discover those factors that coupled with those discussed above will facilitate learning in
the classroom situation. Of course, when the teacher goes to any classroom with the
purpose of holding a teaching-learning session he takes with him some content. The
content can be referred to as subject matter, which in turn can be transmitted to mean
certain facts, principles, skills or procedures. These could be from any subject, topic or
sub-topic. If all other factors are considered, that is, the learning environment, the teacher
characteristics, the learner characteristics and so on then the teacher turns his focus on
what should be done to make the content learnable. The teacher must ensure that the
content is presented in such a way that the learners can imbibe or assimilate it into their
cognitive structure. The most important factor to consider here is ensuring that the learner
finds the content meaningful. Meaningfulness of content is a critical issue in the sense
that it leads to understanding. Indeed meaningfulness and understanding are the essence
of classroom learning.

4.6.1 Meaningfulness Of Material

The importance of meaningfulness of content lies in the fact that, what is meaningful is
easy to process mentally. It rends itself easy for storage in memory. It is easier to retrieve.
It makes the learner comfortable and ready for further learning. This reduces frustration
for both the learner and the teacher. This fact has been demonstrated amply in
experiments where learners are exposed to meaningless content by rote. When memory
of content is tested one thing comes out crystal clear. That is, learners will remember
meaningful content better. They will have problems remembering meaningless content.
In order to illustrate this point study the following content and give yourself a minute to
recall the content on List B.

Activity

Try to commit the following content in memory and recall it. Give yourself 30
seconds to read list A. Try to recall the content in 30 seconds. Do the same for list B.
List A List B
Nkeot Class
Ikn Pupil
Enfik Teacher
Iyvor Ivory
Recealit Knife
Ssalc Token
Lipup Ink

47
I am sure that you have discovered that it is difficult to process and remember content A
while content B poses no problem at all whatsoever. The same thing happens to the
pupils. If they find the content meaningless, they are unable to process it and to
remember it. For this reason the teacher should make every possible effort to ensure that
the learner finds content meaningful. In order to achieve this goal the teacher could try
the following suggestion.

Expose the learner to potentially meaningful material. This refers to ensuring that the
content has the potentiality of being meaningful to the learner. This can be tricky at
times. Sometimes the teacher himself may experience difficulty processing content and
finding it meaningful. If the teacher does not find the content meaningful, then it becomes
difficult to help the learner to find it meaningful. This is allegorical to the blind man who
cannot lead another. Of course a teacher will never admit that he finds content difficult.
At best he will deal with it superficially, or skip it all together. Some teachers will ask
learners to make notes from textbooks. I tend to assure the teacher that he can avoid
embarrassing situations while dealing with content. He should admit it to himself that
work needs to be done to make content meaningful to himself. He should follow the
suggestions given below.

• Read several sources of particular information. Different sources highlight

different angles of a situation. After reading those sources the teacher will be
more enlightened.
• The teacher could also consult colleagues who will share their own experiences,
their approach even sources they have found helpful. By the foregoing the teacher
is required to be resourceful and not rely on a single textbook or some notes made
many years ago.
• The teacher should keep abreast with current developments in the content area.
He should have more in his bag of tricks so that at no time should he find himself
inadequate.
• The teacher who finds content meaningful goes a step further to ensure that the
learner is helped to find meaningfulness as well. In this context the teacher should
select the content, organize it in a potentially meaningful way. To do this the
teacher ensures that the content is consistent with the learner’s developmental
level. This means that before content is presented to the leaner, the teacher has
already gauged the readiness level of the learner. This refers to cognitive or
mental ability of the learner to imbibe the content. Here, the learner’s motivation
also counts. By learner motivation we refer to the learners desire to want to know.

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4.6.2 Readiness Of The Learner
It is important to look at the role of the teacher closely in this context. The first thing he
should do is to assess the readiness of the learner by identifying the knowledge the
learner already possesses, the learners abilities, motives and experiences and make those
starting point. Secondly, present the material in a style that captures the students’
motivation. In doing this, the teacher ensures that the content is well linked with the
learner’s experiences and where examples are given they should be derived from the
learners world. Problems are experienced in some cases when teachers make the subject
matter abstract. Abstract content has no bearing in the lives and experiences of the
learners. It is irrelevant and therefore learning it becomes difficult. Bringing out the
usefulness of content is an important concept. This is the idea of making the content
relevant to the needs of the learner making him perceive it as useful to him.

4.6.3 Activity

Thinks about a particular topic in any of your teaching subjects identify ways and means
of bringing out its usefulness or relevance in the lives of learners. What is it about the
content that should make learners want to learn it?
Draw from the following reasons and any others you may think about
• Every year a question is always set from the topic in the KCSE examination
• The content is useful every day to day life of the learner and with examples
• The content helps in understanding other concepts in the same subject or in other
subjects
• A C.A.T. will be set from the topic
• The content is interesting in its own right.

4.6.4 Discovery learning

Still on the issue of encouraging meaning and understanding the teacher should
encourage discovery learning. This can be done by giving learners assignments that
require them to do their individual or group projects in the library or in the field. In this
area the teacher should refer learners to specific sources of information with enough
guidance that spells out the concepts, meanings, relationships to be discovered. Once
learners have done their projects, they can present their findings in class for the purposes
of enriching each pupils or groups findings by integrating all the findings. This way each
learner acquires additional information on points they had missed out. This method works
on the principle that knowledge that is self-discovered is more significant to the learner
and is remembered better.

49
4.6.5 Concept learning

Concept learning too enhances both meaningfulness of content and understanding for the
benefit of enhancement of learning.
The learner should not be exposed to facts that are isolated. Instead he should be helped
to perceive relationships and classifications. In other words, he should be exposed to the
big picture and not small unrelated pictures. If the learner can understand a concept then
he can also transfer the knowledge to future situations.

4.7 Summary

In this lecture we have looked at factors that influence learning. We have identified the
role played by the following specific factors.
• Learning mainly deals with delivery of content.
• There are teacher characteristics, which could operate to enhance or hinder learning.
• There are characteristics of the learning environment, which will learning
• Learner characteristics with a focus on differences that exist among learners.
• The characteristics of the subject matter dwelling on meaning an understanding.

4.8 Key words

Imbibe- to assimilate knowledge

Intellectual giftedness: - refers to the variations in intelligence that occurs in any one-
classroom situation. Some learners have a high IQ score others are average and others
low.

Learning environment: - Any environmental factor that affects learning. It can refer to
the physical environment or the social environment.

Motivational levels: - The amount of energy a learner directs towards he learning task.

Rote: - memorization of meaningless content that the learner does not really understand.

Subject matter: -content or the, skills, facts, principles that the teacher intends to deliver.

50
Teacher characteristics: -Any teacher factor that influences learning. The characteristics
have to do with teacher personality, mastery of content, classroom management, attitudes
etc.

51
4.5 Review/Discussion Questions

1. Discuss how the following factors are likely to have a positive effect on learning:
• Grooming.
• Mastery of content.
• Positive attitudes towards learners.
2. Explain what schools should do to ensure following environmental conditions facilitate
learning:
• The classrooms.
• The location of the school.
3. Outline what you should do in order to ensure that learners find content meaningful.
4. In your own opinion, which factors predominate to determine what learners will learn easily
and what they will find difficult to learn?

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LESSON FIVE

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

5.0 Introduction
Knowledge that is learned in school is intended to prepare the student for life outside
school. Content learned in one context can be applied in another context within the same
subject or in another subject. For example, learning how to sew a shirt on a sewing
machine during a Home economics lesson should help a student to sew a skirt at home.
Also learning English grammar should help a student write correct English. Therefore
transfer of learning is a key concept. It refers to the ability to apply knowledge and skills
in new situations. If a learner cannot apply knowledge from situation to situation learning
will have little purpose. In this lesson I have discussed transfer of learning focusing on
the definition of the term, aspects of transfer, teaching for transfer.

5.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

• Define the concept transfer of knowledge
• Explain the importance of transfer of learning
• Describe aspects of transfer of learning
• Outline three types of transfer
• Describe two methods of teaching for transfer

5.2 Definition Of Transfer Of Learning

We shall first look at situations that help us to infer that transfer of learning takes place
We could say that transfer of learning occurs when previously learned content influences
current learning positively or negatively. For example, when students learn a
mathematical principle, which can be used to solve a physics problem, this is positive
transfer.
From the foregoing we can define transfer of learning as the process that enables us to
make previously learned responses in new situations. Transfer results in the ability to

53
perform sensibly and adequately in a new task as a result of having performed other tasks
previously.
Put simply, transfer of learning is ability to apply knowledge from one situation. For
example; the ability to apply mathematical formulae to compute mathematical problems
or, the ability to use knowledge in mathematics to understand balancing equations in
chemistry or physics.

54
5.3 Aspects Of Transfer
There are two basic aspects of transfer. These are:
• Discrimination.
• Generalization.

5.3.1 Discrimination
When the learner is exposed to knowledge or skills that are similar he should understand
all the specific features so that he applies in each situation only those aspects that are
applicable and leaves out those features that are not applicable. Ivan Pavlov illustrated the
idea of discrimination when conditioning dogs to respond to bell tones. In discrimination
training he would give the dog food only under one particular tone and not any similar
tone. Then the dog learned that only one tone led to food and therefore it salivated only
when that particular tone was presented. Likewise when it comes to transfer of learning
the pupil should be able to pick out specific features from the general features and use
them. A good illustration here is the use of the following documents: the dictionary, the
catalogue and the directory. These documents have general and specific features; the
general features are found in the arrangement of content. All documents have their
contents arranged alphabetically and therefore require the same skill in their usage.
However the aspect of discrimination comes in when we consider the type of information
found in each document. When we want to look up meanings of words we pick out the
dictionary. When we wish to get some address or telephone number we pick out the
dictionary and when we wish to locate some basic information of books available in a
library we go for the catalogue. In bakery too discrimination can be applied. There are
general guidelines that are used to produce bread or cakes but when the baker wants to
bake bread with raisins or fruitcake or even teacake he applies very specific features by
using discrimination.

Discrimination is an aspect used every day in computer programming. There are general
features and specific features in computer operations for example; all computer programs
have an interaction interface. These are specific features like calculations, typing
documents carrying out simulations and so on. It is the user who determines the specific
feature to use depending on the task to be performed.
Discrimination as we have noted requires the ability to pick out the difference, i.e. what
we apply in a specific situation and what not to. This involves the understanding of
specific features.

5.3.2. Generalization
This means understanding the general features, the similarities or sameness of
information or skills. For example: the dictionary, directory and catalogue are similar in
the information is arranged alphabetically. These documents use the same skills to search
for information but the similarity ends there. In baking there are similar procedures of
making ingredients and using baking pans and ovens for the product. In computer
operations the skills used to open the computer and to access information is the same. In
generalization therefore, the learner understands the general features.

55
Pavlov conditioned dogs to acquire generalization training. He would call different tones
and give the dog food every time a tone was sounded. This dog knew that as long as there
was a tone no matter which one food was on the way. Similarly, learners can acquire
generalization in transfer of learning.

This means understanding the general features, the similarities or sameness of

information or skills. For example the dictionary, directory and catalogue are similar in
the way information is arranged alphabetically. These documents use the same skills to
search for information but the similarity ends there. In baking there are similar
procedures of making ingredients and using baking pans and oven for the final products.
In computer operations the skills used to open the computer and to access information is
the same. In generalization therefore the learner understands the general features.

5.4.0 Types Of Transfer

There are three types of transfer:
• Zero transfer.
• Negative transfer.
• Positive transfer.

5.4.1 Zero transfer

This refers to acquiring knowledge, skills or principles that are not transferable from one
situation to another. This occurs, when there is no relationship between one subject and
another one. Therefore, learning one subject has no effect on the other one positively or
negatively. Examples of zero transfer can be illustrated by the learning of mathematics
and Kiswahili. Unless Kiswahili is used as a language of instruction in mathematics there
is no other relationship between the two. Mathematical principles will not help a learner
understand Kiswahili principles or vise versa.
Other examples can be illustrated between geography and music or fine art and biology.
These two pairs of subjects share no meeting ground. Each is independent from the other
in terms of facts, skills, principles and technical jargon. The learning of one is
independent from the learning of the other and does not inhibit nor enhance the other.

5.4.2 Negative transfer

Negative transfer occurs when content in a subject or in two different subjects has a
negative influence o one another. This happens when what is learned in one situation
hinders or inhibits what is learned in another situation. For example, if a learner is
introduced to two new languages, which are similar at the same time, negative transfer
occurs. A learner who is learning English and German at the same time experiences
difficulties mastering both languages simultaneously due to inhibition or interference.
English interferes with German and vise versa. Negative transfer operates much the same
way as proactive and retroactive inhibition does. Before mastering of each is achieved
there is a lot of back and forth movement and even mix-up of English and German words.
Consequently this brings about a slowed process or retardation in the learning process.

56
However with enough practice and mastery of both negative transfer is minimized and
even eliminated all together.

5.4.3 Positive Transfer

Positive transfer occurs, when knowledge acquired in one situation helps the learner to
acquire knowledge, skills or principles in another situation much faster. For example
learning of mathematical principles enables the learner to acquire principles in physics.
There are many illustrations of positive transfer in the school setting, which can be
mentioned here: For example, learning grammar in any language and writing
compositions in the language.
The learning of biology and agriculture
Learning of physics and mathematics
Learning of chemistry, biology and Agriculture, Mathematics, geography, business
Education, Chemistry and Physics. Positive transfer indicates a positive relationship
between particular topic areas in given subjects or even two or more content areas in
different subjects.
Positive transfer can operate at two levels. These are:
• Lateral transfer (horizontal)
• Vertical transfer

1. Lateral transfer
Lateral transfer occurs when a learner is exposed to content that is applicable to another
subject or situation at the same level. For example, a child who is trying to learn basics in
arithmetic discovers that (4*9=36, 9*4=36), (3+5=8, 5+3=8) is transferring knowledge
laterally or horizontally. Secondly when a learner acquires the basic skills of baking a
cake in school he applies the knowledge to bake at home horizontally. He will use the
same ingredients, the same measures and the same baking methods as learned at school.

Thirdly mathematical skills and principles taught in form one helps the learner to acquire
principles and skills to master form-one physics. So this kind of transfer is applicable at
the same level and is basically foundational.

2. Vertical transfer
Vertical transfer occurs when knowledge is applied to other learning’s at a higher level
either in the same subject or in another subject. For example form one mathematics series
is a foundation for form two, form three, and form- four mathematics. This happens at all
applications of subject areas in an ascending order. For vertical transfer to occur the
subject should be well mastered at the foundational levels so that learning is given a
chance to generalize and become useful further along the learning process. For example
when a pupil masters simple grammatical rules he is enabled to speak correct English,
write competently and to study other subjects in English as well. Also when a pupil
masters simple arithmetic and numeracy he is enabled to acquire complex concepts in
mathematics and physics.

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5.5 Teaching for transfer
There are several basic ways of teaching for transfer
• Substantive (specific).
• Procedural (general) transfer.
• High road transfer.

5.5.1 The substantive method

The substantive method refers to specific transfer of rules, facts or skills. It is the direct
transfer of knowledge from one situation to another. For example applying rules of
punctuation to write a job application letter or using the knowledge of the alphabet to find
a word n the dictionary. To facilitate this type of transfer the teacher exposes the learner
to the substance of the material to be applied. This is a very common phenomenon in
computer programming. If a certain computer program is required in a person’s
occupation, the person is taught that particular computer program during training. Also in
dress making the person is exposed to actual dress making skills needed on the job. A
surgeon is trained in a hospital setting and performs surgery under supervision. There are
many examples that can be cited. The most important concept here is the exposure of the
substance of material to be applied and lots and lots of practice.

5.5.2 High road transfer

This is training learners to consciously apply abstract knowledge learned in one situation
to different situations. There are two methods of doing this:”
• Forward reaching method
• Backward reaching method

1. Forward reaching method

This method is used when a learner intends to use a principle or strategy in future. He
plans transfer in advance. For example a surgeon taking theory and practical during
subsequent semesters may do some forward planning. During the theory semester he may
search for and collect all the relevant skills and procedures from the surgeons’ literature
with the intention of applying them during the practical or “hands-on” sessions. Also a
teacher preparing for teaching practice may search for principles about teaching and
learning (pedagogical skills). He may search in the focus areas like how to motivate
learners, the art of classroom management and so on with the intention of applying the
same during actual teaching. This kind of transfer is forward reaching in the sense that
the person looks forward to applying it in future situations.

2. The backward reaching transfer

This method is used when the learner is faced with a problem situation that requires some
prior knowledge. The person has to look back on what has been learned in previous
situations to help to solve the new problem. This method requires the person to search for
other related situations that might provide clues to the solution of the current problem.
The most important thing in this kind of transfer is mindful abstraction or deliberate
identification of a principle or main idea, strategy or procedure that can apply to many
situations. This guides future learning and problem solving.

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5.5.3 The Procedural Method
This method is useful when applying knowledge about how principles and rules apply
across a wide variety of situations. It includes the learning of broadly applicable
concepts, principles and procedures. For example when pupils learn the meaning of
words such as untie, unfair, is useful to learning that the prefix un means not or contrary
to.

5.5.4 Activity A

1. Apply the rule about the prefix un to find the meanings of the following words:
Unaffected, unaccompanied, unarmed, unlocked, unfastened, uncooked, unbalanced,
and unsteady.
2. Add the prefix un before the following words and explain their meaning: Fortunate,
do, pack, tidy, ravel, accomplished, deterred, detected, focused.

To train learners to use this method the teacher should present them with a wide array of
examples in which they can see how new principles and techniques are used. The
examples should be drawn from real world settings.

5.6 Note

In order to ensure that transfer is given all the probability to occur. The teacher should
ensure the following:
• That training situations are made as similar to the real world situations as possible. If
the real world is not accessible to the students it should be described to them.
• Provide many practicals on the original task before the transfer task is attempted.
• Stress transfer both inside and outside the classroom. This means that when teaching,
transfer should always be in focus.
• The teacher should use specific, concrete examples from television, newspapers,
school activities, current events and life in general.
• The teacher should devise projects and competitive games that foster, transfer
• Finally the teacher should always test for transfer

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5.7 Summary

This lecture has focused on the transfer of learning. Transfer of learning is the
application of use f the acquired knowledge in different situations.
Transfer of learning has two aspects
Generalization and discrimination
Types of transfer identified are
Zero which occurs, when
Negative-which has a negative effect
Positive
♦ Lateral horizontal
♦ Vertical at higher levels
Methods of teaching for transfer
Substantive method
High road method
♦ Forward reaching
♦ Back ward reaching
Procedural method

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5.8 Key words

Discrimination: -Ability to apply specific elements of a situation leaving out what is not
applicable.

Generalization: -Ability to apply general or similar features of a situation.

High road transfer: -training learners to consciously apply knowledge either forward or
backward.

Horizontal transfer: - occurs when knowledge is applicable at the same level.

Negative transfer:-Occurs where two content areas affect the learning of each through a
process similar to inhibition. When the learning of particular content has a negative effect
on the learning of another content area.

Procedural transfer: - applying broadly applicable rules and procedures.

Substantive transfer: -Application of knowledge directly.

Transfer of learning-the usage or application of acquired knowledge skills or procedures

in new situations.

Vertical transfer: - occurs when content is applicable higher along the learning process.

Zero-transfer:-Occurs when two content areas are unrelated and therefore have no effect
on each other.

