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Biomolecules

The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called biological
macromolecules. There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array
of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell’s mass. Biological
macromolecules are organic, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements. Each biomolecule is essential for
body functions and manufactured within the body. They can vary in nature, type, and structure where
some may be straight chains, some may be cyclic rings or both. Also, they can vary in physical properties
such as water solubility, melting points.

Types of Biomolecules
Biomolecules are primarily classified into 4 types, namely:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates

Polysaccharides, commonly known as carbohydrates are macromolecules. They are made up of

monosaccharides (sugar molecules). Majority of living cells are rich in carbohydrates and they are the
final products of many metabolisms. For example, Glucose is the final product of photosynthesis.
Saccharides can be monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide etc. based on the number of sugar
molecules they are made up of.

 The structure of the glucose molecule is a good representation of carbohydrate subunits, also called a
monomer.

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Functions of Carbohydrates
The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and food to the body and to the nervous
system.
Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic component of food including sugars, starch, and fiber
which are abundantly found in grains, fruits, and milk products.
Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex carbohydrates and so on.
It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of energy.
An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into glucose, finally to produce energy
for metabolism.

Sources of Carbohydrates

1. Simple sugars are found in the form of fructose in many fruits.

2. Galactose is present in all dairy products.
3. Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other dairy products.
4. Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes, processed cheese, pasta, etc.
5. Sucrose is naturally obtained from sugar and honey containing small amounts of vitamins and
minerals.

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Proteins

Proteins are dietary compounds made of monomers called amino acids. Protein is a long chain of amino
acid bonded by polypeptide bonds. Hence proteins are also called polypeptides. Amino acids are carbon-
containing compounds where a carboxylic acid group and the amino group are present at the two ends.
Each amino acid consists of one central carbon surrounded by four substituents. These four substituents
include an amino group, carboxylic acid group, hydrogen and a variable group represented by R. The
variable group, R decides the nature and type of amino acid.

Functions of Proteins

1. Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions which take place within a
cell. They also help in regenerating and creating DNA molecules and carry out complex
processes.
2. Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various types of hormones which help in
balancing the components of the body. For example hormones like insulin, which helps in
regulating blood sugar and secretin. It is also involved in the digestion process and formation of
digestive juices.
3. Antibody: Antibody also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of protein which is majorly
used by the immune system to repair and heal the body from foreign bacteria. They often work
together with other immune cells to identify and separate the antigens from increasing until the
white blood cells destroy them completely.
4. Energy: Proteins are the major source of energy that helps in the movements of our body. It is
important to have the right amount of protein in order to convert it into energy. Protein, when
consumed in excess amounts, gets used to create fat and becomes part of the fat cells.

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Sources of Protein

Although there are debates about the intake of carbohydrates and fats in order to maintain a proper health,
a minimum amount of daily protein intake is always a doctor’s first recommendation. The most common food
which has a higher amount of protein are eggs, almond, chicken, oats, fish and seafood, soy, beans and
pulses, cottage cheese, Greek yogurt, milk, broccoli, and quinoa.

Lipids

Lipids are a group of water-insoluble compounds which include fats, glycerol, phospholipids, steroids, oils etc.
Types of lipids vary according to their constituents. Fatty acids are simple lipids made up of a carboxyl group
and a variable group R. They may be saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. Glycerol is trihydroxy propane
which combines with fatty acids to give triglycerides. Some lipids consist of a phosphorus group along with
the organic chain. Such lipids are called phospholipids, the constituent of the plasma membrane.
Classification of Lipids
 Simple lipids: Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.

1. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state.

2. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols

Complex Lipids: Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to an alcohol and a fatty acid.

1. Phospholipids: Lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and an alcohol, a phosphoric acid residue.
They frequently have nitrogen-containing bases and other substituents, eg, in glycerophospholipids
the alcohol is glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol is sphingosine.

2. Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine, and carbohydrate.

3. Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and amino lipids. Lipoproteins may also be placed in
this category

Precursor and derived lipids

These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and ketone bodies,
hydrocarbons, lipid soluble vitamins, and hormones. Because they are uncharged, acylglycerols (glycerides),
cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters are termed neutral lipids.
Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), often with long aliphatic tails (long chains), either saturated
or unsaturated.

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Saturated fatty acids

When a fatty acid is saturated it is an indication that there are no carbon-carbon double bonds and if the fatty
acid is saturated it is an indication that it has at least one carbon-carbon double bond. As the following data
indicate, the saturated acids have higher melting points than unsaturated acids of the corresponding size.
Unsaturated fatty acid
If a fatty acid has more than one double bond then this is an indication that it is an unsaturated fatty acid.
“Most naturally occurring fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms and are unbranched.”
Saturated fatty acids have higher melting points due to their ability to pack their molecules together thus
leading to a straight rod-like shape. Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, have a cis-double bond(s)
that create a kink in their structure which doesn’t allow them to group their molecules in straight rod-like
shape.

