4 Fillers and reinforcements
Fillers and reinforcements are added to polypro-
pylene in order to reduce costs or enhance me-
chanical properties. Extenders are inexpensive fill-
ers that are added primarily to increase bulk,
reducing the amount of the more expensive poly-
mer required for the application, although they can
increase stiffness and heat resistance. Reinforcing
fillers provide a substantial improvement in me-
chanical properties, such as tensile strength, heat
distortion temperature, and modulus of elasticity.
Reinforcements include fibers, mica, and wollas-
tonite; the use of glass fibers in polypropylene has
greatly increased its use as a substitute for more
expensive engineering plastics. Fillers and rein-
forcements commonly used in polypropylene are
calcium carbonate, talc, mica, barite, glass
spheres, and carbon and glass fibers. Maximum
concentrations are usually 50%, although higher
loadings are also used. [853, 866, 849, 697]
4.1 Characteristics of fillers
Some reinforcing fillers function by forming
chemical bonds with the polymer. Others produce
enhancements in mechanical properties by taking
up volume; they bind to nearby polymer chains, de-
creasing the chain mobility and increasing polymer
orientation at the filler surface. The increased ori-
entation results in increased stiffness, lower de-
formability, and increased strength. Reduced mo-
bility results in higher glass transition temperatures
in filled polymers, intensifying the inherent brittle-
ness in polypropylene at temperatures below 0°C
(32°F); as a result, many reinforced polypropylene
resins are based on copolymers. A uniform disper-
sion of filler in the polymer matrix increases the
polymer – filler interaction, so that greater amounts
of the polymer are oriented. [860]
The effect of a filler on resin properties is de-
pendent on the aspect ratio (ratio of major to mi-
nor dimension of a particle or length:diameter) and
size of the particle, the particle size distribution of
the filler, filler surface treatement, and the disper-
sion of filler in the polymer. High levels of rein-
forcement can be obtained from fibers made from
electrical glass (E glass, made from Pyrex) due to
their high aspect ratio, and the plate or flake-like
particles of talc or mica provide more reinforce-
ment than the more spherical calcium carbonate
© Plastics Design Library
particles or glass spheres. The larger surface areas
of smaller particles provide better adhesion to the
polymer, and the amounts of coarse and fine parti-
cles influence particle packing during compound-
ing and the optical properties of the resin. The
size, shape, and type of filler affect dispersion, in
addition to interactions between resin and filler,
resin flow properties, filler surface treatment, ma-
chine geometry, and processing parameters. Ulti-
mate filler particle size and spatial uniformity of
the filler in the resin is dependent on the degree of
dispersion. [662, 847, 849, 880, 860]
Abrasion during processing can result in
equipment damage. Abrasivity of a filler is de-
pendent on the amount of coarse filler particles
and the Mohs hardness value; abrasion can be
minimized by selection of fillers with a 325 mesh
particle size. Mohs hardness values are lower for
talc, kaolin, and calcium carbonate than for the
harder fillers such as wollastonite, silicas, and
feldspar. [866]
Chemical reactions of the filler or impurities
can have a negative effect on resin properties. The
alkaline surface (pH 9.5) of calcium carbonate
particles results in low acid resistance to even
weak organic acids and increases the potential for
thermal oxidation of the resin. The likelihood of
polymer oxidation is increased by mineral fillers
with high surface areas, high pH values, high
moisture levels, and a high content of reactive iron
oxides. [860, 942]
Due to its nonpolar chemical structure, poly-
propylene interacts poorly with the typically polar
filler materials, and optimum dispersion is difficult
to achieve. Coupling agents, usually silanes and
titanates, are frequently used to improve the inter-
facial bond between filler and resin and to further
enhance mechanical properties. Coupling agents
are bifunctional molecules, in which one end re-
acts with polar, inorganic materials, while the
other end reacts with organic, nonpolar substrates.
They function as molecular bridges between filler
and resin. Titanates are hydrophobic organo-
titanium compounds compatible with polypropyl-
ene that react with free protons on the filler sur-
face. Silanes are organo-silicon compounds that
bind to hydroxyl (OH) functional groups on the
filler surface. Many coupling agents are available
commercially, with different functional groups ap-
Fillers and reinforcements
50