5.9 Review/Discussion Questions

1) Imagine two novel situations that you could require your students to show:
a) Discrimination.
B) GENERALIZATION.
2) Bring out the difference between Zero and negative transfer clearly.
3) With examples show illustrations of:
A) LATERAL TRANSFER.
b) Vertical transfer.

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LESSON SIX

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING

6.0 Introduction
This lesson shifts its focus on a question that every teacher must teacher must ask all the
time. That is what causes individual differences in intellectual ability and achievement.
Teacher experience shows that learners in the class, with the same books and same
teachers show variations in achievement. This lesson may not be exhaustive in the
examination of causes of individual differences but it is hoped that it will leave the
teacher more informed and still searching for more answers and solutions.

6.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to explain the roles played by the
following factors in contributing to individual differences
• Heredity
• Environment
The learner will be able to discuss how the following factors cause individual
differences
• The home environment
• THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC STATUS
• The school environment

6.2 What Causes Individual Differences In Learning?

When we deal with a topic like individual differences in intellectual ability and
achievement. We must bear certain things in mind. First, there is need to realize that
individual differences in intellectual ability is difficult to define and measure due to the
complexity and the dynamism of the variables that interact to produce these difference.
For the purposes of this lesson, we shall define intellectual ability as the capacity to
acquire and use knowledge to adapt to the environment. We must also ask the question
where intelligence comes from and answer it. According to Lefrancois, (1994)
intelligence does not just happen it has a cause. For this reason we must have revived the
old age controversy regarding the determination of all human traits intelligence being one
of them. This is the nature-nurture debate, which has been used to explain variations that
exist among people. Observation of members of the same family reveals marked
contrasts in appearance, interests and abilities. In the study of what causes these

62
differences psychologists have developed three positions. These are; the hereditary, the
environmental and the Interactional positions or approaches.

6.2.1 The hereditary position

Adherents of this position believe strictly in the role played by genes in the determination
of human traits. This position holds the view that it is nature and not nurture that
determines the intellectual giftedness of individual children. According to this view,
intellectual ability is genetically determined. Studies done by various psychologists have
tended to confirm high correlations in IQ among identical twins reared apart. This view
holds the belief that during fertilization when maternal and paternal genes interact, IQ is
fixed. Therefore some children inherit high IQs while still others receive low gifts in this
trait. This position does not acknowledge the role different environments may play in
modifying intellectual ability. This position holds the view that intelligence is fixed and
the child is a helpless pawn of the dictates of nature.

6.2.2 The environmental position

The second position takes the environmental approach. Adherents of this position believe
that experiences provided by different environmental conditions and demands shape
intelligence. Among these psychologists is the J.B. Watson, who prided himself that if he
were given a dozen children and his own environments to raise them in, he would
produce any kind of person. He would shape one into a beggar, another into a thief, the
third into a banker and so on. This position attributes variations in intellectual ability to
environmental causes. Children’s intellectual giftedness is ultimately determined by
nurture not nature. This view focuses on the importance of improving environmental
conditions, enriching them in order to influence intelligence positively. Those children
who are raised in enriched environment have their IQ stimulated and enhanced.

6.2.3 The interactionist position

Today heredity versus environment is no longer an important question. The more
important question has to do with how individuals and environments interact during
development with the processes that account for intellectual change. Of special interest, is
how deficits can be remedied and gifts fostered, (Lefrancois, 1994). Adherents of this
position recognize that genes or nature contribute certain potentialities towards
intellectual endowment but the actual determinant to what a child’s intellectual ability
will be lies in the interaction between what is genetically given and the environment. This
position identifies the interaction between nurture and nature as the sole determinant of
intellectual ability in a child. This is a popularly held position today and we need to
examine what genes contribute and what the environment contributes towards the
shaping of intellectual ability.

6.3 What Genes Give

The question of concern here is whether genes fix intellectual ability. Genes do not fix
intelligence as such; they provide the blue print of intellectual abilities. By this we mean
that genes establish a wide range of possibilities or potentialities. These potentialities are
bound to unfold in relation to the range of possible experiences that the environment can
provide.

Put in another way, genes provide the raw materials for intellectual abilities and set the
limits. This means that even the environmental influences modify the inherited potentials

63
within certain limits. For example a child may inherit a potential towards average IQ,
which has its own ranges. All a teacher and the best environments can do for such a child
is to help him to realize his maximum potential. These potentialities are analogous to a
rubber band, which can remain unstretched or stretched to various lengths. The rubber
band can be stretched all the way and it can also be stretched until it breaks. This analogy
is very important for learners. It suggests that the learning environments should be
arranged in a manner that will allow the rubber band to stretch to full potential but not to
stunt or break. When dealing with children we must know their gifts and their limitations
in order to nurture the gifts and help improve on limitations. We should not allow a child
with a high intellectual gift to underachieve and we should not expect a child with an
average gift to show outstanding performance. Every child should be allowed to perform
within the limits of their rubber band stretchability.

6.4 Different Environments

The environmental influences include everything from the health of a child’s mother
during pregnancy to the amount of poisonous substances in the environment to the
quality of teaching the child receives, (Woolfolk, 1988).
We shall examine the influence of the following environments briefly:
• The environment before birth.
• The home environment.
• The school environment.

6.4.1 The environment before birth

The first environment the human organism encounters is the uterus or the womb. This
environment has the potentiality of promoting the child’s development as per the genetic
plan or changing the course of development completely. In this environment the genetic
blue print is given chance to begin unfolding through the process of growth, maturation
and development of all the characteristics programmed by the genes. These
characteristics are physical, physiological mental and psychological, If the uterus is baby
“friendly” or compliant it produces nutrition, warmth and security which allow the
genetic potentials to unfold as per plan. So the child is given the chance to develop a
healthy body and mental capacity. Those children meant to be: highly gifted, average or
low intellectually realize their natural gifts. On the other hand the uterus may have
adverse effects on the developing child if the expectant mother is exposed to the
following teratogens:
• Undernourishment and malnourishment
• Certain diseases during the first three months of pregnancy (e.g. Rubella and
Sexually Transmitted Diseases)
• Ingestion of psychoactive drugs or is dependent on them (e.g. alcohol, nicotine
and heroine),
• Certain medication (e.g. antibiotics, anti-convultants and anti-malarial drugs),
• HIGH DOSES OF X-RADIATION, PROLONGED STRESS OR THE
RHESUS FACTOR. THESE CONDITIONS CHANGE THE COURSE OF
DEVELOPMENT IN EXTREME CASES CAUSING EITHER THE
DEATH OF THE UNBORN BABY OR STILLBIRTH. IF THE BABY
SURVIVES THE ADVERSITY THAT THESE CONDITIONS CAUSE HE
MAY BE PHYSICALLY OR MENTALLY DEFECTIVE OR BOTH. THIS
MEANS THAT A BABY WHO WOULD OTHERWISE HAVE BEEN
BORN WITH A HEALTHY AND WELL FUNCTIONING BODY IS BORN

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 WITH PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFECTS. A BABY WHO
WOULD HAVE BEEN BORN WITH NORMAL INTELLIGENCE IS
BORN WITH MENTAL DEFICITS DUE TO THE BRAIN DAMAGE
THESE CONDITIONS MAY CAUSE.
So the womb as the first environment the human baby encounters is very critical.
It sets the foundations to intellectual development. All other environmental effects come
later and they may come when damage has already occurred.

6.4.2 The home environment

Ideally every child is born in a home. The home environment means many things. A
home has physical and social dimensions. These refer to the buildings and the facilities as
well as the people
The home provides for all the developmental needs of children: -the physiological and
psychological. The manner in which these needs are provided for determining how the
child will develop physically and mentally. This lesson does not allow us to delve into all
the logistics and operations of the home. So we shall point out a few things that help to
determine how the home factors influence intellectual development. First, it is critically
important to point out that homes are diverse environments. No one name is like the other
and therefore even their influence on children’s development is bound to vary. However,
there are certain basic features that we can examine in relation to their effect on
intellectual development. We can broadly place homes in two categories: the simulative
and non-simulative homes.

The simulative homes

These are homes that are enriched in terms of facilities that promote intellectual growth;
these are things like paper, number charts, letter charts, pictures, colors and play
materials. Besides these facilities the child needs space in which to manipulate and
interact with the provided facilities. These facilities play a simulative role in the
development of intelligence. They also aid in language development. An enriched home
provides the child with varying experiences, for example trips to various places. In the
modern world enriched homes expose children to facilities like television and computers.
All these facilities go along way to stimulating a child’s intellectual growth.

• The non- stimulative home

Here I am talking about the homes which do not promote intellectual growth.
These are homes that are impoverished. They possess minimal facilities. The material
things present are only those that are necessary for bare survival. These environments are
restrictive as well as monotonous and nothing exiting seems to happen. There are many
homes where paper, pen, number charts or colors are non-existent. Children never
venture far from home unless they are sick and have to be taken to hospital. When a car
visits the neighborhood the whole village goes to witness the wonder. A child growing up
in this kind of environment may have high levels of intelligence but the necessary
stimulation is lacking. This child has limited experiences, even fewer words to express
himself and may have problems with ideas.

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6.4.3 Activity

Suppose you were asked to advise the chief of your location on issues concerning
intellectual life of the children in the location. How would you handle issues regarding;
mental health, family planning and overcrowded school conditions?

6.4.3 The social economic status

A glimpse into the relationship between the socio-economic status and intellectual ability
is in order here. We have noted that children are born in homes that are stimulative while
others find themselves in homes that are non-stimulative. The question of concern is
whether children born in rich homes excel in intellectual ability while those born in poor
homes fail in intellectual ability. Let’s examine the term social economic status. This is a
term used to refer to variations in wealth, power and prestige. We shall acknowledge that
levels of wealth, power, and prestige are not always consistent and therefore not
operationally definable because of the relativity inherent. An example may suffice. Take
for example teachers or professors in Kenya. These are members of professions that are
prestigious but which provide little wealth or power. In Kenya too there are people with
political power but who may not be wealthy. If you have talked with a wealthy man who
did not get a good education and there are many of them in Kenya, he holds the educated
person who has no wealth with respect. From these examples it is evident that we cannot
use a single variable, not even income to effectively measure SES. This not withstanding
most researchers identify four general levels of social economic status the upper, middle,
working class and lower. For a long time the relationship between SES and school
performance has been tricky. If you listen to the stories told by prominent lawyers,
doctors, engineers, and politicians you realize that they tell one story. How they suffered
their way up the educational ladder to be where they are today. They were educated
through bursaries, the sale of livestock. Stories about huge sacrifices by individual
families abound. These are people who did not have a second change of clothes nor two
pairs of shoes. Yet they emerged as shining stars in their fields. This means that in Kenya
the relationship between SES and intellectual attainment has no clear cut.

One question begs to be answered Is SES the sole consideration determining a child’s
intellectual performance? Studies done in this area seem to suggest that parents’
education may not be strongly related to a child’s excelling performance. Variables that
have been found to yield positive results in this area are parents’ attitudes towards
education, their aspirations for their children and the intellectual activities of the family.
These studies explain why children from affluent families may not necessarily excel in
academic matters. We understand why many families with limited incomes do an
excellent job of supporting their children’s learning because of their positive attitudes and
behaviors. Lack of income ceased to be an important factor for school, achievement. This
not withstanding an exploration of how poverty could militate against intellectual ability
is deemed necessary at this juncture.

6.4.4. Effects of low SES on Achievement

There are cases where poverty acts as a motivator. This happens when parents have
encouraged their children or individual children have worked hard to excel in academic

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work in order to get a good job and escape from poverty. This scenario is very familiar to
many educated people. These are people whose efforts have been recognized and they
have received support from well wishers and bursary awarding bodies. There are many
children who are not this lucky and who seem bound in completely difficult situations
where they are unable to rise above average performance or even mediocre ability even
when they have above average intelligence. This picture is occasioned by many factors
that exist and which help to maintain the cycle of poverty: Limited resources, family
stress, interruptions in scholarship and discrimination. All these factors lead to school
failure or even school drop out for both boys and girls. When a girl or boy drops out of
school they get poor paying jobs, they tend to marry and get children earlier than their
age mates who continue with their education. This leads to another generation born in
poverty. Children raised in low SES are exposed to hostile psycho-sociological
environments.
• They may wear old and torn clothes.
• They experience problems in verbal and non-verbal skills-speaking
ungrammatically.
• They are less familiar with books and school activities. They experience problems
in verbal and non-verbal skills, speaking ungrammatically.
• They experience difficulties with reading and comprehension, mathematics and
general information.
• Consequently teachers and other children may assume that these children are not
bright.
• They believe that these children are not good in schoolwork and show a negative
attitude towards them.
• The low SES children may respond;
• By being more inhibited and withdrawn leading to repeated failure.
• Repeated failure leads to learned helplessness where the pupil comes to believe
that doing well in school is hopeless. The child has experience of many of his
friends and relatives who never finished school anyway. So it is normal to quit
school as well. As we noted earlier if he does not finish school.
• He finds a less rewarding job where he barely ekes a living and continues to live
below the poverty line.
• This kind of person tends to get more children than his income can support. These
children also drop out school early and the poverty cycle continues.

6.5 Activity

Suppose you are the District Director of Education in your District what challenges
would you like to see effected in the homes and in the schools to ensure improved
intellectual performance in the district.

6.6. The School Environment

The schools differ just like the homes. Some schools being more enriched that others and
therefore providing varying experiences.
• Like the homes, the schools are made up of physical resources and human
resources.

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The physical resources constitute the buildings and the facilities. Some of the school
could provide stimulative environment for intellectual development of learners while
others remain non-stimulative. Issues of concern as mentioned earlier are adequacy,
appropriateness, and security of school facilities. There are those schools, which are
lacking in these things and those that are overflowing with them as it were.
Equally important is the issue of human resources mainly the teaching staff and the
support staff. Like we have said about the home, the attitudes held by the teachers and the
school administration regarding their pupils are very important in determining academic
excellence or failure. I am sure you have seen schools where nothing that one would ask
for in term of facilities is lacking but when you examine the pupils’ performance you are
faced by appalling results. Other schools exist where resources are limited but the results
excellent. This goes to show that the good will of the teachers their positive attitudes
towards their work and towards learners may hold the key to whether learners will
succeed academically or fail dismally.

6.7 Summary

In this lesson I have examined the cause of individual differences in intellectual ability
and discussed the following
> Genetic heredity.
> Environmental conditions and demands, focusing specifically on:
> The uterine environment.
> The home environment.
> The socioeconomic status.
> The school.

6.8 Key words

Blue print: - a kind of program with the potentiality of unfolding in line with the
inherited properties of the organism and their interaction with the environment.

Environment: - All the forces that shape the child’s life. These include the uterus, the
home, the school as well as ecological factors that affect the developing person.

Heredity: - The passing down of traits from parents to offspring through the interaction of
genes.

Individual differences in learning: - refers to the marked variations among children in

their capacity to learn, the total knowledge a child acquires, the ability to adapt
successfully to new situations and the environment in general.

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Non-stimulatitive: - impoverished environmental conditions, which retard or inhibit
development.

SES: -Relative measure of wealth, power and prestige.

Stimulative: - enriched environmental conditions, which enhance or promote

development.

Teratogens: - any environmental agents that can cause abnormalities in the developing
foetus.

6.9 Review questions

1. What do you think is the cause of mass failure in subject like Chemistry or Mathematics
in a school here students score very high marks in other subject areas? Do you think the
students may have been born with inability to learn them?
2. What in your opinion are the major causes of individual differences in your area? Is it
poverty affluence or nature of schools?
3. Suggest ways of improving performance in you district.

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LESSON SEVEN

MOTIVATION

7.0 Introduction
In this lesson I have discussed motivation in the context of education. I have specifically
examined how the can apply knowledge of the theories of motivation to make learners
want to learn.
Motivation concerns itself with the;
• Dynamics of getting pupils to want to learn or have the interest to do so,
• Have the desire to spend time on learning tasks.
• To complete assignment and even to want to excel. For teachers motivating
learners remains one of the greatest challenges of the profession. Many teachers
will complain that pupils do not want to learn. They are lazy. They never
complete assignments and so on. This lecture explores motivation in classroom
setting. The encouraging message for teachers derived for this lesson is that
something can be tried out. We do not have to throw the towel in or fold our arms
in despair. We can get them to want to learn. Let us see how.

7.1 Objectives

By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

• Define the term motivation
• Relate motivation to educational settings
• Explain different theoretical orientations
• Discuss the use of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

7.2 Definition Of The Term Motivation

Motivation is defined as the driving force or impetus behind behavior, thoughts and
actions. Motivation energizes behavior and gives it direction towards a goal. The goal is
always to satisfy a need, for example, hunger, thirst, pain avoidance, temperature
regulation and elimination. At a higher level the motivation energizes behavior towards
achievement, competence, affiliation, esteem and so on.

7.3 Motivation In The School Setting

Motivating students is one of the critical tasks of teaching. Teachers are expected to get
pupils interested in learning or interested in displaying desirable behavior. This problem
can be aptly summed up by the old adage that says that you can take the donkey to the
river but you cannot force it to drink water. Analogous with this saying the teacher should
realize that he could have pupils in the classroom and even provide an atmosphere

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conducive for learning but whether they learn or not depends on them. It heavily depends
on their interests or disinterests their priorities and needs, their attitudes and values. This
means that that the teachers interest in wanting to get learners to learn may not coextend
to their wanting to learn. Given this picture the teacher needs to know how to play his
cards right so that he creates a desire in the learner to want to learn. We shall start the
exploration of this issue from the theoretical viewpoints.

What do different theories advocate?

7.4 Theoretical Approaches

Motivation is a vast and complicated subject encompassing many theories. We shall
explore some of the theories in our endeavor to throw some illumination in this are. We
intent to suggest certain things teachers could try out as they apply concepts derived from
each of the following:
• The behaviouristic approaches
• The humanistic approaches
• The cognitive approaches
• The social learning approaches

7.4.1 The Behavior approaches

The behavioristic approaches advocate the use of reinforcement. Reinforcement refers to
the use of rewards or incentives. A reward is an attractive object or event supplied as a
consequence of a particular behavior. An incentive is an object or event that encourages
or discourages behavior. For example the promise of an A+ is an incentive.
The threat to punish is also an incentive. According to the behavioral approach an
understanding of student motivation should begin with a careful analysis of incentives
and rewards present in the classroom. These could be
• Affection,
• Money,
• Praise,
• Privileges,
• Grades or even stars.
The teacher should also identify the behaviors that need to be reinforcement. These could
be outstanding performance,
• Punctuality,
• Neatness,
• Attentiveness
• COMPLETION OF HOME WORK,
• Good conduct,
• Proper language use,
• Non-aggression,
• Honesty and showing respect for others.
This list is by no means exhaustive but it gives the teacher the general idea of what he
could do. He could come with a catalogue of desirable behavior and a list of possible
reinforces.

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The application
The teacher should always be alert and notice when the desired behavior occurs. Its
occurrence should be accompanied by a reinforcer. A student who shows improved
performance could be praised or rewarded. One who shows improved grooming should
be rewarded appropriately. The idea here is to acknowledge the desired behavior and
accompany it with reinforcing stimuli. The principle is that reinforcement strengthens
behavior and gives it the chance to occur again. The teacher should remember that any
behavior, which is ignored, goes through the process of extinction; it dies off. So, if you
want any behavior to recur, reinforce it by all means.

