00 Production of CO 2 during organic matter ii.
cart>onates {CO,,-J •nd blt:arllonates {HCO,}
decomposition is responsible for the lowering ot
pH or calcareous soils in submerged soils
iv. Mineral weathering
II', Add rain
vi. Heavy aopping removes (aop removal) basic cations
and replaced by W Ions from roots
vii. Long-term use or acidifying fertilizers (NH4• containing
fertilizers) due to nitrification process ( conversion of
NH/ to No3• and release of W in the soil)
• POPII of lddltv
I. Actire llddity
00 acidity due to W ions in soil solution
00 measured when pH is determined in th~ usual
method or mixing equal amounts of soil and water
00 should be in equilibrium with reserve acidity
II. Rl!IMIIW llddlty
acidity due to W and A1 3 • i ons adsorbed on
colloid surfaces
00 also measured (in addition to active 'ilddity) when
KO is mixed with the soil instead ot water rn the
pH determination
♦ Sources c6 Alkalinity
I. Bae- forming cat/on$
ooAs the basic cations such as Ca, Mg, K and Na
saturates the soil's exchange complex, the W Ion
concentrations in the soil solution will deaease
and the concentration or OH"inaeases.
Alkaline reactions results from the hydrolysis of
colloids saturated with basic cations
Green EM Pl RE! PA ( 11·ww.{aC'eboolc.C'omll{r eenemv irepl, )
• IDRN■DA u,, PH ' Unllna)
00 involves the application of lime : any Ca or Mg
bearing compound added to the soil to neutralize
the H+ ions
00 Lime reacts with carbonic add to form
bicarbonates which will dissociate with Ca
replacing H+ in the exchange sites
00 Liming application : small amounts split and
Incorporated into the soil
00 usually applied in large amounts ( tons/hectare)
ahead or planting to allow ample time to react
with the soil
its effectivity depends on the lime's fineness
(partide size) and relative neutralizing value (RNV)
or also calailated as the calcium carbonate
equivalent (CCE)
00 RNV : the strength of the lime in correcting soil
acidity with reference to calcium carbonate;
computed from the ratio of the molecular weight
of calcium carbonate and that of the liming
material,
RNV = (mol wt CaCO3 / mol wt of the liming
material) x 100
- lime requirement the amount or liming material
needed to raise the pH of one hectare soil ( 2 x
10"6 kg) up to a desired level under field
condition
00 Too much liming is can be harmful with the
reduced availability of Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, P, and B,
and antagonism between Ca, K, and Mg.
26

• common llrnloa mttm•I•
00 these are the oxides, hydroxides and carbonates
of lime
l. limestone : made up chiefty of the minerals
calcite caCO1 with RNV of 100%, or dolomite
CaMg(CO3 )i with RNV of 109%; Limestone
deposits are aushed to specified particle size
with average· purity of 94%
2. Burned lime or quicx lime cao or MgO: made by
igniting calcium or magnesium carbonates; about
95% pure; hygroscopic, tends to absorb w ater
from the air; cakes readily even when sealed in
bags; Cao RNV of 179%
3. smked lime. hydroxide of lime made by reacting
cao or MgO with water; about 95% purity;
Ca(OH)2 RNV of 136%
An RNV of 179% (CaO) means .that every kg of
CaO is equivale11t in neutralizing fability to 1.78 kg
of caco1.
00 The greater the purity, the greater th e neutralfzlng
ability of the lime
00 Calcium sulfate Caso. also contains calcium, but it
has sulfate which can form sulfuric add.
00 Gypsum isnot a liming material, as it ha.s--very
slight effect on pH, but can provide Ca as a
nutrient or exchange with Na.
• Loww:toA u,, pH cac1mac■ugn>
00 more difficult than raising the pH
oo usually involves addition of large amounts or
organic matter into the soil, or by adding ferrous
Green EMPIRE PH (wuw.focebook.comlg reenempireph)
sulfate or sulfur mineral [to transform into sulfuric
add]
• Bllffwlna CIPICltv
oo the resistance of the soil to drastic changes in pH
The pH of the soil hardly changes because when
the W ions in the soil solution are leached out,
these are replenished by the W Ions In the
exchange complex ( concept of active and reserve
acidity); the replenishment is reversible making
liming a continuous practice in order to maintain
the desired pH
00 The higher the buffering capacity of the soil, the
higher the amount of liming needed to neutralize
the acidity.
- The higher the CEC, the higher the bul'rering
capacity.
More lime is needed to raise the pH of acidic clay
soils than acidic sandy soils.
Add afflte soHs
also found to occur in the Philippines
00 The acidity is due to the oxidation of sulfur
compounds in soils that are rich in sulfur, or are
derived from sulfur-bearing minerals
- There is formation of sulfuric add.