propriate for the particular resin. Newer polymeric

coupling agents composed of maleic anhydride
grafted onto polypropylene are also available.
They exhibit improved physical properties at lower
loadings than silanates and titanates. [702, 852,
846, 847]
Coupling agents are used to improve adhesion
in glass- and mineral-filled polypropylene. Micro-
graphs of glass fiber-filled polypropylene with and
without addition of coupling agents are shown in
Figure 4.1. The improved adhesion obtained with a
coupling agents results in enhanced mechanical pro-
perties, such as tensile strength, flexural modulus,
impact strength, and heat deflection temperature,
and lower melt viscosities than in the unfilled poly-
mer. The effect of coupling agents on tensile
strength, flexural modulus, and heat deflection tem-
perature is shown in Figure 4.2. [819, 697, 459]

4.2 Calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonates are one of the most abundant
minerals in the earth’s crust. They occur in the
form of limestone and chalk, formed from fossils,
and marble, formed from the metamorphosis of
sedimentary rock. They consist mostly (>98%) of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), with trace amounts of
magnesium carbonate, iron oxide, and aluminum
silicates. Dolomite is a blend of calcium and mag-
nesium formed by metamorphosis. All are rela-
tively soft minerals (Mohs hardness of 3), white in
color, with a specific gravity of 2.71 at 23°C
(73°C). Physical properties of calcium carbonate,
b
Figure 4.1 Glass fiber-filled polypropylene. a) No
coupling agent is present; resin does not adhere to the
fibers. b) With the addition of a coupling agent, the resin
coats and adheres to the fibers. [697]
talc, mica, and barite are given in Table 4.1. A
photomicrograph of calcium carbonate particles is
shown in Figure 4.3. [854, 860, 828, 827, 942]
Calcium carbonate is the most widely used
filler for plastics. It is inexpensive and can be used
at high loadings. It is generally used as an ex-
tender; however, it can improve stiffness and im-

a b c
Figure 4.2 Effect of coupling on tensile strength, flexural modulus, and heat deflection temperatures of glass fi-
ber-reinforced polypropylene. a) tensile strength vs. glass fiber content b) flexural modulus vs. glass fiber content c)
heat deflection temperature vs. glass fiber content. Tensile strengths, flexural moduli, and heat deflection temperatures all
increase with increasing glass fiber content and with increased coupling. P, P1, and P6 Series polypropylene are from
Thermofil Engineering Thermoplastics. [459]

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 51

pact strength, especially with fine particle grades.
The flexural modulus of a 40% calcium carbonate-
filled polypropylene homopolymer is about 3000
MPa (400,000 psi), midway between unfilled and
talc-filled resins. Calcium carbonates provide high
brightness and high gloss. Limestone- and marble-
based products are generally used when aesthetic
considerations are important; the amount of the
more expensive titanium dioxide pigment in a for-
mulation can be reduced by up to 50%, with
equivalent whiteness, by substitution of calcium
carbonate. Disadvantages include lowered tensile
strength and compressive strength, greatly reduced
elongation, and low resistance to organic acids.
[847, 159, 697, 849, 866, 851, 827]
Calcium carbonates are available in different
grades: dry processed, wet or water ground, benefi-
ciated ground, precipitated, and surface-treated.
Precipitated is a synthetic form produced by car-
bonization and is available in very fine particle sizes
(0.7–2.0 µm). Surface treated grades are coated
with lipophilic substances such as stearic acid or
calcium stearate to improve dispersibility, increase
oxidation resistance of the filled resin, and reduce
wear on processing machinery. In experimental
studies, coated calcium carbonates resulted in
higher values for impact strength and elongation at
break and enhanced whiteness compared to un-
coated grades. In beneficiated ground, the most
widely used grade, iron and silica are removed to
minimize resin degradation, and the mineral is
finely ground, with median particle sizes of 1–10
µm. The largest particle size (>12µm) is obtained
with dry processed grades; coarse particles are re-
moved in wet ground grades, with a median particle
size of <3 µm. [827, 866, 854, 942]
organic solvents. Due to a 60% higher specific
gravity, loadings are low compared to other mineral
fillers, and the effect on physical properties of the
filled resin is not as pronounced. Barite has a high
refractive index than other minerals. It is used in
heavier parts or for applications that require sound
deadening or corrosion resistance. [942]
4.4 Talc
Talc is a hydrated magnesium silicate (Mg3Si4O10
(OH)2), with small, varying amounts of aluminum,
iron, and calcium oxides, depending on the mining
site. It is soft (Mohs hardness of 1.0), with low
abrasion and a slippery texture, and it is highly
oleophilic. The form used commercially is plate-
like (Figure 4.4), with an aspect ratio of 15–20. It
is inexpensive and, although it was originally used
as an extender, it is now considered a reinforcing
filler due to its high aspect ratio. Particle sizes
range from 2 µm to greater than 45 µm; optimum
aspect ratios are obtained with talc particles finer
than 325 mesh (particle size smaller than 45 µm).
Specific gravity ranges from 2.7 to 2.8. Its sand-
wich-like structure of magnesium oxide and hy-