7.4.2 Cognitive Approaches To Motivation

Cognitive approaches to motivation developed as a reaction to the behavioral views.
Cognitive theorists believe that behavior is determined by our thinking not by rewards or
the punishments we anticipate or receive. In their view, behavior is initiated and
regulated by inner plans not by external events or physical conditions like hunger.
Cognitive theorists tend to see people as
• Active,
• Curious and always searching for information to solve personally relevant
problems.
In their view people work hard because they enjoy work and because they want to
understand. They emphasize intrinsic motivation, (Weiner, 1984). The teacher should
help learners to develop their curiosity and methods of searching for information.
Students need to be trained to be intrinsically motivated so that they can search
knowledge for its own sake. Intrinsic motivation is included is included in this lesson and
it will be dealt with at length then.

Note

The cognitive approaches deal with the higher mental process involved in thinking
problem solving and perception.

7.4.3 Social Learning Theories Of Motivation

The social learning theories of motivation are integrations of behavioral and cognitive
approaches. These theorists see motivation as a product of two main forces: The
individual expectation of success in a task and the vicarious experience.

The person’s expectation of success in a task is determined by personal effectiveness also

called self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to personal competence. One important idea that
teachers could borrow from these concepts is that learners need to be empowered to
perform learning tasks with high chances of succeeding. If a learner knows he will
succeed in solving a mathematical problem or in balancing a chemistry equation his
motivation will be heightened. Students with a high sense of academic efficacy display
greater persistence, effort and, intrinsic interest in their academic learning and
performance.

The vicarious experience constitutes observations of other students. A student compares

his performance with that of other children. If the child discovers that his performance is
poor he is likely to lose his sense of competence and efficacy altogether. In this respect

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the teacher should help the child to keep up with the level of performance of other
children in order to keep up motivation. In many instances teachers aggravate the
problem when they torment the child who is comparing with peers unfavorably. They
make the child sink deeper in despair and apathy. A little help, understanding,
encouragement and even persuasion and moral support may be all that this child need to
improve his sense of efficacy.

7.4.3. Activity

1. Observe learners who are failing, those getting less than 30% in a given subject in
their tests and examinations. Compare the amount of time they spend studying the
subjects they fail and the amount of time they spend studying the subjects they
perform well. Find out when they are likely to be missing classes
2. Observe well-rounded pupils, those performing well in most of the subjects they take.
Find out why they enjoy schoolwork and school life. Discover whether they are likely
to turn in complete assignments

7.4.4 Humanistic Approaches

The proponents of the humanistic approaches to motivation are Abraham Maslow and
Carl Rogers. The humanistic perspective is referred to as the “Third force” psychology
because it developed in the 1940s as a reaction against two dominant forces at the time.
The first force was Freudian psychoanalysis while the Second was Watson’s
behaviorism. The Humanistic perspective emphasized intrinsic sources of motivation.
They held the view that every human being has an inherent desire to self-actualize. This
desire motivates the person to continually want to seek self-actualization. According to
Abraham Maslow students cannot develop in the direction of self-actualization unless
their needs are met. He developed the hierarchy of needs in order to illustrate the levels
of motivation. We shall examine this hierarchy with a view to helping the teacher to
understand the conditions that must be met before we can ask students to be motivated to
learn.

Maslow Hierarchy Of Needs

Maslow, (1970) suggests that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower level
needs to higher level needs. The lower level needs are survival and safety related. They
consist: the primary needs, the basic biological needs like the need for food, water,
temperature regulation and pain avoidance. Safety needs refer to the persons desire to feel
secure in non-threatening physical and social environments. The higher level needs are
those for intellectual achievement and self-actualization. Self-actualization is Maslow's
term to refer to Self-fulfillment or realization of personal potential.

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 Self Actualization

Self Esteem

Belonging ness

SAFETY

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

1. Physiological needs
At the base of the hierarchy are physiological needs. They constitute the need for food
water, temperature regulation and pain avoidance. These needs are basic for the survival
of the organism and they must be met first before the learner can be motivated to learn. A
student who is hungry or in pain or even one who needs to go to the toilet has to satisfy
the need first because these needs are proponent or pressuring. What can the school do in
order to help meet this need? The school could ensure
• That there is a lunch program
• There is clean water to drink and
• There are usable toilets for students.
Students should never be punished by being deprived off food neither should they be
denied time to use the toilet facilities.

2. Safety
The second level of the hierarchy consists of safety needs. These are needs to do with
security of the environment. These are natural elements like winds, floods, lightening.
These are needs to do with the security of environment. They can be met when school
provide firm safe buildings that will not be blown away by the wind or be washed away
by floods. The school buildings should be fortified against natural elements like
lightening. In lightening prone areas lightening- arrestors should be installed. In flood
prone areas proper drainage should be put in place. What are other sources of insecurity?
Insecurity can also be caused by, the human factors like politically motivated aggression
found in bandit prone areas or, areas hit by tribal clashes. These should be eliminated in
order to give students secure environments in which to learn. Insecurity can also exist in
the form of bullying where new comers are physically or psychologically harassed. These
incidents should be minimized if not completely eliminated. Teachers too can pose
insecurity to learners if they use physically and psychologically threatening methods in
their discharge of duty. Whatever the source of insecurity is it makes the students fearful
and they spend a lot of their time and energy dwelling on their fears rather on learning
tasks.

3. Belongingness
The third level of need is the need for belongingness. This is the need to be loved by
significant other people and to be accepted by them. For the student, significant other
people are; parents, siblings, peers and teachers. Every person has the desire to feel
accepted and if any threat to love is perceived the person begins to malfunction

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psychologically. How can the teacher help learners meet the needs for love
belongingness? The teacher should help learners
• To make and keep friends by training them in social skills when and where
necessary. The teacher should also try to bond with the students by developing a
loving relationship with them.
• By a loving relationship we mean parental not romantic love.
• The teacher should also show concern and sensitivity to the needs and feelings of
the learner and communicate the attitude of care. Students respond to this by
extending love and sensitivity towards the teacher in reciprocation. This is an
aspect that can go very far in instilling discipline and at the same time motivating
learning. We know that there are prevailing circumstances that make it difficult
for the teacher to bond with students namely;
• Work overload,
• Overwhelming teacher student ratio among other professional challenges.
However the teacher should make effort to communicate care and sensitivity to
his pupils at every opportunity.

4. Self Esteem
Self-Esteem is also referred to, as prestige need. It underlies the general competitiveness.
The need to be outstanding in various aspects of school life. Some students will excel in
• academic performance while
• others will shine in field events.
• There are those who hold positions of prestige and are envied because of their
leadership qualities
• Some students shine because of their outstanding beauty and strength. How do
teachers help learners meet these needs? In helping pupils fulfill this need, the
teachers should open their eyes to the school stars and give them an opportunity to
shine by creating conditions that allow healthy competitiveness. The school
should develop incentives to encourage competitiveness. Some schools do this by
promising field trips or valued awards to the students or group of students who
show excellence in academic work, games and sports in school, beauty contests,
leadership and in any other areas of excellence. The main idea here is to put the
lamp on the housetop where all can see it and not cover it up with a bucket. So
wherever we are, we should let the school stars shine.

5. Self-actualization
At the top of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualization. This is the need to develop
ones highest human capacity to think and feel and understand the world. In Maslow’s
view people’s failure to satisfy “lower” needs leave the individual unable to focus on
“higher” level needs. If students; are hungry, insecure and unloved, they wont worry
about academic success. Although this need looks like it’s beyond the attainment of
learners, I believe there are ways in which they can be assisted to systematically self-
actualize. Learners can be helped to become the best they are capable of becoming,
release their potential to optimum levels if the school creates the right conditions
consciously and systematically. Learners physiological, safety, affiliate and esteem needs
should be planned for and delivered. Then there should be deliberate effort to help
learners improve in many areas of school life namely,
• Knowledge,
• The need for beauty and.
• The need to perform at peak in all school endeavors.

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 • As far as knowledge is concerned learners can be trained to study and value good
performance.
• In the pursuance of beauty or aesthetics learners can be trained to value
cleanliness, neatness not only personal but environmental as well. They can be
trained to appreciate good handwriting and to strive towards perfection in these
things. These are not difficult things to do as long as the teacher has the will and
the necessary commitment towards learners.

7.5 Extrinsic And Intrinsic Motivation

I find it very difficult to ignore a discussion on and intrinsic motivation Extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation. What do these two terms refer to? Extrinsic motivation refers to the
external forces that motivate a person’s behavior. Intrinsic motivation on the other hand
refers to the internal forces that motivate behavior. The teacher needs to understand both
forces of motivation s well as how to use them to good advantage.

7.5.1 Extrinsic motivation

In this section I have discussed the methods used to deliver extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation can be delivered in two main ways
• The use of punishment
• The use of incentives

The use of punishment or coercive power

This refers to the use of punishment or threats to punish the pupils who do not meet the
set standards of behavior whether academic or general conduct or attitude. One thing to
be said before engaging in the discussion is the following. The use of force and even
threats to use it often serve as powerful motivators of behavior. If used properly and
wisely punishment can instill discipline. It is important to understand the effect coercive
power has on the pupils’ behavior. When a teacher promises to punish a student
• Who does not score 50% and above in a test or
• The one who does not complete assignments.
• When punishment is promised to late comers,
• Those whose work is untidy, those who are rude. A question that we need to ask
is. What effect does the threat or punishment have on these behaviors? Two things
are bound to happen when we use coercive power on behavior. First, it serves as
An incentive to motivate the desirable behavior it motivates the pupil to avoid or escape
the punishment. But it has two serious limitations, these are:
• Even if it succeeds in stopping undesirable behavior it is likely to create
dependence on external agents.
• A pupil who is used to the use of force never learns self-direction.
• He relies on others to direct him.
• A learner who is punished never performs a task with enthusiasm.
• He resents the things he does
• He never learns cooperation.

Use of incentives or rewards

This refers to the use of rewards or promise of rewards to pupils who display desirable
behavior. For example, the promise of trips, status, points, marks money and so on. This
kind of motivation is useful because people want and need rewards.
• Pupils will work hard to get good grades so that they can get the promised reward.

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 • They will also strive to attain standards of behavior that will lead to rewards.
However the use of rewards has similar effects on motivation as the use of
coercion. It causes dependency, the pupil works to please the teacher but in the
absence of reward behavior stops. So the motivation is short lived. For this reason
it is important to rely on intrinsic motivation.

7.5.2 Intrinsic motivation

What is intrinsic motivation? This is motivation that comes from within the learner. It is
also referred to as identification or ego involvement. This motivation results from the
pupils’ identification with desired goals. An intrinsically motivated learner is one who
has the desire and the will to learn. His ego is fully involved in the learning task. If this is
the case then, the teacher needs to know what will make a learner identify with the
learning task. The learner will identify the learning task if his need for competence is
met. By competence we mean
• The ability to perform a task,
• Mastery of a task or
• COMPETITIVENESS IN A TASK.
In fact every pupil has an inherent desire to perform competently in school tasks. The
teacher’s role is to discover how to help the learner to achieve this. The teacher can assist
the learner by providing him with the opportunity to become competent. This can be done
by helping the pupil to avoid failure.
This can be achieved if learners are given tasks they are intellectual capable of
performing. If a learner is successful in performing a task, his self-concept is enhanced
and he gains self-respect from the good feeling of being able to perform the task. This is
ego inflating it makes the ego grow fat. Another thing that the teacher could do is to help
learners set up both short term and long-term goals. The short-term goals could consist of
mastering topics and sub-topics and getting good grades in the tests set on them. Passing
the end of year or terminal examinations should be the long-term goal. For example,
aiming to score A or B+ in a given subject. At all stages the teacher should provide the
learners with immediate feedback. This means that they should know their performance
soon after a test or an examination.
The feedback should inform them of the correct responses expected as well as informing
them how well they have achieved their goals. Basically we want to emphasize the
importance of empowering the learner so that he is successful in the learning task and
making sure that the marks he or she earns are reflected on the paper. It is to dispel the
myth that a learner who scores 90% becomes self confident and may slacken in his
performance. Let the teacher know that a learner who is successful develops an interest in
an activity and continues to pursue that activity. On the other hand failure results in
declining interests. Failure has other negative consequences, For example:
• Avoidance of the activity,
• Absenteeism,
• Total loss of motivation.

7.5.3 Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation is the desire.

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 • To excel,
• To complete difficult tasks,
• To meet high standards and
• To out perform others.
Pupils who are high in the need to achieve are those who are intrinsically motivated.
They differ from low need achievers in a number of ways
• They do better on problem solving tasks
• They show better performance and more rapid improvement on verbal tasks.
• They set realistic but challenging goals for themselves
• They show a need for competence for its own sake as early as three years of age
What are the factors that promise achievement motivation? One important factor is
Achievement motivation is related to the following factors
Parental expectations. The parents should put realistic pressure on the child’s
performance.
• They should not allow a child to underachieve nor
• Should they expect a child to achieve beyond his level of competence?
• The second factor is the sex of the child,
• Depending on socialization boys, tend to show higher achievement motivation
than girls. This occurs in cases where they are expected,
• To perform well,
• Pass their examinations,
Get jobs and finally become providers for their families. How true is this in the Kenyan
factor? This scenario has changed in many families where girls are no longer waiting to
get married to men who have made it. There are families in Kenya today where the girls
are achieving and the boys failing not only in academic work but also in life.
The third factor affecting achievement motivation is the size of the family. Again the
view held is that in small families where there are the parents and probably two children,
achievement motivation is higher while in large families achievement motivation is low.
In the African context and Kenya in particular the issue is not as simple as whether the
family is large or small. There are large families that which have produced many
prominent people.
However, as the cost of educating children continue to soar higher and higher then the
families with many children may not be able to sustain them in institution of learning.
Birth order of the child is the fourth another factor influencing achievement motivation.
First borns are said to have a higher need for achievement than later siblings. Again this
is determined by the family’s expectations of its first borns. If the first-born is pressurized
to achieve in order to take up parental roles, then he will work hard in order to fulfill
parental expectations. There are many instances today where the first-born ends up to
become so spoilt,
• That even finishing school remains a remote dream.
Culture is fifth factor affecting achievement motivation. There are cultures that encourage
cooperation. In those cultures that encourage competition while others encourage
competition. Achievement motivation is nurtured. Children in learning in these cultures
learn to want to excel, to out perform others and generally to be outstanding. In the
cultures that encourage cooperation achievement motivation remains hidden due to lack
of competition.

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7.5.4 Nurturing Achievement Motivation
How can a teacher encourage the development of achievement motivation? The tendency
to achieve success is determined by three things
• The motive to succeed or need achievement
• The persons estimate of the likelihood of success in a task
• The incentive for success

The teacher should make every possible attempt to arouse in the learners the need to
achieve. This can be done by empowering learners to succeed by,
• Providing them with tasks that they can master under conditions of reinforcement.
• The learner should have the promise that the likelihood to succeed is high.
• If he knows that he is more likely to succeed then he will pursue the learning task.
It is the teacher’s duty to help learners to be achievers.

7.5.5 Personalized goals and incentives as motivators

Intrinsic motivation is also demonstrated by personal goals and incentives.
• Many motives are personalized.
• There are people motivated to be leaders and
• Others to be followers.
• Some people want to assert themselves by physical actions.
• Others want to use the spoken word.
• While others want to seek recognition by becoming somebody.
• A doctor, a lawyer, an engineer, teacher, lecturer and so on. These personal
motives determine the individual’s level of aspiration.
• Here aspiration means the expectation of accomplishment.
• Some people have high levels of task accomplishment while others are low.
• A person’s level of aspirations is usually modified by his success and failure.
• A person who often succeeds continues to have high aspirations.
• While the failing person’s aspiration drops.
• If a person is succeeding and hence the level of aspirations is high then his self-
concept is positive. This can be noted in a person who considers himself an
intellectual and studies hard to become a scholar.
• The person does everything he can to maintain the image of a scholar.
• On the other hand the person who develops a negative self-image of failure will
not do very well not to do very much to change the situation.
• Instead he becomes resigned to his fate.
• With this in mind the teacher is advised to help each learner to identify his
personal goals and aspirations.

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7.6 Summary

This lesson has discussed motivation with a view to highlighting its application in school
settings. In the discussion the following issues have been outlined.
Pupils learn if they want to do so.
Teachers could borrow certain ideas from different theoretical positions:
Behavioristic theory. The use of reinforcement.
Cognitive theory. The development of curiosity.
Social learning. The development of self-efficacy and the vicarious experience.
Humanistic theory. The development of self-actualizing tendencies.
Teachers need to have an understanding of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on pupils
behavior:
Extrinsic motivation can be delved in two ways:
The use of force/ coercion
The use of incentives/rewards
Intrinsic motivation can be observed in:
The need to be competent
Achievement motivation
Personalized goals and incentives

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7.7 Key Terms

Achievement motivation: -The desire to excel in learning that arises from the need to be
efficient and competent in tasks.

Behavioristic approaches to motivation: -Refer to the theories that believe in the power
of reinforcement in motivation.

Cognitive approaches to motivation: -theories that believe that thinking or inner plans
and not external events in the motivation of behavior.

Esteem needs: -the need to hold a prestigious position among peers. The need for
competitiveness.

Extrinsic motivation: -motivation that is determined by forces outside the individual

motivation aroused by the need for a reward or desire to escape punishment.

Hierarchy of needs: -Maslow’s arrangement of human needs from the most basic
survival needs to the highest growth needs. The hierarchy is arranged in ascending steps
which are broader at the base and narrowing as the needs get higher forming a kind of a
pyramid.

Humanistic approaches: - theories that advocate that human behavior is motivated by

needs. If needs are met the pupil will be motivated to move towards self-actualization.

Incentives: -use of rewards or promise of rewards to entice a person to behave in a

certain way.

Intrinsic motivation: -motivation that comes from within the learner rather than from
external sources like rewards and punishments.

Motivation: -term used to refer to internal psychological forces that initiate behavior and
give it direction.

Self-actualization: -Word used by Maslow to refer to tendencies towards self-fulfillment

or realization of personal potentials.

Social learning theories: - approaches that believe in the power of efficacy and vicarious
experiences in motivating behavior.

Vicarious experience: -observing the other people and comparing oneself with them.

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7.8 Review questions

1. In your own assessment what are the conditions that demotivate learners in a school
setting?
2. Why do teachers sometimes ignore desirable behavior and fail to accompany it with
reinforcement?
3. What happens to a learner who experiences continued failure in any subject?
4. What are some of the learners’ needs that schools should meet in order to get learners to
focus on leaning tasks?
5. What is the effect of good performance on motivation?
6. Do you really believe that first borns have higher achievement motivation than later
siblings?

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LESSON EIGHT

ATTITUDES

8.0 Introduction
In this lesson I have discussed the role played by attitudes in school situations,
• The components of attitudes
• The functions of attitudes
• How attitudes develop
• How a teacher can change learners’ attitudes.
Learning in the school and even a pupil’s adjustment to school is largely determined by
the attitudes the pupil holds. The pupils’ interaction with the school and with peers lead
to the development of various attitudes. The pupil learns to like school or to dislike it.
The liking of school is related to the ability to adjust well in school. It can also be good
performance. On the other hand the dislike for school is related to the inability to adjust
well in the school setting and it could also affect the learner’s performance.
It is of atmost importance then for a teacher to know how attitudes develop. If the teacher
knows how positive attitudes towards school and school subjects develop then he will be
able to influence their development. Also if the teacher knows how negative attitudes can
be changed he will be able to influence the changes.

8.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to do the following
• Define the term attitude.
• Explain the components of attitudes.
• Discuss how attitudes develop.
• Outline the relationship between the attitudes held vis-a–vis performance.
• Explain how attitudes are changed.