00 pH value can be as low as 4.0
• Soll organisms ot genus ThlobiJcilhs also facilitate
the oxidation of sulfur compounds to sulfate
• Saline soils
oo soils with toxic amount of soluble salt content
27
 - soils with electrical conductivity (EC) greater than
4 mmhos/cm
- occurs in arid areas where there can be
evaporation of water reaching the area allows
concentration of salts e.g. near sea coasts with
sea water intrusion
- can be reclaimed by repeatedly nooding with fresh
water
- diversion canals must be constructed to prevent
entry of salt water
• Sodlc 10111
oo solls with excessive amount of soluble sodium (Na
content more than 15% of the CEC)
00 highly dispersed and poorly drained
00 can be reclaimed by replacing Na+ in the
exchange sites of colloids with Ca 2 '"'( sources can
be gypsum), and then washing out the Na•; e.g.
application of gypsum
• YPIIDd 11111
00 also referred to as dryland soils
grown to aops like corn, vegetables, fruit trees,
etc.
- aerobic most of the time
00 the nutrients present in the soil exist in their
oxidized state i.e. No)·, H2PO., so/·,so4·, Fe 3•,
Mn..., CO2
- soil color is brown, yellowish brown, or reddish
brown
- organic matter decomposes with CO2 as a major
product
• Lowf•nd soils
00 also referred to as paddy soils
- grown to rice, and other aops requiring water or
puddling
oo anaerobic most of the time because of continuous
submergence
There is a thin oxidized layer above the water
surface.
- The nutrients exist in reduced state NH4•, H2S,
Mni-, Fe2♦, CH4
- soil color is dark gray or bluish gray
- organic matter decomposes with the following
major products: CH 4 (methane), H,S (hydrogen
sulfide), organic adds, alcohols, and ketones
IV. SOIL ORGANISMS AND ORGANIC
MATTER
• Soll organisms
composed of large and small plants and animals
- The larger organisms (Insects, worms, moles, etc.)
prepare the organic materials for further
degradation by breaking them into smaller pieces
oo The smaller organisms (bacteria, fungi,
actinomycetes, algae, nematodes, protozoa) cause
biochemical changes in the organic materials
- Roles:
o Responsible for biochemical changes

GreenEMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/greenempirep/r ) 28
 o Agents In the decomposition of plant and - CRJ : colony forming unit
animal residues - HFS: hectare furrow slice
o Improve soil structure through aggregation
• 1tctM11
• C,rthworm
oo eat detritus, soil organic matter and
- probably the most important in terms of their
effect on soil properties
microorganisms round on these materials - involved In various nitrogen transformation, sulfur
oo also l'adlltates aeration and drainage through the oxidation and reduction, and other chemical
channels they create processes
oo probably the most significant microorganisms in 00 Morphological Grouping
humid temperate region soils o Coed (speherical)
7000 species worldwide o Rods (short, long, a,rved)
oo LJJmbrlaJs terrestrts and Allo/obophora ca//gil10SII o Spiral (vibrio)
are the most common Nutritional Grouping
oo more numerous in fertile and alkaline soils than in o Heterotrophic (OM as source of carbon and
infertile and add soils energy)
00 Epigeic : live In the litter layer, o Autotrophic
Ex. Compost worm -Eisenia foetida o Photosynthetic (Energy from sunlight; C from
Endogelc : live In the top 10-30 ~ of soil, CO 2)
Ex. Pale-pink-red worm - Allolobophora ca//gif10S6 o Chemosynthetic (Energy from oxidation of
oo Anecic: live in vertical burrow up to 1 meter, Inorganic compound; C from CO 2)
Ex. the Introduced Night Crawler - LJJmbrlaJs Grouping based on oxygen requirement
rerrestrls o aerobic
o anaerobic
• e,;otozoa
Single-celled animals (20-50 microns In diameter)
00 -
o facultative
Grouping based on temperature ror optimum
00Aerobic activity
00 Ingest food through oral openings o mesophllic
- ingest other soil organisms particularly bacteria o thermophillc
and helps released the immobilized nutrients in the o psychrophilic
bacteria 00 Population: 106 - 109 CFU/g soil
oo Reproduction : Binary fission; budding oo Biomass: ,.,2,000 kg/HFS
00 Population: 101 - 105 Cells/g soil
00 Biomass: • 100 kg/HFS • flUUll
GrecnEMPIRE PH ( w11w .facebook. comlgreenempirepl, ) 29
 - most adaptable and versatile soil organism - lndudes blue-green algae, green algae, and
- some species can thrive In extreme acidity and diatoms
alkalinity oo Principally thrives in aquatic environment, loves
- able to decompose the resistant organic moist habitat
compounds such as llgnin, cellulose, and gums - Both single - celled and multicellular species are