a
4.3 Barite
Barium sulfate (Figure 4.3), commonly called bar-
ite, is found in the hydrothermal veins of cavity fis-
sures in limestones, sandstone, shales, or clays or as
surface deposits resulting from limestone weather-
ing. Barite brightness depends on origin; brown buff
barite (brightness 80–85) is found in Nevada, Mis-
souri, Georgia, Illinois, and Mexico, while pigment
grade white barite (brightness 92–94) is obtained
almost exclusively from China. [942]
Barites are the most chemically resistant of the
commonly used minerals in polypropylene (calcium b
carbonate, talc, mica, and barite; Table 4.1), with
Figure 4.3 Micrographs of spherically shaped min-
excellent resistance to acids, alkali, and all known eral fillers. a) calcium carbonate b) barite [942]

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52

The resin color of talc-filled polypropylene can

vary from white to tan, depending on the origin of
the talc; the presence of iron hydroxides (limonite)
imparts a yellowish cast to talc particles. All
commercial grades of talc are dry ground. Physical
properties of talc are given in Table 4.1. [697, 827,
847, 866, 942]

Figure 4.4 Micrograph of Chinese talc particles.
Chinese talc is most often used in polyolefins due to
higher purity and superior color and properties than
talcs from other areas such as Montana, Vermont,
Texas, or Canada. [942]
droxide between layers of silicon dioxide provides
inertness to most chemical reagents and acids, and
it is heat stable up to ~900°C (1650°F) and unaf-
fected by processing conditions. Talc is a noncon-
ductor of electricity and exhibits low thermal con-
ductivity and high resistance to heat shock. [847,
866, 827, 767, 942]
Talc is widely used in polypropylene, at load-
ings of ~10–40%. Talc-filled resins exhibit in-
creased stiffness, heat resistance, and high tem-
perature creep resistance, better dimensional
stability, and heat and moisture resistance. Tensile
strength is unaffected. Impact strength can de-
crease dramatically, especially in copolymers;
however, fine particle sizes can improve impact
strength. Living hinge properties are also reduced.
4.5 Mica
Mica is an aluminosilicate reinforcing filler ob-
tained from the minerals muscovite (KAl2(AlSi3O10)
(OH,F)2, phlogopite (KMg3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2), or
biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2). Phlogopite
and biotite form a continuous series in which some
of the magnesium (Mg) is replaced by iron (Fe);
micas can contain up to 5% iron. Biotite, with the
highest iron content, is black, while phlogopites can
be golden brown or almost black in color. Musco-
vites contain the lowest amounts of iron and are
light-colored. The iron in mica is in an unreactive
form and does not increase the rate of polypropyl-
ene oxidation. [942, 955]
The plate-like form of mica (Figure 4.5) pro-
vides reinforcement in a plane, in contrast to fibers,
which reinforce in only one direction. Mica flakes
have aspect ratios ranging from 10 to 150, with par-
ticle sizes from 45–500 µm (325 to 40 mesh); flake
thickness can be as low as 0.1 µm, depending on the
degree of delamination. Good aspect ratios for op-
timum reinforcement can be obtained at mesh sizes