8.2 Definition of the term

Like many psychological constructs attitude does not led itself for easy definition.
However we shall define it as a favourable or unfavourable evaluative reaction towards
something or someone exhibited in ones beliefs, feelings or intended behavior, (Myers,
1996.Severy Brigham and Schlenker, (1976) defined attitude as an orientation towards an
object in ones environment inferred from behavior. Attitude can also be defined as a
predisposition to act in a negative or positive way towards persons, objects, ideas or
events.
• As predisposition attitudes are anticipatory responses.

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 • They describe a relationship between a person and something else called the
attitudinal object.
• The attitudinal object could be another person, a place, an event or even oneself.
• Attitudes are directional in the sense that they represent a positive or negative
preference for the attitudinal object.
• Attitudes also vary in intensity meaning, that an attitude towards something can
be very strong or moderate or even weak.
• Attitudes can also be defined as learned ways of consistently interacting with and
responding to the stimuli in ones environment.
• We can also look at attitudes as general response patterns in the sense that they
predispose a person to be motivated in ways that are consistent to the attitude.
• The way people behave reveal the attitudes they hold.
Sometimes it is difficult to infer attitude from behavior.

8.2.1 Activity

Imagine that you have quarreled with a neighbour or a colleague. Basically you feel like
throwing an insult at him every time you see him or her. For a whole year you have not
greeted each other and you do not intend to do so for a long time. Then, a friend of yours
invites you to attend a function in his home and you agree to grace the occasion. When
you get to your friend’s house, you find your “enemy” among the invited guests. Will
you shake hands? Smile and hug him? Or will you show open hostility and start a
quarrel? Of course you might pretend that nothing is the matter and painfully go through
the motions of greeting and hugging. This illustrates that sometimes it is difficult to infer
the attitude held from observed behavior.

8.3.0 Components of Attitudes

Attitudes have three components
• The affective /feeling
• The cognitive
• The behavior

8.3.1 The affective component

This component describes ones emotional reactions towards the attitudinal object. It
consists of positive or negative feelings. In the positive direction there are positive
feelings of liking, loving, enjoying accompanying the attitudinal object. Whereas in the
negative direction there are negative feelings of dislike, hate, feeling uncomfortable in the
presence of the attitudinal object.
In terms of component evaluation the effective component is the most primitive and
irrational of the three components. Any attitude operating at this level can cause a lot of
destruction. Many animosities that people visit each other are caused by attitudes
operating at this level. In this life Muslims may hate Christians, Catholics may fight with

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Protestants and vise versa, men may dislike women, boys may dislike female teachers,
one tribe my rise up in arms and massacre another tribe simply because of negative
feelings held. Students may dislike a teacher, a subject or school without knowing why.
Most politically motivated attitudes operate at this level.

8.3.2 The Cognitive Component Of Attitudes

The cognitive component includes beliefs, facts, and information about the attitudinal
object. At this level the person holds an attitude on the basis of information. This
component has its inherent problems in the sense that the attitude may be based on a large
store of incorrect information and false beliefs. For example a person may belief hat
somebody is good or bad or one may rely on stories told by people who have various
biases and prejudices regarding the attitudinal object. For example a principal who does
not want to go on transfer because of certain vested interests in the current school may
tell terrible stories about the in coming principal. He may summon the school an the
parade ground and tell the students that the incoming principal will eat up all the money
in the school, or that he is being transferred because of his inability to run his previous
school. The story may run to the effect that the incoming principal has even killed a
student and so on. Given all the misinformation the students will rise up in rebellion
against the incoming principal before he sets his foot in the neighbourhood leave alone
the school compound. With this in mind it is very important for people to confirm the
sources of their information by considering the evidence and crosschecking facts. People
should seek to base the cognitive component of their attitudes on solid, factual and
unbiased information.

8.3.3 The Behavioral Component

Attitudes towards a person, an even, a place or an idea affect how the person behaves
towards the attitudinal object. An attitude is never observable. We cannot look at a person
and then tell the attitude he holds. Therefore we infer attitudes from observable behavior.
Attitudes are assumed to be important say that determinants of behavior. That is if a
person’s attitude towards a certain object is positive then the person’s behavior should be
positive and therefore correspond with the attitude. Likewise if the held attitude is
negative we expect the person to display negative behavior towards the attitudinal object.
Logically we expect a person to display positive behaviour towards an attitudinal object
that evokes positive feelings. Contrary we expect a person to display negative behaviour
towards an attitudinal object that evokes negative feelings.

8.3.4 Activity

a) Consider this, you have a friend in a rival team or rival group. Your group or team
meets for a competition. Ordinarily you would help your friend and he would help you in
things. When you meet you hug, laugh and spend hours together. Just now you are in
rival groups where will your loyalty be? With your friend or with your group?

b) Also consider this

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You are sworn enemies with Mike. Suddenly, you find yourselves in the same group and
you must prepare for an important competition. Again will you allow the negative
attitude you have against Mike interfere with the training and subsequent competition?

These examples are meant to tell us that, sometimes the link between attitudes and
behavior tends to be weak. So although social psychologists agree that attitudes and
actions feed each other, they also agree that attitudes are poor predictors of our action.
Many times people pay verbal pledge when they are not committed in their behavior.
This can be seen in friendships and even in religion. People pay lip service to their
friends and even to their religious faith. They say one thing but do the opposite. A person
will proclaim the undying friendship with you when they need a favour but run away
when you need them most. Under these specific circumstances we have to observe the
behavior in order to know the attitude. We also confirm that actions speak louder than
words.

8.4 Functions Of Attitudes

At this juncture it is important to examine the role attitudes play in our lives. These are
the following
• Cognitive
• Social adjustment
• Ego defense mechanisms
• Expressing Values

1. The cognitive function

Attitudes play the role of assisting the individual understand the world. Under this
function attitudes give us a frame of reference, a way to structure the world so that it
makes sense. For example a pupils attitudes about possible professional fields may help
him in the choice of subjects the also determine the effort to put in order to attain the
specific goals.

2. Social Adjustment function

Human beings are social creatures. Certain individuals and groups are very important to
the person. These important individuals are called the significant other persons. They
expect one to hold certain attitudes particularly attitudes consistent with those they hold.
When the person holds the desired attitudes he earns group membership through being
accepted as one of them. This is important and promises the individual’s survival in the
group. The expression of the approved attitudes earns the person rewards, identification
and approval. On the other hand if the individual does not hold attitudes consistent with
the group he is threatened with ex-communication. When a child is sent away from the
family home, or a pupil is expelled from the school it is because they fail to comply with
the attitudes fostered by either the home or the school. When Bishop Milingo of the
Catholic Church went against the behavior prescribed by the church he was threatened by
excommunication.

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3. Ego defense mechanisms
Human beings are psychologically uncomfortable with situations that threaten their self-
esteem or their ego. So in order to live with such situations they build psychological
defenses around their egos. The defense mechanisms involve a degree of self-deception
as well as distortion of reality. For example a pupil who has not worked hard for their
examination will refuse to accept responsibility for the failure that results. He will
attribute the failure to other sources. He will say that the teacher dislikes him and
therefore can never give him good grades. Or the teacher is incompetent and the like. Or
a man who is beaten by his wife finds it extremely difficult to acknowledge and accept
that indeed it happens, so, when he is among other men he becomes the staunchest
advocate for the supremacy of men, the power of the men over women and the need to
keep women in their place.
A person who uses ego defense mechanisms looks for the slightest opportunity to
confirm the belief. This confirmation protects him from acknowledging this weaknesses
and basic truths about him. At times the ego-defense mechanisms lead to self-fulfilling
prophesies. They serve the purpose of maintaining the erroneous beliefs.

8.5 Development of attitudes

The key questions here concerns how attitudes are acquired. Attitudes are acquired early
in life through the following methods:
• Observation
• Instrumental conditioning
• Classical conditioning
• Direct experience

1. Observational learning
According to the social learning theory attitudes are transmitted through the process of
imitation. This is learning by observing others. From early in life children see how a
parent, a sister, a brother, a teacher, a television character or model reacts towards a kind
of food, a certain animal, person or event. The child then models his own attitudes after
those expressed by these important models. In later childhood and adolescence the person
observes the peer group and identifies with them by assuming the attitudes they hold.

2. Instrumental conditioning
According to this theory attitudes can be established or modified through reinforcement
procedures. Throughout life people are rewarded with praise, approval and friendship for
expressing certain attitudes. They are punished for expressing others. The attitudes that
are rewarded tend to be held more strongly while punished attitudes are weakened.
According to these theories the environment must be organized in such a way that an
attitude has all the likelihood of being reinforced until it is established.

3. Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is learning through association. In life, people see smoke and they
know smoke and fire occur together. When lightening is seen thunder is anticipated.
Likewise when a person visits the dentist, pain is anticipated. Experiments in classical

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conditioning have revealed that when a neutral stimulus is consistently associated with
stimulus that produces emotional response, classical conditioning occurs. After repeated
pairings of stimuli the previously neutral stimulus become conditioned stimulus and
elicits the same response that the unconditioned stimulus does. At home of the mention of
the neighbours home by the parents is associated with negative comments e.g. they are of
dubious character or background, they steal, they are proud and so on the children assume
the negative attitudes towards the neighbours.
If a boy continually hears his father comment negatively or derogatively about women he
acquires negative attitudes towards girls and women. Every time a child hears people
speak negatively about members of a certain religion, community, race or religion, then
the child assumes similar attitudes. In the school situation classical conditioning
influences attitudes in the following ways:
If a math lesson is paired with difficult incomprehensible concepts and math tests with
failing grades the learner acquires negative attitudes towards math.
Also if school life is paired with physical and psychological pain and discomfort, then the
child acquires a negative attitude towards school.

4. Direct experience
Many attitudes are learned by direct experience with the attitude object. This occurs
through our interaction with the attitude object as well as our memory for these
interactions. For example a pupil may have heard that a certain teacher is very harsh and
every body fears him. When this teacher takes up the mathematics class he instills
discipline, goes about teaching seriously and systematically and eventually the
mathematics grade improves. The pupil learns to respect the teacher and his hope for
passing mathematics is renewed. This positive attitude towards the teacher is likely to
endure. Attitudes formed as a result of first hand or direct experience are more
thoughtful, more certain, more stable and more resistant to attack.

8.6.0 Attitude change

In this section I have discussed attitude change in the light of different theoretical
approaches.
• The behavioristic theory.
• Cognitive theory,
• Social learning theory
8.6.1 Behavioristic theories
The same theories that we have used to explain how attitudes are acquired can be used to
explain attitude change. At times a person who had acquired a positive attitude towards
something assumes a negative attitude and where a positive attitude was a negative one
might replace it. If we consider social learning theory and attitude change, a child or a
pupil will change a held attitude in order to conform to the one held by significantly other
people. For example a boy who did not like a certain kind of food changes his attitude
when he learns that that dish is the father favourite. Since he wishes to identify with the
father he likes the food the father likes. Using the operant conditioning theory we note
that the attitudes that are not reinforced go through the process of extinction until they

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disappear. In association learning, when the stimuli paired together cease the conditioned
behavior dies.

8.6.2 Cognitive theories persuasion

Attitudes can be changed through persuasion.
• In school we may wish to change attitudes regarding learners social behaviors
• Attitudes towards the positive aspects of the African cultures.
• Attitudes towards healthy living habits and so on.
In persuasion we use persuasive messages. These messages should be repeated often
until they become familiar. This is similar to the methods used to commercialize
products. Every time the television or the radio is on the commercial selling the
product is on. Currently the Lux soap is being so highly commercialized on the
television screens on the billboards, in the print media everywhere. There was a time
the AAR, Kilometric and Panadol had hit the screens. This method can be used in the
school to ensure that pupils continue hearing certain message over and over again.
The use of persuasive arguments can also help to foster attitudes. Arguments should
be delivered depending on the audience receiving them.
• To an audience that is dull a one sided argument will do. This is the side that
presents the attitude that is intended to be acquired. Many politicians and
theologians use this method.
• The school could use this method when dealing with a young audience.
• When dealing with an intelligent audience a two sided argument works very
well. Let the audience know the attitude to hold while presenting them with
the opposing view as well. You tell them something like----
Pro abortionists say this----but remember.
• Or students are not working hard because they say there are no jobs--- but
remember----.
This gives the audience psychological immunity. Again theologians and politicians are
very good at this. In persuasion emotional appeal is very important. By emotional appeal
we mean reaching the feelings of the audience.
• For example, over and above telling a person that smoking causes mouth,
throat and lung cancer, these messages could be enriched.
• The person could be shown a video of doctors operating on cancerous lungs.
The emotions that will arise from watching the video will make the person
stop smoking.
• Likewise, if a girl who wants to abort is exposed to a video showing doctors
performing an abortion she will most likely stop wanting to abort.
• If we want the youth to change their sexual behavior, an exposure to video
showing the sufferings people go through before eventually dying of aids
passes the message clearly across.

8.6.3 Role models

Role models can also be used to help change attitudes. The role model must be a person
who is trusted, one who is an expert, credible competent, better informed than most and
one who is gregarious. (Loves to mix with people)

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The model should be a person perceived as being high. For religious and moral issues the
bishop or the Kadhi should be the role model.
• For legal matters, the lawyer.
• For medical issues the doctor.
• If we want girls to change their attitude towards mathematics and science, female
professors in the respective fields should be taken as role models. This person
could be invited to school to talk to the students.
• The students can also be shown a video of the person at work.
Yet again commercial advertisements are very good at using famous people to sell their
products. For example:
• The famous Kenyan rally driver was at one time used to sell Panadol. There were
huge billboards with Njiru saying that, “I could not do the rally without my AAR
membership”.
• The famous one time gold medallist Kipchoge Keino was used to sell the
kilometric biro pens with the message that it runs and runs---

8.6.4 The use of dissonance in attitude change

Cognitive dissonance theory of attitude change was developed by Leon Festinger, (1957).
The theory states that we change our attitudes because we are motivated to maintain
consistency among our cognitions According to the theory human beings are
psychologically comfortable when the cognitions they hold about themselves objects
events and other people are consistent, (all in agreement). For example you believe that
someone is your friend and when you have a problem he helps you out. One cognition in
this example is:
• John is my friend.
• The other cognition is; he helps me out when I have a problem.
• The two cognitions are said to be consonant because they are consistent or in
harmony.
• We could also have a statement like;
• I have always known Wafula is a traitor.
• When we sneaked out of school he told on us.
• The first cognition here is that Wafula is a traitor.
• The second cognition is that; he told on us. Again these two cognitions are
consonant. Consonant cognitions help to stamp in an attitude it helps to confirm
it and not to change it.

1. Dissonance
Cognitions are said to be dissonant when they are inconsistent. The inconsistency is
called dissonance and it is caused by psychological tension arising from mixed feelings.
Dissonance is psychologically uncomfortable hence human beings strive hard to remove
it.

2. Examples of dissonance
Having the knowledge that something is bad or harmful yet one continues to indulge in it
e.g. the knowledge cigarette smoking is harmful to the lungs, yet I cannot do without my
cigarette.

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 • The first cognition is that cigarette smoking is harmful. The second cognition is
that I smoke.
• Another example: Excessive drinking of alcohol is harmful to the liver.
• I love to drink heavily. The first cognition is; excessive consumption of alcohol is
harmful the second I love to drink heavily. In both instances the cognitions are
dissonant.

3. Sources of dissonance
Inconsistency with cultural moves. In this case dissonance occurs when one holds
beliefs that go against ones culture or religion, particularly when there are strong cultural
or religious feelings about an attitude. For example when a country is going to war and
every body is in the war mood but there is a person who holds feelings to the contrary.
In school there could be a culture of handwork and seriousness but one student may want
to incite the others to strike.

Dissonance can also be caused by inconsistency between a particular behavior and the
general trend of behavior. For example a person who is known to be honest or truthful or
even obedient at all the times but at one time he is forced to be dishonest, untruthful or
disobedient. In a school situation a student may be performing very well academically but
suddenly he begins to perform poorly.

4. How does dissonance cause attitude change?

All situations where dissonance occurs call for rethinking, decision-making and change
of attitude.
• In school the teacher could use dissonance to change attitudes in a way that will
benefit learning.
• For example a teacher who is posted in a new school where the dominant culture
is mass failures in his subject can use this approach.
• He could change the teaching methods.
• Use teaching aids.
• Teach in an interesting manner.
• Initially give tests that students can pass and then.
• Increase the level of difficulty as pupils improve their performance. At the end of
it all the students will turn around and say ”we had not imagined that math or
Chemistry can be this easy or interesting”
• Dissonance will have worked to change an attitude.

8.7 Attitudes and school settings

8.7.1 How do attitudes relate to school settings?
Attitudes help to determine what a learner perceives and how he perceives it. The learner
may have acquired a positive or a negative attitude towards.
• A particular teacher.
• Subject or
• School in general. The acquired attitude affects school life:

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 • Learning and adjustment.
It goes without saying that positive attitudes towards the teacher and school work
leads to success and healthy adjustment to school whereas negative attitudes make
the learner desist and dislike school.
• When the learner desists and dislikes school his energies and interests are
channeled elsewhere.
• This learner will fight all attempts to make him learn. He will perceive the
learning task as unpleasant and useless. The learners’ attitudes towards self are
also very important.
There are those learners who have positive attitudes towards themselves.
• They become self-confident and they approach learning tasks confidently. This
makes them successful. Success is reinforcing and satisfying and helps to
maintain the positive attitude towards self and school.
On the other hand the learner who holds a negative attitude towards self loses
confidence and consequently this leads to failure.
• In turn failure leads to disorganization and disorientation.
• The failing pupil will result to the use of defensive mechanisms for example
blame his failure on the teacher, who he may accuse of being bad.
• Biased and
• Unfair or
• Even incompetent.
• The negative attitudes block future learning, which results in repeated failure.
Repeated failure produce strong feelings of insecurity and inferiority, which
eventually affect adjustment to school.

8.7.2 The teacher and attitude change

What is the teacher’s role in attitude change?
The teacher is the person on the ground. He is in direct contact with the students and
therefore his role in attitude change can never be overestimated. For him to be effective
in changing pupils’ attitudes;
• He should be conversant with the following
• Remember that attitudes are very resistant to change because they are tied up
with personal feelings, needs and self-concept.
• Note that schools are usually unable to change attitudes because their programs
do not appeal to the total person.
With this in mind, to be effective in attitude change, the teacher should first know the
attitudes held by learners, then use the following methods to change them

1.Use the peer group

The peer group can be used in discussions or debates on certain topical issues. For
example sexuality,
• Abortion,
• School life
• Friendship and so on.

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• As the peers exchange their views and give points for or against the topic being
debated or discussed they influence each other’s attitudes.
• The catch here is that the youths will readily accept values of their own peers.
Attitudes changed this way are more effectively inculcated.

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2.First hand experience
Students need to be exposed to first hand experiences in the attitude issues concerned. I f
they had previously thought that the subject is boring or difficult, they should be exposed
to interesting teaching and to proper guidance that leads to success. If they are taught in
an interesting manner and they experience how a good teacher works, they will change
their attitudes.