Cholesterol
Cholesterol is an important lipid found in the cell membrane. It is a sterol, which means that cholesterol is a
combination of a steroid and an alcohol. It is an important component of cell membranes and is also the basis
for the synthesis of other steroids, including the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone, as well as other
steroids such as cortisone and vitamin D. In the cell membrane, the steroid ring structure of cholesterol
provides a rigid hydrophobic structure that helps boost the rigidity of the cell membrane. Without
cholesterol, the cell membrane would be too fluid. In the human body, cholesterol is synthesized in the liver.

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The Functions of Lipids

The excess energy from the food we eat is digested and incorporated into adipose tissue, or fatty tissue.
Most of the energy required by the human body is provided by carbohydrates and lipids.

Regulating and Signaling

Triglycerides control the body’s internal climate, maintaining constant temperature. Those who don’t
have enough fat in their bodies tend to feel cold sooner, are often fatigued, and have pressure sores on
their skin from fatty acid deficiency. 

Insulating and Protecting

Did you know that up to 30 percent of body weight is comprised of fat tissue? Some of this is made up of
visceral fat or adipose tissue surrounding delicate organs. Vital organs such as the heart, kidneys, and
liver are protected by visceral fat.

Aiding Digestion and Increasing Bioavailability

The dietary fats in the foods we eat break down in our digestive systems and begin the transport of
precious micronutrients. By carrying fat-soluble nutrients through the digestive process, intestinal
absorption is improved. This improved absorption is also known as increased bioavailability. 

Hormone Production
Cholesterol is a type of lipid needed to produce important steroid hormones in your body. Estrogen,
testosterone, progesterone and the active form of vitamin D are all formed from cholesterol and are
needed to maintain pregnancy, develop sex characteristics and regulate calcium levels in your body. 

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are the genetic materials present in an organism which includes DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids are
the combination materials of nitrogenous bases, sugar molecules and phosphate group linked by different
bonds in a series of steps. Our body consists of heterocyclic compounds like pyrimidines and purines. These
are nitrogenous compounds like adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. When these bases bond
with sugar chains, nucleosides are formed. Nucleosides in turn bond with a phosphate group to give
nucleotides like DNA and RNA.
The human body consists of trillions of cells which are made up of carbohydrates, proteins like biomolecules.
Majority of cell activities depend on them.
Nucleic acid structure refers to the structure of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Chemically
speaking, DNA and RNA are very similar. Nucleic acid structure is often divided into four different levels:
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.

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Functions of nucleic acids

 DNA is the genetic material carrying hereditary information.

 By the process of transcription, it gives rise to RNA which in turn contains the code for the synthesis
of proteins.
 DNA controls cell metabolism along with differentiation and development of an organism.
 Mutations in DNA help organisms evolve and adapt to changing conditions.
 RNA forms the genetic code in certain viruses such as HIV.

Enzyme

Enzymes can be simply described as biological catalysts. Like any catalyst enables a chemical reaction, they
do the same for your body. In most reaction energy has to be provided, usually in form of heat. Enzymes
actually reduce the activation energy needed and increase the velocity of biological reactions in the human
body. But in this process/reaction, they do not undergo any changes themselves. Hence this is the reason
they are recyclable and the required in very small doses.

Structure of an Enzyme

Enzyme is a form of protein. As far as the structure goes they are globular, that is they are cylindrical in
shape. Their polypeptide chains have a coil-like formation.

The sequencing of the amino acids decides not only define the structure of an enzyme but also its functions.
The distinctive structure of an enzyme will determine its catalytic activity. In a particular configuration (or
sequencing) a particular portion of the structure, known as the active site is accessible to attract and
catalyze the reactants.

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Functions of an Enzyme

Now enzymes are highly specific in their functions. A particular enzyme will only act as a catalyst for a
particular reaction. In a given specific reaction the molecules that an enzyme reacts with is a substrate.

The substrate binds itself to the active site of the enzyme. This is the lock and key theory.  So only the
correct enzyme can react with the correct substrate, just like only the perfect key can unlock a particular
lock. Although in modern times we believe that the substrate alters its binding to fit with the active site, This
is known as induced fit.

After the catalyses of the substrate, we are left with what we call the products. It is important to note that
throughout this entire process the molecular structure of the enzymes does not undergo permanent
alteration. It keeps its structure enact and performs its functions again.

Just like proteins, enzymes can also be denatured. This happens when their structure changes due to some
external force or pressure. Generally, heat causes them to denature and lose their catalyzing abilities.

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