Table 4.1 Physical Properties of Commonly Used Minerals

Calcium Mica
Property Barite Talc Carbonate (phlogopite)
Particle shape Orthorhombic Platy Orthorhombic Platy
Specific gravity 4.5 2.8 2.7 2.8
Chemical resistance
Acids Excellent Good Poor Good
Alkali Excellent Good Fair Good
Thermal stability (°C) 1580 900 680 1500
pH (10% solution) 6.5–7 9 9–9.5 9–9.5
Hardness (Mohs scale) 2.5 1 3 2.5
Thermal conductivity (cal/cm s °C) 6x10 –3
5x10 –3
5.6x10 –3
16x10–3
Specific heat (cal/g °C) 0.11 0.208 0.205 0.206
Coefficient of thermal expansion (cm/cm/°C) 10 8 10 25
Oil absorption 6 25 10 25
Dielectric constant 6.1 7.5 6.1 5.5
Refractive index 1.65 1.59 1.6 1.54–1.69
Brightness (Hunter L, 325 mesh powder) 84–96 78–95 78–98 38–45

Fillers and reinforcements © Plastics Design Library


a resin than talc or calcium carbonate fillers or glass
b Wollastonite is a naturally occurring calcium meta-
Figure 4.5 Micrograph of mica flakes. a) High as-
pect ratio plate-like flakes b) Superfine flakes. The plate-
like form of mica flakes provides reinforcement in two di-
rections. [866]
of 100 to 325 for muscovite mica and 20 to 200 for
phlogopite mica. Mica flakes are flexible, elastic,
and tough. Mica is softer (Mohs hardness of 2.5–
3.0) than glass fibers or wollastonite, which
minimizes abrasion, and the surface appearance of
mica-filled polymers is better than glass-filled resins
due to the tendency of mica to orient parallel to the
mold surface during processing. The specific
gravity of a high aspect ratio, surface-treated mica is
2.8. [827, 866, 860, 942]
Mica reinforcement provides enhanced flexural
moduli, heat deflection temperatures, tensile
strengths, dimensional stability, and sound deaden-
ing properties. Enhancement of mechanical proper-
ties varies with particle size; flexural modulus and
tensile strength increase with increased particle size,
while impact strength decreases. Elongation, ther-
mal expansion, and shrinkage are reduced with
mica reinforcement, and the planar orientation of
the flakes reduces the nonuniform thermal shrink-
age that causes warpage. Mechanical properties can
be improved by surface treatment with coupling
agents. Mica is acid resistant, except for concen-
trated sulfuric-phosphoric acid mixtures and hydro-
fluoric acid. Its use in polypropylene imparts a tan
or brown color to the resin; it is generally used
when color is unimportant or for a speckled appear-
ance. [827, 697, 866, 942]
© Plastics Design Library
53
Commercial grades of mica are wet or dry
ground. Wet ground flakes are smoother and more
polished than dry ground micas, which have more
jagged edges. Wet ground micas have better physi-
cal properties and higher bulk densities. [942]
Mica can be used in injection molding, extru-
sion, thermoforming, and rotomolding. It can be
incorporated by melt compounding or sometimes
by dry blending. It disperses more easily in molten
fibers. Mica is used as a lower cost alternative to
glass fiber reinforcement of polypropylene in the
automobile industry, for under the hood compo-
nents (air conditioning and heater valve housings),
trim, dashboard components, and grille-opening
panels. [827, 866, 860]
4.6 Wollastonite
silicate, composed of calcium oxide and silicon di-
oxide. It is a white mineral that occurs in a needle-
like form; aspect ratios range from 3 to 20. It has a
high melting point, high pH (9.9), and a specific
gravity of 2.9, and it exhibits low moisture absorp-
tion. It is a reinforcing filler that competes with talc
and mica. It provides some reinforcement in poly-
propylene at 40 parts per hundred (phr); reinforce-
ment properties increase when 30 phr wollastonite
is combined with 10 phr glass fiber, resulting in in-
creases in tensile strength, flexural strength, impact
strength, and heat deflection temperature. Wollasto-
nite alone as a reinforcing filler can decrease impact
strength, and its abrasivity can cause wear on proc-
essing equipment. [827, 866]
4.7 Organic fillers
Wood flour is an organic filler used in polypropyl-
ene that is formed from grinding hardwoods,
sometimes blended with nutshells. It is readily
available, inexpensive, and lightweight, with a
specific gravity of about 1.50. It is composed of
fine particles with a low aspect ratio (2.5), with
particle sizes ranging from 70–500 µm. Wood
flour increases resin stiffness but exhibits low
temperature stability and can decompose at 190–
200°C (380–400°F); in addition, its polar surface
can result in poor bonding to the resin surface.
Flax has also been used in polypropylene; panels
in the latest VW Passat Variant station wagon are
reinforced with 50% flax. [827, 866, 864]
Fillers and reinforcements
54