3.Appeal to feelings
The teacher should always ensure that the students register information not only with
their senses but also with their feelings. If they are expected to cultivate positive feelings
towards the attitudinal issue or even negative feelings this issue should be well addressed.
• The teacher could refer the pupils to sources of information that will arouse
feelings. Video shows that arouse feelings could be shown. Stories with first hand
experience could be exchanged. Whatever feelings the teacher thinks will be
beneficial should be evoked. Feelings lead to experience of catharsis, which is
very important in attitude change

4. Discovery method
The teacher could also allow the students to discover for themselves basic information
concerning the attitudinal object. For example: Their could be a student who is HIV
positive or one who has lost parents through AIDS and the rest of the class don’t know
how to behave towards him/her. Nobody wants to share a desk or books with her. For the
teacher to instill positive attitude towards the particular student he could give students
projects to visit doctors for information, to read about the topic, to contact families with
AIDS patients and then present their findings in class. After they have discovered all the
basic information, that they can, they will be friendlier, more helpful and more accepting
towards their fellow student.

5. Persuasive periods
The teacher should look for persuasive periods in the child’s life and then foster the
necessary attitudes. There are times when students will be most receptive to new
attitudes, for example during a transition or crisis. This is the time when the student is
facing some challenge or some kind of failure. This could be.
• When a good student’s whose performance has been dropping steadily due to
influence from bad company.
• It could be a well-behaved student whose behavior has suddenly changed and is
facing punishment almost daily or
• It could be a lazy student who has lost a parent and now he needs to see the
importance of being serious and focused in his life.
Whatever the case a student who is in a crisis situation will be more receptive to
suggestibility and attitude change.

6. Consistent attitudes
In attitude change, the teacher should foster attitudes that are consistent with attitudes
held by the home, the community and the mass media. In other words the teachers
attitudes should not deviate from generally held attitudes. Of course some care and

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discretion may be required here because there are widely held attitudes which need some
revision if not complete overhaul.

8.8 Personality traits that characterize persuasibility

The teacher as a person who is central in attitude change needs to know the personality
traits that characterize persuasibility. These are traits that make a person open or closed to
suggestions that change attitudes. These are the following:

1. Congruence
Congruence refers to the agreeability. In this respect individuals will readily listen to
messages with which they agree. They turn away when confronted with a message with
which they do not agree with. By way of example lets consider this boy who comes to
school with his trouser hanging dangerously around his hips, his shirt lacking all the
buttons and shoes that have not seen polish for months. His hair has not encountered the
torture of a comb in weeks. This is an ungainly sight capable of revolting even the most
compassionate of teachers. If we want to change his attitude there are nice things that this
boy wants to hear. He wants to hear that he is a good boy that he is handsome, that you
like him, but is there something that he can do about his dressing? On the next day he
will appear looking better. This should not be ignored, he should be applauded for
improved grooming and within no time he will have rejoined the flock.

Activity

• What will most teachers do when confronted with the scenario described
above?
• How many will start with throwing insults punishments and abuses?
• What do you think the punishments and insults will do to this student?
• How many teachers will ignore this student?
• What do you think ignoring will do to this student?

2. The age factor

Age is a factor that influences suggestibility. Children are more influenceable when they
are young. This suggestibility increases from early childhood through age nine. This
means that all the positive attitudes should be instilled at this time. From age nine through
adolescence the influence is from the peer group. So it is very important that the peer
group has imbibed the appropriate attitudes.

3. Intelligence and educational level are factors influencing suggestibility

Intelligent and more educated people are more persuadable because they can process
more information.

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 • They need to be presented with both sides of an argument because they have no
problem dealing with the pros and cons of an argument.
• The less intelligent people can be persuaded by naïve arguments. The politicians,
theologians and even people who move masses for personal gain use his particular
insight.
• In school a few people use this style. They use a few arguments on people who
don’t think for themselves and in a short while the school is burned down.

4. Sex is a factor
Women are more readily influenced than men. This is because they are better listeners
and they absorb more messages.

5. Self esteem
People with high or low self-esteem are more influenciable than people with average self-
esteem

6. Dogmatism
Dogmatism deals with the area of belief systems where people are supposed to take in
religious teachings and training without questioning. They are also expected to escape
any possibility at questioning and even become militant when people question their
beliefs.
In dogmatism there are people who are high while others are low.
• High dogmatic people are intolerant,
• Stereotypic in their thinking and
• Highly defensive.
• They tend to avoid views that are inconsistent with those they hold and they
avoid information as well. Due to these reasons they are unable to mix widely
with other people.
• That is why they tend to spend a lot of time together so that they foster narrowly
held attitudes.
• Generally they tend to be psychologically immature and poorly adjusted.
• Teachers will encounter students who come from different dogmatic orientations
• Students who dress in a certain prescribed way,
• Who eat only certain foods or
• Drink certain beverages.
• The issue of the Sabbath in seventh day Adventist areas has been contentious for
long and will not be resolved.
• The issue of how women should dress and how they should not, has been
controversial with conservative thinkers wanting to prescribe a particular dress
code and subjecting women to humiliating, horrors in public undressing by the of
women in trousers and mini skirts.
Imagine if the Scott and not the English Colonised Kenya, then every man would be
wearing a Scottish Kilt and those in trousers would be publicly undressed.
The low dogmatic people are enterprising,
• Calm,

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 • Mature,
• Forceful and
• Efficient.
They listen to information even when it is inconsistent to their belief.
• Teachers should actually be sensitive to students’ orientation so that they
don’t confront and attack them. Confrontation makes students more
resistant because in the process of acquiring the various dogma they also
get psychological inoculation, which makes them very resistant to attack.

8.9 Summary

In this lesson the role of attitudes in school setting has been examined.
The term attitude has been defined
Components of attitudes have been discussed
Functions of attitudes have been outlined
Development of attitudes has been discussed
Attitude change has been explained
Attitude and school setting has been spotlighted
Teachers’ role in attitude change has been outlined

8.10 Key terms

Affective component: -the feelings evoked by an attitude. These could be positive or

negative feelings.

Attitude: -A predisposition to act in a negative or positive way towards persons, objects,

ideas or events.

Behavioral component: -Observable acts that occur in response to the held attitude.

Cognitive component: - The higher mental processes that involve thinking perceiving
and which also involve beliefs, facts and information about attitudinal objects.

Consonance: -Consistency, agreement of cognition.

Dissonance: -Inconsistency, disagreement of cognitions in an attitude

Functions of attitudes: - refer to the roles attitudes play in our lives.

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8.11 Discussion/Review questions

1. Discuss four ways in which attitudes affect performance and adjustment to school.
2. Discuss explosive situations that you have witnessed and which have been prompted by the
affective component of attitudes.
3. Many attitudes are established and have their roots in a large store of misinformation.
Discuss.
4. Teachers need to be very careful when they are teaching in areas with tendencies towards
high dogmatism. Discuss.

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LESSON NINE

PERSONALITY

9.0 Introduction
In this lesson I have discussed Personality focusing on.
• Genetic determinants
• Environmental determinants.
In the environmental determinants I have examined the role played by the home and the
school in the determination of personality.
Why is the study of personality important to the teacher?

Among the many important concepts that the teacher needs to be conversant with and
which is beneficial to his discharge of duties is the role personality plays in the whole
mosaic matrices of school life for every student. Personality psychology examines the
differences that exist among people. When the teacher who is dealing with pupils in any
one-classroom situation, needs to be aware of individual differences that predominate at
any one time.
• If there are forty pupils in the classroom there are forty different personalities
there. Each pupil is unique and different from every other pupil.
• These differences exist even when many variables like age, sex, social class,
cultural background and even family background are the same.
The knowledge of personality helps the teacher to know what causes the individual
differences in learners and at the same time gives him insights in the sensitivities required
when dealing with the learners.
• The teacher gets to understand that there are learners who will not take a joke or
humour.
• The information is also beneficial in classroom management and behavior
modification because;
• If the teacher knows where the pupil is coming from he will be better equipped to
deal with any situations requiring behaviour change.

9.1 Objectives

• By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:

• Define the term personality
• Account for causes of individual differences in personality
• Discuss the role played by home factors in the development of personality

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• Explain how school factors influence personality

9.2 Definition Of The Term Personality

Personality is a complicated concept to define. The complication not withstanding
psychologists have agreed on some definitions.

Some psychologists define the term personality as individual characteristics and ways of
behaving that in their organization or pattern accounts for an individual’s unique
adjustment to his total environment.

Personality has also been defined as the dynamic organization within the individual of
these psychological systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought.

In a third definition, personality refers to the whole of a person's outstanding

characteristics: his physiology, drive, level of aspirations, emotional and social traits,
interests and attitudes.

What do we learn from these definitions?

There are common themes that run through these definitions of personality.
• That personality is the sum total of what a person is: the body the mental
characteristics as well as the psychological traits.
The second theme running through the definition refers to the organization and structure
of personality.
• There is agreement that personality is organized and structured so that there is
frequency and consistency of personality characteristics. For example, if we know
someone to be kind and hard working, friendly honest and so on, we expect the
person to display these characteristics most of the time, now and in the future.
• In the same token, if we know someone to be bad and mean, unfriendly and
dishonest we expect these traits to be consistent over time.

9.3 Determinants of personality

There are two major determinants of personality. This is nature, which refers to the
biological make up of the person or the genes.
The second is nurture, which refers to all the environmental influences on personality.

Question

What do people inherit from genes and which go towards the shaping of personality?

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9.3.1 Genetic determinants of personality
From genes individuals inherit the “blue print” towards certain traits. The “blue print”
refers to the laid down potentialities.
• There are potentialities towards certain physical traits e.g. height, body structures
and skin pigmentation.
• Genes also lay down the potentialities towards the quality of the central nervous
system.
• This means that the quality of the brain and intellectual functioning has genetic
heritability to it.
• Thirdly genes determine the biochemical balance of the body.

Question

What are the materials of personality?

The principle raw materials of personality are: physique, intelligence and temperaments.
These are the foundations of personality, which are determined through structural
inheritance.
• These raw materials are then patterned into personality characteristics through
maturation experience and learning.
• Genetic heredity produces the raw materials and sets
Genetic heredity produces the raw materials and sets the limits of development.

Question

Does genetic heredity alone account for individual differences in personality?

When we acknowledge that we are unique, we have our own ways of thinking, feeling
and behaving that distinguish us from everyone else, we also need to acknowledge that
genetic heredity explains these differences partially. There are many environmental
influences that shape and modify personality. The genetic blue prints are given room to
unfold as the person interacts with different environmental conditions and demands.

Question

What lesson should the teacher derive from genetic information?

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• That each pupil possesses a distinctive personality from all other pupils.
• Physical traits, emotionality, sociability activity levels and intellectual functioning are
all influenced by the genetic potentials inherited by every child.
• That these innate potentials cannot develop beyond the set limits and therefore have
realistic expectations for every child.

9.3.2 Environmental determinants of personality

Children find themselves growing up in many different environments. Each environment
leaves its own mark on the malleable human being. Of course the most important
environmental influences are those that impact the child early in life during the formative
period when the self-concept is being formed.
Many of these influences are experienced at home as the child interacts with the parents,
siblings and other persons in the home. Today many children go to school as early as age
three. By the time the child attains school age. What is set at age six in Kenya, they have
been through,
• Baby class at age three,
• Nursery school at age four and
• Pre unit at age five.

9.4 The home influences love and acceptance

The home is usually the first social environment that the social encounters. It provides the
child with the earliest social experiences as he interacts with mother, father siblings and
other people. These people normally referred to as significant others in the child’s life lay
down the foundations of trust or mistrust.
During infancy and early childhood, the individual will learn to trust the mother, then the
self and the world if they are exposed to
• a stable loving, acceptable and warm social environment.
• Parental love and acceptance sow the seeds of trust and feelings of security in the
child
• These become the foundation upon which psychological health is built.
There are those children who suffer rejection and who are unloved.
• These develop a deep mistrust towards the mother, the self and the world. They
feel insecure and their psychological development starts on a troubled note. It is
there fore extremely important for parents to ensure that their young ones enjoy
love and acceptance because these lay down the foundations of psychological
health.

9.4.1 Time spent at home

The time a child spends at home with family members is very important in the
determination of personality.
• The critical issue and one which many parents may be oblivious about is the fact
that family influences on personality are greater when a major part of ones time is
spent in the home with family members.

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 • Here we are concerned about the amount of time parents and children spend
together at home.
• The amount of time spent with a person determines how significant that person is.
• Many times parents imagine that if they provide for the physical needs of children
• They have done their work
• If they have paid for their fees,
• There is food at home and other necessities are catered for
• So what else does the child want from me? The child needs to spend time with
parents both the father and the mother.
• If the parent is pending time with the child then it becomes easy to influence his
attitudes values and behaviour.

Question

Who is at home with the children?

In many Kenyan homes the child is with other children raising each other with a little
help from the television and other electronic devices while the “ayah” cooks and cleans
around the house. This means that for some children parental influence is a remote
possibility. Many parents are strangers to their children and vise versa.

9.4.2 Personal identifications

Identification is a Freudian concept.
• It refers to the child’s wish to become like the father for the boys or
• To become like the mother for girls. If the boy becomes like the father, he
assumes the male gender role while the girl assumes the female gender role if she
becomes like the mother.
• Mostly, a child will identify with family members he respects and loves.
• He /she consciously or unconsciously imitates that person. The big question here
is;
• Is the father at home to give the boy the model for identification?
• Is the mother at home to give the girl the model for identification?

9.4.2.1 Activity

• Identify activities that keep mothers and fathers away from home after 5 o’clock in
the evening, on Saturdays and Sundays.
• How can these activities be rescheduled to allow parents time with their children?

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• When parents keep away from home, could it be that they are escaping something?
What is it?
• In your own assessment, what should be the role of the “ayah?” The inevitable
household technician? To run the home? To raise the children? Or to offer assistance?

We are concerned about parental absences from the home because each parent has
specific contributions towards rearing children, which nobody else can deputize.
• The mother’s role is very specific. She should be there to provide nurturance as
well as female role modeling.
• The father should provide discipline as well as the male role model.
• The absence or non-participation of one parent in the child’s life leaves deficits or
gaps, which could be easily filled by, many negative influences. When we
complain that our children are,
• Using indecent language,
• Are lacking in respect,
• Are lazy
• Are dressing badly and so on we should be concerned about the kind of
influences they are exposed as a result of our absences or non-participation in
their lives.

9.4.3 Methods of behavior control

The Methods used by parents to control the child’s behavior are very important. These
refer to the incentives the parents put in place to induce good behavior, the frustrations
and punishments they mete out to discourage unacceptable behavior.
• Many times some parents leave children’s discipline to chance. They hope that
the children will pick up all the desirable behavior by and by.
These parents are usually shocked when the children turn into monsters that nobody can
tame.
• Other parents are conscious of their role in instilling discipline in their children
but they do all the wrong things in this endeavour.
• When they beat their children they do it with a vengeance that leaves children
physically and psychologically damaged.
• When they deprive children favours, they deny them food and other basic
requirements leaving the children hungry unloved and damaged.
• Parents should know that even when they must discipline children it should be
love oriented discipline.
• The child should never feel unloved or rejected during the formative years.
• Child discipline should be accompanied by love acceptance, unconditional
positive regard.

9.4.4 Security of environment

Every child needs to feel secure. For this reason the home should be that secure
environment where the child should go with his joys and success as well as with his
sorrows and defeats without feeling unwanted, inadequate or unhappy.
• The home should provide the child with firm ground that gives him anchorage.

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 • If the child is well anchored his development moves in the direction of self-
actualization.

9.4.5 Emotional climate of the home

The emotional climate of the home is very important. Children need a healthy emotional
climate. This is aided by empathy, communication, respect for each other, together ness
and appropriate methods of coping with disagreements. These conditions are conducive
to the development of psychological health in children.
• However in many homes these condition are utopian and unattainable as the order
of the day in many homes is the
• Lack of feelings for one another,
• Lack of communication
• Disrespect and
• Inappropriate methods of coping with disagreement.
• Many children are treated to rude shocks by night and by day when parents “offer
free for all entertainment” in the neighbourhood as they hurl verbal barrage of
insults mixed with some physical actions of flying kicks and fists at each other.
• The unfavourable frictional home climate affects children negatively.
• The children from such homes develop hostility, antagonism and they grow to
resist authority.

9.4.6 Negative home influences

There are negative home influences, which damage the developing personality. We may
not be in a position to mention all of them but offer a few examples.

1. Favourism
This refers to the condition where the parents prefer some children openly in their words
and actions. Parents are known to openly talk about the children they like and those they
dislike. They will, o out of their way to extend favours to the “good” children while the
‘bad’ ones don’t get to visit exiting places nor have nice things bought for them. The
favoured child gets new things while the “bad” one gets the old ones. This practice
promotes sibling rivalry, which could at one times cause dire consequences leading to
death or injury. It causes insecurity and inferiority.

2. Another negative home practice is experienced when a parent shows feelings of

inadequacy.
A parent who is feeling inadequate for their role may be because they lack basic
resources or
• Maybe because they have misused or mishandled resources becomes a very
dangerous person.
• Many men and women will not accept their shortcomings. They will use defense
mechanisms.
• They may become too harsh and blame the other parent or children to the point
that no one will dare approach them for anything.
• A woman or man who comes home and starts finding fault in everything around
him fortifies herself/himself against any questions.

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3. Cheating parents
PARENTS, BOTH MEN AND WOMEN MAY CHEAT ABOUT MANY THINGS;

ABOUT SOME SUSPICIOUS PAST,

• Resources,
• Extra marital affairs,
• Jobs,
• Other children,
• Sicknesses and so on.
Parents who cheat use a lot of psychological energy to cover up the things they want to
keep hidden. They also must use resources and they institute some unexplained
restrictions.
• They become difficult and complicated and sometimes fearful.
• They don’t want you to meet their relatives or people who know them.
• They go places alone and won’t entertain questions.

4. Maladjusted family members

Sometimes a family has someone who is maladjusted. For example,
• A known thief,
• A drunk or
• A known criminal,
Mostly teachers and other children make it their business to keep reminding the child
about their defective family member.
• The child is made to feel inferior and unaccepted because of a father who is in jail
or a mother who crawls home drank or a brother who steals and so on.
• This child feels insecure and rejected, which are not recipes for the development
of psychological health.

5. Authoritarian control
There are parents who are known to rule the family with an iron fist. The child is
supposed to be seen and not to be heard, to obey every command without questioning. A
child raised in this kind of family background never learns to be resourceful and neither
does he learn to be autonomous. Parents are therefore requested to be authoritative and
not authoritarian. Being authoritative means allowing children room to ask questions and
reason out while at the same time being firm and loving while dealing with discipline
issues.

6. Marital maladjustment
Marital maladjustment refers to the situation where the married couple discover that the
marriage is not working yet they still share a roof amid fights, insults, separate lives and
public dramatic scenes or pretences. In many cases where there is marital maladjustment
the child suffers a great deal. There are instances where the parents decide to use the
child as a weapon to fight the other partner. In other cases a partner can gang up with the

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child against the other partner or the child could go through a great deal of suffering torn
in between the two parents.

NOTE

The family factor is recognized as the single most important influence on cognitive
development, emotional development and the development of self-concept.

Question

What is the critical factor determining psychological health or ill health?

It is noteworthy to point out that if one or two aspects of the home are psychologically
unfavourable they may not cause personality development problems. No home can pride
itself to be ideal-each home has its shortcomings and challenges, therefore the one critical
factor in determining psychological health is the experience and the feelings of security.
As long as the home can make the child feel secure it is alright.

Question

What cause insecurity in children?

When children are rejected they feel both insecure and nervous and they are likely to
become non compliant.
Rejected children may be abandoned, beaten up or starved. These children build up hate
and hostility, which they vent through retaliation against people and property. These
children are likely to become unsocialised, aggressive and who fear neither man nor
beast. They take on everybody in a compulsive desire to revenge.

7. Child over protection

Over protection refers to cases where parents insist on prolonging a child’s infancy or
childhood. They feed and dress up a child who should have outgrown being fed. The
parent over restricts the child’s activities saying that he should not play with other
children or do anything that can cause him injury.
The over protected child develops feelings of insecurity jealousy, nervousness,
submissiveness and even enuresis. Enuresis is night bed wetting after age three.

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8. The over- demanding parent
When the parents demand more than the child is capable of achieving children react
differently, one child may become submissive and work hard to attain parental standards.
In the process of pushing oneself so hard this child could develop neurotic symptoms.
• When another child is driven too hard he may result to cheating to give the
parents the false belief that he is achieving.
• A third child may become outrightly rebellious and refuse to be driven.

9. Defective home discipline

When home discipline is defective children become poorly adjusted, aggressive,
delinquent or even neurotic.

9.5 Educational determinants of Personality

Educational institutions play a significant role in personality development.
• Schools rank second to the home as their influence comes early in life when the
self-concept is being formed.
• In fact once children join school they spend more time there than in any other
place outside the home.
• The school has different influences and challenges on the child.
• It is the first place that provides the child with challenge. At school the child is no
longer a baby.
• When he is an equal among peers.
• When he cries they laugh at him and tease him as a crybaby.
• When he wets or soils himself and they break into laughter.
• School provides the child with the opportunity to measure himself against the
peers in terms of intellectual, social and physical abilities.

Question

What is a critical factor to consider before introducing a child to school?

9.5.1 Activity

• A child wakes up in the morning and starts to cry, he refuses to take breakfast and
neither will he prepare to go to school.
• The mother beats him and forcefully dresses him up for school.
• He won’t walk to school so he is half carried and half dragged there.
• When he gets to school he looks a pitiable sight. He is dirty, full of tears and mucous.

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• The child is resisting school. Can you guess several reasons causing the resistance?
• What do you think the teacher is likely to do to this crying, dirty, tear eyed and nose
running child?
• What is the likely response of the other children towards this child?
• How is the child likely to behave on the following day?

9.5.2 Readiness For School

The purpose of the following activity is to point out some difficulties experienced by
children when they enter school.
• Some little boys and girls are traumatized by the school experience and there is
nowhere they can run to escape the torture that school can be.
• The mother or father beats them without wanting to find out why they are
unhappy with school,
• When they get to school the teacher continues the tormenting ordeals while other
children laugh at and taunt the poor child.
• We should ensure that the ordeals children go through in an attempt to go to
school are minimized by ensuring that first and foremost, the child is physically
and psychologically ready for school. That is,
• He has control of his bowel movement.
• He can control his urination.
• He has the ability to communicate his needs and he possesses the social skills to
ask the teacher for permission to go to the toilet.
• The social skills must extend to the child’s ability to live with other children with
the degree of harmony that his age permits.
• At least the child’s should be able to share materials and to control his aggression
to a certain extent so that he earns peer acceptance.
• The child should also possess competencies that other children have and is able
to meet other demands of the school.
• The parents and the teacher should try to find out the problems the child is
experiencing early and alleviate them instead of aggravating them as happens
many a time.
• If the child’s problems are dealt with early enough adjustment to school becomes
possible.
• A child fails to adjust to school if they encounter ego-deflating experiences. They
wet or soil their clothes and other children laugh at them,
• The teacher beats them,
• The person who washes their soiled clothes shows open disgust and hostility.

9.5.3 The emotional climate of the school

The emotional climate of the school is very important to the child. This is where the
teacher’s role becomes very critical, as she is normally responsible for setting the
emotional climate.
• The teacher’s influence on personality development is second only to that of the
parents.

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 • She is the mother of many children, all of them the same age. They look up to her
• for love,
• acceptance and
• fair play.
The teacher should be seen to treat all children equally, avoiding favourism. She should
be seen to have a keen interest in children and
• Always remember that children are very sensitive. They want to be assured of
love, acceptance and unconditional positive regard.
• Indeed the teacher sets the foundation for the child’s adjustment or
maladjustment to school.
• The teacher should use the enormous powers she possesses to put children on the
right footing in the direction of psychological health, the direction towards self-
actualization.

9.5.4 Academic success

The degree of academic success that the child achieves affects personality development.
If a child is getting good grades in schoolwork he enjoys inner satisfaction which boosts
his ego.
• Good grades not only lead to praise and commendation from teachers and parents,
they also attract envy from peers.
• They promise a good future as well as adjustment to school.
• A child who is performing well will most likely steer away from any disciplinary
problems.
• This is the child you ask what he wants to become when he grows up and he has a
clear vision of it: a pilot, a lawyer, a surgeon, an engineer, they will say.

9.5.5 success in extra curriculum activities

Some children may not show excellent performance in class but when they are in the
field they hold their own very well. Some run for the school at district or national levels.
• Others are on the school teams: football, volleyball, basketball, rugby, tennis,
netball and so on.
• There are those who have talent in leadership while others shine in drama, choir,
or dance.
• These activities influence the amount of peer acceptance the student enjoys. They
also boost the ego and are good recipes for positive development.

9.5.6 School type

Schools differ just like the homes. Some schools are well endowed with physical and
human resources while others could do with a lot more than currently available in both
types of resources. Schools also differ in terms of culture. Some schools have established
cultures of hard work and success while other schools have a culture of complacency and
failure. This means that a child’s personality will be shaped according to what the school
has to offer. The unfortunate bit here is that a child’s success in school and in life may be
determined solely by the school factor.

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9.5.6.1 Activity

1) Why do students rise up against their own schools?

2) Why do they burn school property?
3) In recent times the country has been treated to macabre and grotesque activities by
students who buy petrol and burn other students as they sleep.
4) Rape orgies have been reported in cases where students break bond and visit a
neighbourhood village or a girl school with the sole purpose of raping and killing.
Can we explain why these things happen?
5) What is it that turns our good boys into terrors?
6) Are they factors in the school perhaps? Or are the teachers going to forever continue
blaming factors that exist outside the schools?

9.6 PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT AND MALADJUSTMENT

It is difficult to discuss personality without giving some attention to the concepts of
personality adjustment and maladjustment. A pupil will become adjusted or maladjusted
depending on the experiences encountered both at home and at school. Children who are
exposed to pleasant experiences from early childhood are more likely to develop capacity
for adjustment and psychological health while those who are exposed to unpleasant or
traumatic experiences are likely to develop tendencies towards maladjustment.
Let us look at these concepts closely.
Adjustment is the term used to refer to the process by means of which the individual
seeks to maintain physiological and psychological equilibrium. It refers to the adequacy
of behavior patterns the individual uses to satisfy his needs. A person is adjusted if he
satisfies his needs within the framework of the expectations and constraints of the social
order. The person must satisfy his needs in ways that are consistent with social
expectations for age, sex and status. To be well adjusted a person must have adequate
coping skills.

9.6.1 Characteristics of a well adjusted person

A well-adjusted person is efficient in dealing with situational demands. This means that
he adapts well and deals with challenges competently.
• He accepts his strengths and weaknesses and goes about life confidently.
• He also displays social sensitivity and conforms to social standards. This person
doesn’t violate rules.
• Adjustment gives the person happiness because the adjusted person lives in
harmony with his world and is oriented towards self-actualization.

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9.6.2 Maladjustment
Peoples are faced with adjustment problems all the time. If the problems are too severe,
and the solution not forthcoming frustrations arise. Severe and continued frustration leads
to maladjustment, desperation, queer, or atypical behavior.

9.6.3 Characteristics of a maladjusted person

The maladjusted person displays inability to interact appropriately with the physical and
social environment.
• Is unable to satisfy ones needs
• Is likely to be an underachiever
• Suffers from anxiety motivated affiliative needs
• Has cultivated a self concept of inferiority and guilt
• Suffers a breakdown of efficiency under stress
• Withdraws from participation and can easily disrupt group work
• Uses defense mechanisms like excessive aggression and destructiveness
• Will engage in repeated transgressions despite punishment
• Suffers loss of constructiveness
• Will withdraw from school or social activities
• Worries excessively and is likely to fall into depression and pessimism.

Question

Who is responsible for children adjustment?

The primary responsibility for the child’s adjustment lies with the parents.
• They are the ones who set the basic personality pattern through the security they
provide in early childhood.
• It also lies with the teachers. The teachers hold the key to whether the child will
be fulfilled or frustrated.
• Both the parents and the teachers should help children develop their capacity for
adjustment so that they learn to deal with present as well as future problems
competently.
• If the parents and teachers do their job well then, cases of children who become
delinquent, school dropouts, those who have hopeless and helpless lives will be
minimized.

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9.7 Summary

In this lesson we have discussed personality with a specific focus on the following:
Definition of the term
Determinants of personality
GENETIC DETERMINANTS
The home influences on personality
The school influences on personality
Personality adjustment and maladjustment

9.8 Key concepts

Adjustment: -ability to deal with situational demands in relation to social expectation, sex
and status of a person.

Genetic determinants: -inherited potentials, which are passed down from parent to
offspring.

Home influences: -interactions with physical and human resources within the home and
their impact on personality.

Maladjustment: -inability to deal with personal problems due to deficiency in behavior

potential and skills.

Personality: -the whole of a person’s outstanding characteristics.

School influences: - The interactions with physical and human resources within the
school and their impact on personality.

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 9.9 Review \ Discussion Questions

1. Why should the teacher study the topic personality?

2. From observation of people in your neighbourhood or family can you tell which physical,
intellectual or social traits that children inherit from their parents?
3. Who spends more time with the children where you come from? Mom or dad or the
housemaid? When parents are not at home, where are they?
4. What is the prevalence of domestic violence in your community? Who batters who, mom or
dad?
5. What do you remember of your best and worst teachers?
6. How will the understanding of forces that shape personality influence you as a teacher?

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LESSON TEN

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
In this lesson I have discussed classroom management. I have specifically focused on:
• The relevance methods of identifying behaviour problems.
• Reasons why learners misbehave.
• How pupils react to problems.
• Methods of behaviour change.

10.0 Introduction
One of the principle reasons for teacher unhappiness is indiscipline problem. Any time
you have a collection of pupils in a classroom you have a fertile ground for all the
possible misdemeanor. They make noise, pinch each other, steal, cheat, cough or yawn
contagiously. They appear in class looking untidy, with unfinished homework or reports.
When you report in a new school for the first lesson, you may find a cartoon caricature of
you deftly outlined on the chalkboard.
• On the next morning you discover that the teachers chair is missing and in its
place is a three-legged one.
• You intend to ask about the missing chair but you are confronted with blank faces
of girls or boys who wont leak any information. Somewhere at the corner of the
chalkboard is one word “unbwogable” or three words “hatucheki na watu”.
Somewhere else is your nickname inscribed!
Which teacher will have the courage to go through all these and still teach?

10.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to:

Understand the relevance of classroom management
Identify the methods the teacher could use to identify problem behaviors in the
classroom
Outline the possible causes of problem behaviors
Discuss various methods of behavior change

10.2 The Relevance Of Classroom Management

The teacher’s roles in the classroom are mainly two.
• The first being to ensure that the classroom environment is conducive for learning
while

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 • The second one is the delivery of content. The first role is critical because it
might be the sole determinant to the amount of learning that takes place.
The classroom environment is largely determined by the teacher’s ability to manage all
the variables present in the classroom at any one time for the purposes of promoting
conditions for learning.
• Therefore the teacher’s ability to run a well-managed class is of utter importance.
• In fact, many teachers fail in their job because of their inability to manage their
classrooms than for any other reason.
• Classroom management is seen as the teachers number one professional problem,
Gage/Berliner, (1991)
For the teacher to be an effective classroom manager, he should:
• Possess methods of identifying problem behaviors in the classroom
• Know why students misbehave
• Possess effective skills for maintaining discipline

10.3 Methods Of Identifying Problem Behaviors In The Classroom

For the teacher to be able to identify problem behaviors in the classroom, he needs to be
in touch with the class.
• This means being aware of what is happening in all parts of the classroom so that
he can intervene promptly and accurately when inappropriate behavior occurs.
The teacher should possess observation skills. Observation refers to watching children.
The teacher’s observation of children will reveal:
• Facial expressions that may indicate
• Unhappiness,
• Anxiety,
• Restlessness,
• Hyperactivity,
• Tension,
• Self-consciousness,
• Anger,
• Nervous habits and
• Day dreaming.
The teacher could observe the learners’ social activities. When children are playing in the
field the teacher could use scientific gadgets like the binoculars to observe the pupils
social interactions unobtrusively. The use of this method will reveal the pupils
• Who are playing together and
• Those who are left out by the others so that a lot of the times they sit or stand by
themselves.
• If a student is observed alone on many occasions the teacher should know that
this student has a problem.
Observation of pupils’ social interaction will also reveal the pupils,
• Who bully others,
• Those who are bullied,
• The fearful ones,

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 • The quarrelsome ones and
• Those who are defiant.
The teacher could also use sociometric questions to discover the pupils who have
problems. For example ask pupils in the class to nominate other pupils from the same
class with whom one would like to share a cubicle, to be deskmates, to go for walks with
and so on.
This method will reveal those children who are isolated or rejected by others. It is the
teacher’s duty to discover why any pupil will be rejected by the classmates.
• The teacher could also ask the class to write a story with the following themes:
• What I dreamt last night. Normally, people dream about things that bother them.
• Another theme could be if I had three wishes. Again as children write about this
theme their stories and the teacher will know the problems they have.
• The third theme to ask pupils to write about is; The day I was most afraid. This
theme will reveal the fears that individual learners may have about school and
home life.
The teacher could also use the direct approach of finding out what is bothering the pupil.
The use of this method requires the teacher to ensure a private discussion in the staffroom
and not public address in the classroom or on parade ground.

10.4 Why do pupils misbehave?

Pupils do not misbehave for the sake of doing so; they have their own reasons. A good
teacher is the one who knows why learners are likely to show problems behavior. The
following are some of the reasons:

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1. Unmet needs
Every child must achieve reasonable satisfaction of his,
• Physical,
• Social and
• Personality needs in order to develop in a normal and wholesome manner. When
these needs are frustrated then problematic behavior arises.

2. Poverty
Children coming from poor homes may lack basic necessities like food. They will also be
lacking the things required by the school. For example, when other children who have
good uniforms and can afford other things like pens, books, money for trips, the child
from a [poor home lacks these things. This child is also likely to be taunted by other
children and called names referring to his torn clothes and inability to have things like
them. As a result the poor child will be ashamed of himself, his home and his parents.
Due to the hostility of his socio-psychological environment, this pupil has a high
likelihood of showing maladjustment. Of course this does not apply in all the cases.
There are children from poor homes who are very brave and who give a deaf ear to the
things that are said about them. These children use poverty as a motivator.

3. Broken homes
There are children who come from broken homes. A home may be broken by,
• Death of a parent or
• Divorce.
• Separation, and
• Desertion.
Any of these conditions make children feel very insecure. This insecurity translates itself
into behavior problems.

4. Conflict-ridden homes also produce children who are:

• Nervous,
• Unhappy and
• Insecure and who are likely to show behavior problems.

5. Personal inadequacies
Sometimes a pupil may feel inadequate when he is unable to carry out tasks that are
expected of him.
• The pupil who is unable to engage in physical tasks like the rest of the group or
• One who is unable to achieve on mental tasks like the other children experience
frustration.
• This pupil tends to feel inferior and unhappy. In order to live with this problem,
inappropriate behavior arises.
There are pupils who set for themselves goals that they cannot attain, For example, a
child with average mental ability wanting to be position one in a class where competition
is high.
• This pupil can never attain the goal and therefore the frustration that arises
becomes a source of behavior problems.

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 • The pupils who are self-conscious tend to feel inferior and friendless and may
crave for affection. They may become attention seekers or even aggressive.

6. The rejected child

Many children come from homes where they are neither loved nor valued by their
parents; their need for affection and security is threatened.
• These children may suffer neglect,
• Separation from parent,
• They could be nagged,
• Humiliated before others,
• Compared unfavorably with others,
• These children will engage in attention seeking behavior,
• Some will become restless or non-conforming.
• They are likely to develop unstable tendencies with disregard for rules and
convections of society. They will develop shallow feelings,
• Lacking in reaction of guilt,
• Suffer emotional instability,
• Lack self-control and
• They have underdeveloped ego, which makes them have no feelings of remorse.
• This means that many undesirable behaviors may be associated with child
rejection.

7. The overprotected child

This is the child whose every flimsy need is catered for.
• He eats whenever and whatever he wants,
• Have many material possessions.
• May be restricted from playing with other children so that he does not get hurt.
This child is likely to become selfish aggressive,
• Lacks a sense of responsibility,
• Develops infantile behavior,
• Exhibits problems like thumb sucking,
• Enuresis, and temper tantrums. He is likely to develop poor social adjustment,
• Dad manners,
• Impoliteness,
• Rudeness,
• Disobedience,
• Will be bossy,
• Selfish,
• Show off and
• Lacking in frustration tolerance.

8. Unfavourable school practices

Many times conditions that exist in the school may result in a child’s unwholesome
development. These are conditions, which could be detrimental to the good psychological
health of their pupils. These are:

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a) Failure to cater for individual differences.
When the students feel that the teachers are not caring for them individually they tend to
• Feel insecure,
• Uncertain and
• Afraid.
• These students may show disobedience.

b) Autocratic control
If the teachers and the school administration do not exercise democratic control in their
interaction with pupils then problems arise. The pupils who are ruled with an iron fist
have their resourcefulness and initiative stifled. This happens because they can never
learn to
• Control their behavior,
• Their thoughts or
• Their actions.

c) Humiliating pupils in public

There are times when students do the wrong things. For example,
• When they fail to complete assignments,
• They make noise in class,
• They are rude,
• They tell lies, cheat etc. Many teachers react to these misdeeds by scolding the
pupil publicly in class or on school assembly.
Many times the scolding is meant to make the erring boy or girl suffer humiliation in the
presence of peers or the whole school.
• A teacher who exposes pupils to this kind of humiliation is like us to contribute to
delinquency.
• This will occur when the pupil decides to skip school all the together and join a
gang of truant pupils who care nothing for school.

d) Teachers can also use labels on pupils.

This happens when the teacher decides to refer to pupil’s social inferiority or even stress
on the pupil’s negative behavior or weakness. This kind of cruelty is experienced by
many pupils who have been convinced that they are;
• DUMB
• Bad,
• Stubborn,
• Disobedient and
• Outright defective.
Naturally children have a way of fulfilling their teachers prophesies by displaying their
labels. They become what their teacher says they are.

e) The teacher’s competence

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The teacher’s ability to fit their roles is critically important. Any teacher who has
problems in any area of his duty is likely to contribute to the emergence and existence of
problematic behavior. Such a teacher is likely to use defensive mechanisms. Defense. In
order to cover up his shortcomings, he will blame,
• The school,
• The pupils,
• He parents,
• The society.

10.5 How pupils react to problems

Pupils react to problems by becoming problematic. Problematic pupils who cannot or will
not adjust to the socially acceptable norms for behavior. A problematic pupil will disrupt
his own academic progress and that of his classmates. He may lack the ability to make
and to keep friends due to poor interpersonal relations.

The problematic pupil is likely to show any of the several outwardly manifested
behaviors; for example;

1. Absenteeism
• Absenteeism can be either physical absence, which means that the child is bodily
away from class many times with faked reasons of sickness or other reasons.
• Psychological absence means that the pupil is bodily present in class but mentally
he is far away.
• This can be observed if the pupil is looking outside the window,
• Passing notes to others in the class, is staring vacantly,
• Fidgeting or
• Day dreaming.