4.8 Glass spheres continuous strands are used in injection molding, at

Glass spheres are sometimes used in polypropyl- loadings of 5–30%. Mats can be made from
ene. Glass spheres can be solid or hollow; hollow chopped or continuous strands. Polypropylene is the
spheres, with a density of about one-fifth that of most common polymer used in glass mat reinforced
pure resin, are used to reduce the weight of the thermoplastics (GMT). GMT polypropylene exhib-
filled plastic, while solid spheres provide strength. its enhanced dynamic toughness, higher energy ab-
Commercially available sizes range from 5–5000 sorption upon impact, and an excellent stiffness to
µm in diameter; a 30 µm diameter (325 mesh) size
is commonly used in plastics. Glass spheres in
polypropylene provide increased stiffness at ele-
vated temperatures, higher compressive strength,
and dimensional stability. Due to their spherical
shape, they act as ball bearings in a resin, and flow
properties and stress distributions are better than
with high-aspect fillers. [860, 827]

4.9 Glass fibers

Glass fibers are the most widely used reinforce-
ment in thermoplastics. They are cost-effective,
and a broad range of physical properties can be
achieved for a large number of applications. Glass
fiber reinforcements are strands of filaments drawn
to various diameters between 3.8 and 18 µm, with
letter designations of B to P. The number of fila-
ments per strand, the configuration of the strand,
and the fiber length-to-weight ratio can be varied,
depending on the desired properties. [827, 662]
Most plastics are reinforced with E (electrical)
glass, a borosilicate glass with poor acid resis-
tance, fair alkali resistance, good moisture resis-
tance, and excellent electrical insulation proper-
ties. Other types of glass can provide better alkali
or acid resistance (C or chemical glass), good di-
electric properties (D glass), or high strength for
advanced composites (S glass). Glass fibers are
usually coupled or coated with sizing in order to
facilitate processing, minimize fiber breakage
during processing, and provide compatibility with
the polymer. Sizing agents are generally proprie-
tary organic formulations designed for the par-
ticular resin. They consist of polymers (polyvinyl
acetate, polyester, epoxy, starch) that form films to
hold the fibers together, amine lubricants to impart
lubricity, and silane, chrome, or titanate coupling
agents for polymer-fiber crosslinking. [827, 662] Figure 4.6 The effect of glass fiber reinforcement
Continuous and chopped strands are commonly on mechanical properties of polypropylene. a) flex-
ural modulus b) tensile strength c) Gardner impact
used in polypropylene. Continuous strands are un- strength. Flexural modulus and tensile strength increase
twisted and wound onto a spool; chopped strands with increasing glass fiber content; Gardner impact
consist of continuous strands cut into lengths rang- strength decreases. Polypropylene homopolymer (melt
flow rate 12, density 0.905 g/cc) was compounded with
ing from 1/8 in. (0.32 cm ) to greater than 1 in. (2.5 3/16 inch (0.48 cm) glass fibers using a twin screw ex-
cm) in 1/4 in. (0.64 cm) intervals. Chopped and truder. [853]