2. Show of misconduct
The problematic child is likely to be involved in misbehavior, for example,
• Noise making,
• Aggression,
• Defiance,
• Use of profane language or
• Basically acting tough.

3. Stealing
Pupils will engage in stealing for various reasons.
• Sometimes they want to get revenge, or
• They wish to vent hostile feelings towards parents.
• A child may steal due to lack of respect for other people’s property,
• There are children who steal without an apparent good reason.
• This may happen when a child has problems that are psychological in nature.

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 • In this case a child will steal in order to fill a psychological deficit with material
things.

4. Lying
This refers to twisting or falsifying information for selfish motives.
• Children tell lies in order to escape the consequences of punishment or to get
attention.
• Also they will tell lies in order to reduce anxiety or
• Even to get something they want.

5. Cheating
• Pupils will cheat when a task is too difficult and particularly when parents and
teachers have set standards that the child cannot attain.
• The child will also cheat in order to avoid failure.
• The cheating child may also be the one who feels both inadequate and inferior.

6. Truancy
The truant child stays away from school without the knowledge of the parents.
• He may go finishing, movie watching or just any other activity that keeps him
away from school.
• A child will become truant if school is threatening. For example
• A pupil who is being bullied or one who is performing poorly in school will be
truant.
• Also the pupil who has neither found love at home nor at school will develop a
strong dislike for school and can turn to truancy.

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Activity

Try and list all the methods teachers use to deal with inappropriate behavior.
• Types of punishments.
• Other methods.
• From your observations do these methods succeed in eliminating undesirable
behavior?
• Try to suggest reason for your answer.

10.6 Methods of behavior change

10.6.1 Punishment
In their effort to maintain order in the classroom, teachers use many methods of behavior
change. Among them punishments ranks very high.
• Punishment is a form of aversive control of behavior.
• Aversive means unpleasant, noxious or painful. Students can be punished through
the following ways;
• A teacher could administer an aversive stimulus like caning, or kneeling
• A teacher could also remove an individual from a reinforcing situation e.g. removing
a student from class also called time out.
• Even removing a desirable stimulus from the student e.g. taking away playtime is
punishment.
• Punishment can also be psychological like scolding or blaming a student.

10.6.1 Purpose of punishment

When a teacher administers punishment to a pupil, he hopes to do the following:
• To make undesirable behavior less probable.
• To weaken it,
• To suppress or
• eliminate it.
With this in mind we need to acknowledge that punishment may not always have any of
these effects on the undesirable behavior.
• There are times when the punished behavior is not suppressed nor eliminated and
the teacher needs to know why this happened.
• Undesirable behavior will not be eliminated if the following conditions are not
met.

1. Intensity of punishment
Intensity refers to the strength or severity of punishment. Punishments of high intensity
are likely to eliminate undesirable behaviour. Good examples are when a child touches
fire and is burned he ceases to touch fire for all time.
• Also any child playing with a sharp object stops doing so if cut by the object.
 • In the school situation, very severe punishments are discouraged because they can
harm both the body and the mind.
• Teachers are not allowed to mete out punishments, which are physically, and
psychologically damaging as well. The punishments that are allowed are mild and
bearable so that the pupil may not have problem repeating the punishable
behavior.

2. Consistency of punishment
Consistency refers to the condition of punishing a pupil everytime the undesirable
behavior occurs.
• Consistency in punishment is difficult to maintain because the teacher cannot
watch a child 24 hours a day, seven days a week and so on.
• This means that the pupil knows that he can escape with the punishable behavior
when the teacher is not around.
• Making punishment consistent is not humanly possible.
• Inconsistency makes undesirable behavior recur.

3. Contingency of punishment
Contingency refers to the pairing of punishment with the undesired behavior.
• It means that punishment should be administered immediately the undesirable
behavior occurs.
• Punishment should not be removed in time; it should accompany the undesired
behavior. For example, at home, if one wants to punish a dog that is messing up
the compound, the punishment should be administered when the dog is at the act
not minutes or hours later.
• The principle is that if punishment is made contingent upon the undesired
behavior the association between it and the behavior will be created and thus it
will have the power to suppress that behavior.
What is the situation like in the classroom or in the school? Many times teachers are
unable to deliver punishment contingent upon the undesirable behavior. E.g. a student
who comes late, or one who disrupts the classroom activity may have to wait for hours
before punishment is delivered.
• Also it is not humanly possible to monitor a pupil so as to punish him
contingently.
• Therefore, pupils know they can get away with punishable behavior.
• Consequently, punishment as a method of behavior control fails.

Activity

Imagine you are in a day school in one of the low SES areas. One week you are on duty
and you notice this boy who reports to school late. You give him the punishment for
lateness. The same boy did not wash his uniform and you give him the prescribed
punishment. You also discover he did not finish his home assignment. By the end of the

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day you have not noticed any other pupil because you are preoccupied with this particular
one. Are you going to punish this pupil every day for all the ‘wrong’ things that he has
done or the ‘ right’ things he has failed to do?
Discuss this case suggesting how you could intervene in the case of this pupil.

10.6.2 Facts about punishment

When we talk about punishment we have certain expectations.
• We expect that it will serve as an incentive to induce behavior change.
• We expect the punished pupil to avoid errors. But whereas punishment could
meet our expectations we should also realize that it could also be an incentive to
induce other undesirable behaviors.
There are times when punishment can provide the pupil with need satisfaction. For
example,
• A child who attracts the teacher’s attention only when he talks in class will
continue talking.
• For this pupil punishment is desirable, it is rewarding.
• This happens when the teacher recognizes the presence of that pupil only when
he misbehaves.
• For this reason teachers are advised to recognize pupils and reward them for any
good behavior they show and not wait to recognize the pupil only when he has
misbehaved.
Another factor determining whether a learner will engage in undesirable behavior or not
is knowledge of punishment.
• A learner may choose to engage in undesirable behavior with full knowledge of
the punishment and also with the willingness to take the punishment.
Also happens if the teacher punishes the pupil for dependence behavior, the child
becomes more dependant.
• This happens even at home when a mother beats the child for clinging on to her.
• Common sense would have it that the child should run away from the mother but
he doesn’t. This child clings to the mother even more firmly.

10.6.3 The punishment of aggressive behaviors

If the teacher punishes a pupil for aggressive tendencies, this pupil is likely to be more
aggressive and particularly if subjected to harsh physical punishment.
(5) Punishment may not eliminate the undesirable behavior. For example a child who
is punished for smoking in school may stop smoking while in school but continue to do
so in other places.
(6) At other times, punishment may eliminate one undesirable behavior but another
equally undesirable behavior emerges e.g. a child may be punished for being aggressive
and actually stops but becomes withdrawn.
(7) There are pupils who may fear punishment so much that they become avoidant.
They may fake illness, become truant, fail to attend school sessions.

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(8) It is also noted that when a pupil is punished he is not provided with an alternative
behavior, for example, a child can learn to control his aggressive tendencies but doesn’t
learn to be friendly.

10.6.4 Negative effects of punishment

It has become increasingly important for teachers to know that the effects of punishment
are frequently undesirable.
1. For one, the threatening aspects of punishment may produce emotional tension in
the pupil who may actually learn to hate the punisher because of the fear of
punishment
2. The pupil may acquire many undesirable behaviors to avoid being punished. He
may cheat, lie, and become anxious.
3. The teacher needs to be aware that punishment has limited usefulness as a control
technique
• It has real disadvantages in the terms of the total learning of the child
• Teachers need to note that if their interaction with pupils is largely
characterized by punitive relationship, they are likely to be ineffective in
promoting a wide range of desirable behavior.

10.6.5 Conditions under which punishment should be given

From the foregoing, it looks like we are discouraging the use of punishment. However we
recognize that punishment cannot be dismissed or ignored. We would therefore want to
look at it as one of the methods of behavior change which should be used under specified
conditions in order to be beneficial. The teacher may find the following suggestions
useful:
• If the teacher must punish he should specify and communicate the punishable
behavior to the pupils by means of classroom rules and regulations.
• The pupils should be involved in the drawing of the rules
• These rules should be posted where the pupils can see them
• The rules should be reviewed often
• The school should also provide the pupils with models of acceptable behavior. If the
acceptable behavior is good grooming, punctuality, honesty, hard work or
responsibility, then a student who displays any of these characteristics should be
called infront of the school during the school assembly for all to see an example of
the desirable behavior that the teacher wishes to reinforce. The schools should never
display models of undesirable behavior because everytime they do so they create hero
worship of the pupils with the undesirable characteristics: Those with the most
unkempt hair, lazy, dishonest or poorly groomed pupils should never be put on the
display. They should be denied recognition.
• If the punishment must be delivered it must be done immediately. This should be
done in line with the principle of contingency discussed above.
• Pupils should be informed of the alternative behavior that is what they would have
done instead of the punished behavior.
• The punishment should always be perceived as fair. This means that the teacher
should not be seen to practice partiality. Those who deserve to be punished must

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 receive their punishment as prescribed. Impartiality can be a major cause of school
unrest and increased indiscipline.
• Punishment must be delivered consistently in line with the principle of consistency.
This means that whenever possible the punishable act should never be allowed to
escape punishment.
• The teacher should try and avoid group punishment at all costs .A lot of gain is made
if the teacher is able to isolate a student or two and punish them instead of punishing
the whole class. If the whole class is making noise or failing to cooperate it is
advisable to sometimes ignore the incidence or to look for alternative methods of
dealing with the situation. When the teacher uses group punishment, it ceases to be
punishment as learners may actually enjoy it.

10.7 Behavior modification techniques

There are several methods the teacher could use in classroom management and which
could go along way to minimize cases of indiscipline while at the same time they will
help to maximize the occurrence of desirable behavior. These methods are derived from
the theories of behavior modification. They follow the principles of learning that we are
quite familiar with. They are the following
• From classical conditioning eliciting and extinction principles
• From operant conditioning; reinforcement
• Behavior contracting from Premark’s principle.

10.7.1 Classical conditioning

1. Eliciting
Eliciting is the act of expecting and calling upon the pupil to display the desirable
behavior. The teacher could call the students by name and ask him to answer a question
or to do a certain assignment or pick something on the floor. The most important concept
here is giving the pupil the opportunity to do something desirable. When the pupil has
displayed the desirable behavior he should be given recognition. He should be told “thank
you”, good, well done. The positive response from the teacher will enhance the chances
of recurrence of the behavior.

2. Extinction
This refers to the elimination of a response through the withdrawal of reinforcement. The
teacher could ignore a behavior that is undesirable sometimes. For example, some
attention-seeking pupil who comes to class late so that he can be asked why he is late
could be ignored.
• A student who does things to make the class laugh could be discouraged if the
teacher instructs the class not to laugh.
• Extinction works very well if the teacher accompanies it with the reinforcement of
alternative behavior. For example in the above cases, the first pupil is reinforced
for showing up for class on time. In the case of the second pupil reinforcing him
everytime he displays seriousness in the classroom interactions.

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10.7.2 Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the key concept derived from operant conditioning theory.
Reinforcement refers to the use of rewards as incentives to induce and strengthen
desirable behavior.
• The teacher should always remember that rewards are useful when they are seen,
as potential sources of need satisfaction.
• Therefore, certain pupils will work for certain rewards. For this reason the teacher
should know his pupils well, in order to know what rewards a learner will work
for.
• Secondly rewards must be attainable. If a pupil is attracted to a certain reward but
he knows that he has little chance of attaining it he will not work for it.
• Thirdly the reward punishment ratio should be right. A pupil must receive more
rewards than punishment to the ratio of 5:1. If the ratio falls to 2:1 the pupil can
develop neurotic symptoms of inferiority, inadequacy and generalized fear of
failure.
• When the ratio drops further to 1:1 the pupil is likely to develop delinquent
behaviors.

Token economy
Tokens are concrete forms of reinforces. They can be in the form of points or poker
chips.
• If a pupil performs a desirable task, he is given tokens. For example, punctuality
can earn a pupil two tokens,
• Turning in complete homework 5 tokens,
• Presenting neat work 2 tokens.
• At the end of he month the tokens may be exchanged for something concrete e.g.
the pupil can be given permission to do something interesting or something
desirable.
• Tokens can also be taken away if the pupil misbehaves.

10.7.3 Behavior contracting

Behavior contracting involves two people: The teacher and the student. These people
identify the undesirable behavior as well as the desirability to change it. The behavior to
be changed could be,
• Lateness,
• Poor grooming,
• Untidy work,
• Non-completion of homework,
• Rudeness or any other undesirable behavior. The teacher and the pupil enter into
a contract.
• The contract details what will happen when the undesirable behavior is changed.
That is, what the pupil will stand to gain on one hand and what he stands to suffer
or lose if the desirable behavior is not observed.

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 • The strength of this method lies in the fact that the pupil is an involved party in
the contract. He is cognitively involved in his own behavior change and
consequently, when behavior change occurs it becomes durable.

10.8 Preventive discipline

Beyond rewards and punishments
The teacher should respect and love children
Respect their identity
Acceptance means being aware of their unique personality, interests, strong points,
failures and temperaments
Help them to develop social competence so that they can win peer acceptance
Organize the school experiences to meet the need for new experiences
Expose them to new subject matter, new activities, responsibility, field trips, use
of teaching aids
Satisfy their need for curiosity, need for mastery, need for success
An achieving child will feel worthy, recognized, competent and autonomous.
School programs should be arranged for more equitable distribution of the
experiences of success.
Every child may achieve some degree of it
The school should provide varied opportunities for emotional, physical, intellectual
and aesthetic achievement.
Provide good teaching
Let children be committed to behavior change
Establish clear behavior guidelines, expectations, standards and rules that are clear to
all
Adopt a teamwork approach- involve teachers administration and parents.
Design a complete discipline ladder
Clear description of available corrective disciplinary measures should be put in place
e.g. warning call parents, and refer to principal or counselor.
Train self management and discipline
Invite good discipline
Focus on student success and self-esteem
Implement fair and firm rules
Plan lessons thoroughly
Continually monitor the classroom environment
Minimize problems early

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10.9 Summary

This lesson has discussed classroom management focusing on the following issues:
Relevance of classroom management
Methods of identifying problem behaviors in the classroom
Why pupils misbehave
Methods of behavior change
Punishment
Behavior modification techniques
Preventive discipline

10.11 Discussion/review Questions

1. In your own assessment what are the root causes of discipline problems in your area?
2. To what extent do teachers rely on punishment and with what results?
3. Have you come across a teacher who tries to use the other behavior modification
techniques discussed above?
4. In what ways do teachers apply preventive discipline?

10.10 Key concepts

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Classroom management: -the skills the teacher uses to ensure delivery of content in an
atmosphere of order and good behavior as well as the ability to deal with cases of indiscipline.

Contingency: - refers to the immediacy of punishment. It refers to proximity in time and space.

Eliciting: - refers to creating conditions that favor the production of a behavior.

Extinction: - the disappearance of a response due to non-reinforcement

Intensity of punishment: - refers to the strength or severity of punishment.

Reinforcement: - refers to the strengthening of a response by proving certain incentives.

Tokens: -Concrete forms of reinforces, which use the same principle as money.

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LESSON ELEVEN

THE EXCEPTIONAL LEARNER

11.0 Introduction
I find it extremely difficult to give this lesson justice in the limited time and space I have.
This is due to the fact that exceptionality deserves a whole book or whole books. It is a
discipline of study in its own right with many areas of specialization and focus. As such,
no single lesson can attempt to do it any justice without looking like sheer mockery. This
not withstanding, no course in educational psychology will be complete without the
mention of the exceptional learner even if it is in a passing sentence.
In this lesson I have introduced you to the exceptional learner with the hope that the
aroused interest will eventually sensitize you to seek to know more about it by enrolling
in special education programs available or our university.

11.1 Objectives

By the end of this lesson the learner should be able to;

Define the term exceptional child
Describe five broad categories of exceptional children
Discuss the classification of exceptional children
Explain causes of exceptionality
Discuss the concept of intervention
Describe the services for exceptional children

11.2 Definition of the term exceptional children

Henry (1950), defines exceptional children as those who deviate from what is supposed
to be average in physical, mental, emotional or social characteristics to such an extent
that they require special education services in order to develop to their maximum
capacity. Exceptional children are those who deviate intellectually so markedly from
what is considered to be normal growth and development that they cannot receive
maximum benefit from regular school programs and require special classes or
supplementally instructional services.

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Admittedly it is difficult to define exceptionality but as the foregoing definitions go it is
important to note that exceptional children are those who will require specialized skills
and services.
Some of them cannot adjust to the school program without radical modifications of the
curriculum, special methods of instructions, special equipment or even adjusted school
schedule. Some exceptional children may require to be put in a special class or special
schools while others may need individualized attention in regular classrooms.

11.3 Categories of exceptional children

Exceptional children can be categorized as follows
• The intellectually different-this category includes the gifted and the talented,
mentally handicapped and those with specific learning disabilities
• The physically different-This category includes the orthopedic, physically
handicapped, the crippled or deformed
• The neurological impaired; this category covering the hearing impaired or deaf,
the visually impaired or blind and those with multiple handicaps
• The psychosocially different: with this category including all those children with
conduct or behavioral problems which are markedly different from normal and
which is continuous e.g. the emotionally disturbed and socially maladjusted
children. The category may include children in difficult circumstances.
• Those with health problems: This category includes the children who are diabetic,
those who suffer from arthritis, heart diseases, kidney diseases, tuberculosis,
leukemia, sickle cell and anemia.

11.4 Classification of exceptional children

11.4.1 The gifted and talented

Who are the gifted?
There is no agreement about what constitutes a gifted student one reason being that
individuals can have many gifts. The general consensus is that, the gifted learners are
those with:
• Above average general ability
• High level of creativity
• High level of task commitment or motivation to achieve in certain areas
There are other characteristics that distinguish the gifted learners from other children.
These are:
• They are larger, stronger and healthier than the norm group
• They achieved developmental milestones earlier than the norm group i.e. they talk
3 ½ earlier, walk earlier, they learn to read before age six, they master school
subjects two classes beyond their age level.
• They have great curiosity and good memory.
• They are more emotionally stable than their peers
As adults they are better adjusted than the average person.

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11.5 How a teacher identifies the gifted children
The gifted children may not be those who simply learn quickly with little effort.
Although this characteristic is present, it is important that the teacher notices those
children who reason things out, think clearly, use common sense and practical knowledge
• Have knowledge of many things
• Have a large vocabulary accurately used
• Perform difficult mental tasks
Ask many questions and are interested in a wide range of things
The intellectually gifted child is original and uses good but unusual methods or ideas. He
is also alert and keenly observant and responds quickly.

11.6 Problems associated with giftedness.

The gifted and talented children constitute a group of students with special education
needs that are often overlooked by the school. The very gifts that make them outstanding
are the ones that cause them untold difficulties. The teacher may note the following
problems:

• Non-participation
The gifted children need stimulating and challenging work. If they get bored with
classroom routine they may become indifferent, restless, inattentive, disturbing and even
annoying

• They may get into trouble

The gifted children may get into trouble because they have abundant energy, insight, a
vivid sense of humour, strong feelings of truth and justice, which makes them outspoken.
They get misunderstood sometimes teachers will think that the gifted child is rude, unruly
and indisciplined if they do not understand them.

11.6 How to manage the gifted children

Many suggestions have been put forward

Some people feel that the gifted children should be put in classes according to mental age
rather than chronological
They could be allowed to skip grades. This approach would solve one problem but create
another problem for the gifted child. If a child skips grades he is removed from his social
emotional peers, which may later affect social adjustment later. For these reasons some
approaches have advised that the child should be retained in class with his age mates but
be given additional work or material. This is the concept of enriching the regular
classroom by allowing the gifted child to conduct independent research, offering them
additional learning and even offering them extra curriculum activities.

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Activity

1. Do you know that many gifted children underachieve and even drop out of school?
2. Try and find out the cause of this phenomenon. When there are problems in the
school like strikes, many gifted children are expelled from the institutions. Can you
explain why this happens?
3. Are you aware that at times gifted children are dismissed as show offs?

11.6.1 The mentally handicapped children

According to the American Association on mental deficiency (AAMD) Mental
retardation refers to the substantial limitations in present intellectual functioning which is
characterized by sub average intellectual functioning existing concurrently with related
limitations in two or more of the following; applicable adaptive skill areas e.g.
communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self- direction,
health, safety, functional academics, leisure and work. Mental retardation manifests
before age 18.

11.6.2 Causes of mental retardation

Mental retardation could be caused by the following factors
Inborn errors of metabolism for example in the case of phenylketunoria (PKU). In PKU
the child is born with a genetic defect, which interferes with the ability to metabolize
protein. When protein is not completely broken down, it causes poisoning in the child’s
body. The poisoning interferes with physical development and the baby fails to thrive
physically. The poisoning also causes damage to the central nervous system causing
severe mental retardation. As a result the child has very low I.Q. and may not acquire
language nor any self help skills and may require life-long care.
Chromosomal abnormalities, for example; Trisomy 21. As you know, chromosomes
occur in pairs. However there are cases when the chromosome 21 may have three
chromosomes instead of two. The three chromosomes in chromosome number 21 causes
mental retardation called Downs Syndrome or Mongolism.
Prenatal factors; Diseases like rubella, conditions like Rh factor, malnutrition and even
drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy are known to cause mental retardation.
Perinatal factors; these refer to conditions surrounding the birth process for example;
injury to the central nervous system during the birth process. Anoxia which is the
deprivation of oxygen to the baby’s brain during the birth process. Pematurity is also
conditions known to cause mental retardation.
Postnatal factors. These are conditions existing after the birth of the baby for example
infections e.g. meningitis

11.6.3 Categories of mentally retarded children

Mentally retarded children are classified as follows
The profoundly methods retarded; with I.Q. below 30
The severely mentally retarded I.Q. 30-35

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Children in these categories cannot be trained in self-help skills like dressing, feeding or
toileting. They cannot be trained in socialization or economic usefulness and they need
life long care.
The trainable mentally retarded I.Q. 35-50
These children have potentialities in three areas.
1.They can learn self care like feeding, dressing, undressing; Toileting and sleeping
2.They can learn to adjust in the home and the neighbourhood
3.They can learn economic usefulness in the home
The educable mentally retarded I.Q. 50-79. These children can do writing, arithmetic and
reading at a very slow rate. If they are given all the help they can get, they can go up to
Std 3 or 4. They acquire numeracy and literacy skills very late. They are slow in specific
intellectual functions needed for schoolwork, they lack concentration, have a short
attention span and they have many problems with social behavior.
The educable mentally retarded children have some capacity for school adjustment to a
point where they can get along independently in the community. They can acquire
minimum occupational adequacy, which will enable them to support themselves partially
or totally at a marginal level.

The slow learner I.Q. ranges from 80-90

This is a borderline category of learners who have problems in catching up with the rest
of the children in class academically. They are capable of achieving a moderate degree of
academic success at a slower rate than the average child.

11.7 The learning disabled children

Learning disability is a new and controversial category of exceptional learning. There is
no fully agreed upon definition
Cartwright and Cartwright (1981) define learning disabilities as a general term that refers
to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifest by significant difficulties in the
acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical
abilities. The disorders are intrinsic to the individual presumed to be due to certain
Nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span.
Hallahan and Kauffman (1976) say that children with special learning disabilities exhibit
a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding
or using spoken or written language. These may be manifested in disorders of listening,
thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling or arithmetic. They include conditions, which
have been referred to as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimum brain dysfunction,
dyslexia and developmental aphasia. They do not include learning problems, which are
due primarily to visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, to mental retardation, emotional
disturbance or to environmental disadvantage

11.7.1 Are learning disabled children a homogeneous group?

The learning disabled children are a heterogeneous group. Each child may have specific
difficulties in one or more academic areas e.g. Poor coordination, problems paying
attention, hyper activity and impulsivity, problems organizing and interpreting visual and
auditory information, disorders of thinking, memory speech and hearing or difficulties

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keeping friends. Hallahan and Kauffman (1997). For purposes of academic life, we need
to be aware that most children with learning disabilities have difficulties reading caused
by problems related to sounds, which consequently make spelling hard.
Other children will have problems with mathematics because they cannot perform
computation tasks and neither can they solve problems.
A third category of children has problems writing. Their writing is virtually unreadable.
A forth category of disabled learners speak in a halting and disorganized manner.

11.7.2 What seems to be the problem

The problems of learning disabled children are that:
They lack effective ways to approach academic tasks. They do not know how to focus on
relevant information or get organized. They cannot apply learning strategies or study
skills to change it. They tend to be passive learners partly because they do not know how
to learn. These learners cannot work independently on homework or seatwork.

11.7.3 How can they be helped?

The learning disabled children should be diagnosed early in order to prevent them from
becoming frustrated and discouraged. If they do not understand their problem they begin
avoiding certain subjects. Once diagnosis has been carried out they should be referred to
professionals for the necessary intervention measures. Teachers handling learning
disabled children should emphasize study skills and methods of processing information in
a given subject like reading and mathematics.
The teachers should also help the learning-disabled children o improve their attention
memory and problem solving abilities. Those who need specialized attention by special
education specialists should be referred to them.

Activity

In Kenya the learning disabled children could b confused with mentally retarded children
why do you think, this is the case?

11.8 Physical differences

11.8.1 Cerebral palsy
What is cerebral palsy?
Cerebral palsy is a disorder affecting voluntary movement. It causes a child to have
difficulty moving or coordinating his or her body. The problem may be mild making the
child appear clumsy. It can also be severe making voluntary movement practically
impossible. The most common form of cerebral palsy is characterized by spasticity.
Spasticity refers to muscles that are too tight or tense. Most children with cerebral palsy

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may also have secondary handicaps e.g. hearing problems, speech problems or mild
mental retardation.

What causes cerebral palsy?

Cerebral palsy is caused by damage to the brain before birth like in cases associated with
anoxia (reduced oxygen supply in the foetus brain). It can also be caused by brain
damage during the birth process or during infancy.

11.8.2 Physical challenges

This category constitutes the physically different children e.g. the orthopedic, physically
handicapped, crippled or deformed. The physically different children could be
intellectually gifted, of normal intelligence, average or mentally retarded.
These children may have special orthopedic devices such as braces, special shoes,
crutches or wheel chairs. For these children to participate in a normal school program,
they need attention, architectural features such as ramps, elevators and accessible toilets.
They also require physiotherapy and other medical services that will help them to
develop their physical potentials. They need teachers who will allow for their physical
limitations.

11.9 Sensory Exceptionalities

11.9.1 Hearing impairments (the deaf)
Who are deaf children?
The deaf children are those who are born with little or no hearing or who suffered the loss
of hearing in infancy before speech and language patterns are acquired. Not all hearing
impaired children are deaf. There are those with partial hearing loss.

11.9.2 Classification of hearing impairments

The deaf refer to those children whose sense of hearing is Non-functional.
The congenitally deaf are those born deaf
The adventitiously deaf- those born with normal hearing but who lose the sense of
hearing through disease or accident

11.9.3 Causes of hearing impairment

Hearing impairment has many causes.
Heredity: 30-60% of deafness is attributed to genetic factors. Deafness can be caused by
dominant genes recessive genes or sex linked genes.
Maternal rubella is also known to cause deafness. Maternal rubella refers to a viral
infection also called German measles. If the expectant mother suffers from this disease
during the first three months of pregnancy, the baby may be born with hearing
impairment
Prematurity. Prematurity refers to cases where babies may be born before term and are
more likely to suffer hearing impairment than full term babies.

Rhesus incompatibility (Rh)

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The Rh factor affects the babies who have a different blood group from the mother. For
example if the mother is Rh –ve and the foetus is Rh +ve there will be incompatibility.
The mother’s blood senses the foetus blood as something foreign and produces antibodies
that fight the baby’s red blood cells. The baby who has suffered this incompatibility will
become anaemic due to the destruction of the red blood cells. The anaemia will cause
reduced oxygen supply in the foetal or neonatal brain. One of the complications which
may arise from this could be hearing impairment.
Meningitis. Meningitis is a viral infection, which causes inflammation of the meninges
If this condition is not checked early, it causes brain damage and one likely complication
it may cause in hearing impairment. It is estimated that 8.1% of children lose their
hearing after birth due to meningitis

Otitis media. Otitis media is an infection that causes fluid to accumulate in the middle
ear. If the condition is chronic or untreated it can create mild or moderate hearing losses.

11.9.4 Characteristics of the hearing impaired children

Hearing impaired children do not hear speech. Consequently, they do not acquire oral
language. Intellectually, some deaf children could have superior intelligence, others
normal, average, while others may be mentally handicapped.

What are some of the signs of hearing impairment?

Some of the signs of hearing problems are turning one ear towards the speaker, favouring
one ear in conversation when the speakers face cannot be seen, Omission of consonant
sounds. Other indicators include; not following directions, seeming distracted or confused
at times, frequent asking people to repeat what they have said, mispronouncing new
words or names or being reluctant to participate in class discussions.
Some of the physical problems associated with hearing impairment are ear aches,
discomfort in the ears, stranger ringing or buzzing noises, discharge from the ears or
excessive heavy wax building in the ear canal also cause hearing impairment. Frequent
colds and sore throats are occasional indicators of infections that could impair hearing.

11.9.5 How are hearing impaired children managed?

Over the years several approaches have been developed in the management of hearing
impaired children.
They have been trained in speech reading also called lip reading.
They have also been trained in sign language and finger spelling
A combination of the manual method of communication and oral methods has been
known to yield fruits. Today technological innovations such as teletypewriters and many
avenues of communication through email and the Internet have expanded communication
possibilities for all the people with hearing impairment.

11.10 The visually impaired

Definition of the term blindness
Blindness is generally defined as visual acuity for distance vision of 20/200 or less in the
better eye with the best correction. Very simply put a person will be defined as blind if

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they can see an object that the normal sighted person can see from 200ft at 20 feet. That
means that a blind person has to be very close to the object in order to see it (20feet)
while the normal person sees it from 200feet.
Blindness can also be defined from the perspective of field of vision. If the widest
diameter of field of vision subtends on an angle no greater than 20 degrees, the person is
partially sighted. A person with a visual acuity greater than 20/70 in the better eye with
correction has low vision but can learn to read large print. The educationally blind refer
to those who cannot learn to read print and who must use hearing and touch as the
prominent learning channels.

11.10.1 Causes of visual impairment

There are varied causes to visual impairment
Infectious diseases like German measles
If the expectant mother contracts German measles during the first three months of
pregnancy, the child is likely to be born blind.

Hereditary factors. If the child has a genetic defect affecting chromosomes 14-16 they
are born with small or absent eyes.
Accidents and injury to the eyes also cause blindness.
Poisoning caused by the spitting cobra or other chemicals that are harmful to the eyes are
known to cause blindness
Tumours, these are growths in the brain which suppress the visual area of the brain can
cause blindness.

11.10.2 Problems associated with visual impairment

Children who have difficulty seeing will often hold books either very close or very far
from their eyes. Some will tilt the head making an effort to see. The teacher could also
notice students with crossed eyes (strabism). These students have eyes that lack
coordination in focusing so that they see with each eye individually. Other problems
associated with visual impairment are rubbing eyes frequently, squinting, displaying
sensitivity to bright lights and or being awkward in games requiring eye hand
coordination.
Other characteristics of the visually impaired are:
Problems in mobility: -Whenever they are in new environments they need mobility
training so that they can get by independently. In a way, blindness affects speech with
blind speaking louder than sighted people. Their speech is slower in rate and lacks
modulations. The blind people use less lip movement in articulation of sounds, they also
lack effective use of gestures and bodily actions typical of the sighted.

11.10.3 The management of the visually impaired students

There are special materials and equipment that help visually impaired students to function
in regular classrooms. These include large print, typewriters, tape recorders, special
calculators, the abacus, three dimensional maps, charts, models and special measuring
devices. Instructions in Braille are also useful.

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11.11 Intervention
Intervention is a concept that involves identifying the child with handicaps and helping
that child in developing his maximum potentials.

When should intervention programs begin?

Intervention should start early in child development. At least by age two some problems
should be noticeable. This is the best time to start intervention. Intervention includes the
following procedures
1.Observation
Identification of children with special needs begin with observation.
A teacher or parent can observe the child’s behavior and psychological processes i.e.
those with problems with hearing, sight, language acquisition or deficits in certain
processes and achievement of developmental milestones. If any irregular patterns are
observed in one child, For example problems with sight or hearing then screening should
follow the initial observation.
Screening is a process used to find out whether the observed problem is present in other
children in the population. Children in a school or neighbourhood can be screened.
Screening helps to identify those children who require further diagnosis in the school or
locality. After screening process diagnosis follows. Diagnosis is a procedure carried out
by qualified medical personnel.
In Kenya examples of screening and diagnosis are the free eye, ear or dental services
offered by certain bodies of professionals. The operation smile is one such body that
deals with children with cleft lip and palate.

Activity

1. Have Kenyan families today shed the stigma associated with exceptional children?
2. Do you know of homes where these children are still hidden away from the public
eye?
3. What impairing conditions are found predominantly in you area?
4. What in your opinion is the major cause of these impairments?

11.12 Services for exceptional children

In Kenya today there are many services available for exceptional children.

1.Special schools and units

There are special schools and units of every category of special children, among them are
residential and day schools for various handicapped children.
There are units attached to regular primary schools. For example there are primary
schools, which may have a class for mentally retarded or hearing-impaired children.

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These children learn in their special unit but can play and interact with the rest of the
children in the school.

2.Grants
The government provides grants for capital development and aid for the expenses of
learning school and units.

3.Teachers and support staff

Teachers for exceptional children are trained at Kenya institute for special Education at
Kasarani, Nairobi. Kenyatta University and Maseno University offer degree programs in
special Education.
The government posts teachers to special schools and units. Some schools employ
teacher aides to assist special teachers. Some non-governmental organizations run their
own special schools and hire their own teachers.

11.12.1 Support staff

Education for exceptional children requires a teamwork approach. To run an ideal special
education program will require the following personnel: Physicians, psychologists,
therapists, occupational and physiotherapists, social nurses and teacher aides. Some
categories of exceptional children need house, mothers and resource persons. All these
are very expensive services.

11.12.2 The curriculum

Curriculum materials for exceptional learners are developed at the Kenya Institute of
Education
The institute has a special education department with qualified staff in most areas of
exceptionality
The Ministry of Education Science and Technology has an Inspectorate department
charged with the responsibility of inspecting teachers and other services offered to
exceptional children.

11.12.3 Teacher training.

Today both Kenyatta University and Maseno University are admitting form four
leavers who wish to take a Bachelors degree in Special Education. Form four leavers who
qualify for the university admissions criteria of C + and who do not meet the criteria set
by JAB may join the degree programs as self- sponsored candidates. Other people who
qualify to take bachelor of education (Special education are the mature entrants who were
previously P1 teachers with ‘O ’ or “A” level and who had three years of teaching
experience. These teachers took a two years diploma in Special education at Kenya
institute of special education KISE and many of them have enrolled and graduated with
Bed Special Education at Kenyatta University. Some of them have graduated with
Masters degree while others are PhD holders today. Before KISE was established in 1985
special education teachers were trained at Siriba, Kamwenja and Highridge Teachers
colleges)
Those teachers working in special school and who may not meet the requirements of
either Diploma or Degree courses are given three months in-service courses at KISE.

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11.12.4 Placement and referral
In 1984 17eductional Assessment and referral services were established. Every district
has at least one assessment centre. An assessment teacher was posted to every district to
assess children with suspected disabilities and to make referral and placement of the
children to special schools and units. The assessment centres provide counseling services
to parents of the handicapped children. They prepare learning materials and collect
information about handicapped children in the district.

11.12.5 Coordination of services

The government coordinates all services for handicapped children through the National
Rehabilitation Committee in the Ministry of culture and social services. There are also
other agencies/societies, which are actively concerned with various areas of disabilities.
These include:
1. The Kenya Society for Deaf Children
2. The Kenya Society of the Blind
3. The Kenya Society of the Mentally Handicapped
4. The association of the physically disabled of Kenya

11.12.6 Vocational Training

Some special schools offer vocational training as part of the 8.4.4 curriculum they teach
such courses as leatherwork, agriculture, home economics, woodwork and metal work.
Skilled technicians are employed to help the teachers in these programs. The Ministry of
culture and social services also manages vocational rehabilitation centres where courses
similar to those offered in youth polytechnics are offered.

11.12.7 Public Education and awareness

The government of Kenya and other agents have made a lot of effort to educate the public
about the needs of handicapped persons. Medical services such as Radio, television and
local newspapers have been used to create awareness of handicapped persons needs.
Among other things, talents and capabilities of exceptional persons are exposed
inculcating positive attitudes among members of the public.

11.13 Summary

This lesson has introduced the student to the exceptional learner

Defined the exceptional child as that child who deviates from the norm to such an extent that
he requires a modification of the school services in order to develop full potential
The lesson has looked at the broad categories of exceptional children
The classification of exceptional children has also been discussed in this lesson
The gifted

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 The mentally retarded
The learning disabled
The physically different children
The sensor ally impaired
Causes of handicapped conditions as well as the management of exceptional children
have been addressed in this lesson
The concept of intervention has been discussed
Services available for exceptional children

11.14 Key words

Cerebral palsy: -This is a disorder affecting voluntary movement. The child affected has
problems with neuromuscular coordination caused by brain damage before or during birth.

Hearing impaired children: - refers to the group of children who may have partial hearing
loss as well as those who are deaf.

Intellectually different: -refers to those children who deviate from the norm group in mental
characteristics. This group includes those children who are mentally retarded and therefore
have lower I.Q. below 90, Lowered mental functioning and adaptive behavior. The category
also covers those children whose mental capacity is above the norm group above 140 and
who may be talented in special areas.

Intervention: -refers to the identification of children with exceptional conditions screening

and diagnosing their cases which leads to the provision of the necessary professional
services as well as placement.

Learning-disabled children: - This refers to those children who have significant difficulties
in listening speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical skills. These difficulties
are not attributed to mental retardation nor are they attributed to environmental deprivation.
They have to do more with psychological processes than other factors.

Orthopedic cases: - This group refers to those children who are physically handicapped
crippled or deformed

Visually impaired children: -are those who are partially sighted or those who are blind.

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11.15 Review questions

1. Define the term exceptional children

2. Give reasons why families with exceptional children maybe stigmatized in your
community
3. Has your community developed a kind of language for the deaf people
4. Which category of exceptional people is accorded full social status in your community?
So that they can own property, get married and be accorded social recognition so that
they can sit on councils’ etc.
5. What are the major causes of exceptionality in your community? Do you know if any
attempts to screen for any of the areas of exceptionalities in your district?

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