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toughness ratio compared to short fiber reinforced
polypropylene. As a result, GMT polypropylene can
compete with other polymeric composites, alumi-
num, and steel. [865, 827, 868]
Glass fiber reinforced resins have high tensile
strength, high stiffness and flexural modulus, and
high heat deflection temperatures. With 40% glass
fiber reinforcement, the heat deflection tempera-
ture of polypropylene at 1.82 MPa (264 psi) in-
creases to 150°C (300°), compared to 60°C
(140°F) for the unreinforced material. Impact
strength decreases in glass-reinforced resins. The
effects of increasing glass fiber content on flexural
modulus, tensile strength, and Gardner impact
strength are shown in Figure 4.6. The abrasiveness
of glass fibers can damage machinery and tooling;
hardened coatings on barrels, screws and tooling
can minimize abrasion. [326, 853, 865, 697, 827]
Because glass fibers orient in the flow direction
during injection molding, shrinkage is greatly re-
duced in the direction of flow; in the transverse di-
rection, the shrinkage reduction is not as great. Dis-
tortion problems can result from the large difference
in shrinkage values, and fiber reorientation can occur
where two flow fronts meet, changing the direction
of shrinkage. The orientation of glass fibers makes
accurate predictions of shrinkage difficult and can
cause warpage; wider manufacturing tolerances are
required for glass fibers than for talc or glass sphere
reinforcements. [326, 853, mp 88, 697, 827]
4.10 Carbon fibers
Carbon fibers are fine filaments composed of ele-
mental carbon. Structure can vary from amorphous
carbon to crystalline graphite, providing a wide
range of physical properties. Density ranges from
3
1.6–1.9 g/cm . Product types range from fiber mats,
with low strength and moduli, to chopped fibers and
continuous filaments. Carbon fibers can provide
high modulus (up to 52,000 MPa; 75 million psi),
high strength (up to 3000 MPa; 400,000 psi), ex-
cellent chemical resistance, increased thermal con-
ductivity, and a low coefficient of thermal expan-
sion. Coupled carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplas-
tics at 10–40% loadings have improved flexural
modulus, flexural strength, and retention of me-
© Plastics Design Library
55
chanical properties in humid environments and
greater creep and wear resistance compared to glass
fibers. They are used in automotive, aerospace, and
sporting-goods applications. They are more expen-
sive than glass fibers; as a result, their use in poly-
propylene is generally restricted to applications that
require electromagnetic interference and radio fre-
quency interference (EMI/RFI) shielding capabili-
ties. [697, 827, 879]
4.11 Applications of filled polypropylene
Reinforced and filled polypropylene is used in the
automotive, appliance, furniture, and electrical in-
dustries. Automotive applications include glass-
fiber reinforced fan mountings and shrouds, belt
covers, air filters, spoilers, cooling system tanks,
and talc-reinforced fans, dashboards, electric sys-
tem housings, heater housings, and headlamp
housings. Mineral reinforced (20%) polypropylene
used in interior trim in the VW Golf provides
sound deafening properties and does not cause un-
pleasant rattling or squeaking noises. [326, 706]
Talc-reinforced polypropylene is used in the
appliance industry for washing machine powder
dispensers, end plates for dryers, spray rotors for
dishwashers, wastewater pump housing compo-
nents, basket supports, air circulation ducts, ex-
tractor hood housings, washing machine tops,
compressor supports for refrigerators and freezers,
toaster and electric iron housings, and housings for
coffeemakers and washing machine electronic
components. Refrigerator liners made of mineral-
filled polypropylene are a replacement for acrylo-
nitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). [326, 697]
Other applications include lawn and garden
furniture, with ultraviolet stabilizers to protect
against sunlight, and lawn mower housings. Min-
eral-filled thermoformed packaging materials for
applications such as microwaveable packaging
provide high heat resistance, mechanical rigidity,
durability, and low taste and odor. Examples of
applications of reinforced polypropylene are
shown in Figure 4.7. [851, 182, 697]
Fillers and reinforcements
56

Figure 4.7 Examples of applications of reinforced polypropylene.

a) cooling system expansion tank made from glass fiber-reinforced polypropylene
b) fans made from talc-reinforced polypropylene
c) clothes lifter made from talc-reinforced polypropylene
d) toaster housing made from
talc-reinforced polypropylene. [326]

c d

Fillers and reinforcements © Plastics Design Library