- Mycarrhiz11e : .an association between fungi and present in the soil
plant roots which help plants in solubilization of P - Aerobic
and its absorption 00 Photoautotrophs
oo Complex morphology (multicellular; highly oo Blue-Green Algae are capable of N2 fixation
branched) oo Excellent host for bacteria due to oxygenating
00 Heterotrophic capacity
oo Aerobic oo Population: 103 - 105 CRJ/g soil
oo Add-loving (effi:dent OM decomposers under addle Biomass:"' 250 kg/HFS
conditions)
4
oo Population : 10 - 105 CFU/g soil
- Biomass: ., 8,000 kg/HFS Sstl oraanic Matta: CSOMl
• Adlnemxc•• - refers to the 'totality of all carbon-containing
oo attack and simplify complex organic compounds compounds in the soil derived from either plants
such as cellulose, chitin, and phospholipids or animals
00 Branched mycellal structures - Organic constituents of plants:
00 Intermediate between bacteria and fu~gi o Cellulose ( 15 - 60%)
00 Very fine hypha;e (< 1 micron diameter) o Hemlcellulose (10 - 30%)
oo Heterotrophic o Lignln (5 - 30%)
Aerobic : some microaerophilic o Water-soluble tractions: amino sugars, amino
oo Major Antibiotic. Producer: Streptomycin, acids (5 - 30%)
Erythromycin) o Proteins
00 Add Sensitive (0-itical pH = 5.5) o Fats, oils and waxes
oo Population: 105 - 106 CFU/g soil 00 accumulation is affected by temperature, soil
oo Biomass: - 4,000 kg/HFS moisture, vegetation, soil texture, and cropping
system
oo SOM Is higher in areas of higher effective moisture
♦ Algae regime.
00chlorophyll bearing organisms which thrive mostly 00 Sandy soils accumulate less organic matter than
in soil surfaces clayey sons.
GrccnEMPIRE PH (www.Jacebook.com/greenempirepl,) 30
 ... most adaptable and versatile soil organism inciudes blue-green algae, green algae, and
...
oo some species can thrive in extreme acidity and diatoms
alkalinity - Principally thrives in aquatic environment, loves
- able to decompose the resistant organic moist habitat
compounds such as lignin, cellulose, and gums .. Both single - celled and multicellular species are
... Mycorrhizae : an association between fungi and present in the soil
plant: roots which help plants In solubillzation of P Aerobic
and its absorption oo Photoautotrophs
• Complex morphology (multicellular; highly oo Blue-Green Algae are capable or N, fixation
branched) _A ... Excellent host for bacteria due to oxygenating
... Heterotrophic 1 ~ capacity
- Aerobic ... Population: 103 - 105 CFU/g soil
- Add-loving (efficient OM decomposers under addle - Biomass: ~ 250 kg/HFS
conditions)
.., Population : 104 - 105 CFU/g soil
Biomass: "' 8,000 kg/HFS Soil Oraanlc Mttt·w CSOMl
• ActiDOfflYCICN - refers to the totality ot all carbon -containing
attack and simplify complex organjc compounds compounds in the soll derived from either plants
such as cellulose, chitin, and phosp~olipids or animals
Branched mycellal structures - Organic constituents of plants:
- Intermediate between bacteria and fungi o Cellulose (15 - 60%)
Very fine hyphae ( < 1 micron diameter\_ o Hemlcellulose (10 - 30%)
- Heterotrophic o Ugnin (5- 30%)
... Aerobic : some microaerophilic o Water-soluble tractions: amino sugars, amino
oo Major Antibiotic Producer: Streptomycin, adds (5 · 30%)
Erythromydn) o Proteins
Add Sensitive (Critical pH "' S.S) o Fats, oils and waxes
5 6 ... aca,mulation is atfected by temperature, soil
- Population: 10 - 10 CRJ/g soil
... Biomass: ~ 4,000 kg/HFS moisture, vegetation, soil texture, and cropping
system
... SOM is higher In areas of higher effective moisture
• 611n regime.
... chlorophyll bearing organisms which thrive mostly Sandy soils aca,mulate less organic matter than
in soil surfaces ciayey soils.
GrcenEM.PIRE PH (wwwJacebook.co111/gree11e111pirep/,) 30
 - More acaJmulation of organic matter in grassland
than in forested land due to faster turnover of
vegetative matter and shorter life cyde of grass
than of trees
- Cultivated soils contain an average of 2 to 3%
organic matter.
Organic matter dedlnes when the soil is rultivated
because of the enhanced oxidation and microbial
activity brought about by the loosening of the soil.
• ffllctl 91' 9[MDI, fflC- IA tall PC9Pfl1ilU
i. Physk:al
- enhances soil aggregation and aggregate stability
- redoes plasticity, cohesion a~d stickiness of
dayey soils
- increases soil water retention, jnti~ration rate,
water holding capacity and aeration
- darkens soil
reduces bulk density and compaction
II. ChMn/al
- increases CEC of soils
- Increases soil buttering capacity
- Increases nutrient availability through solubllization
of minerals by organic adds and by chelation of
metal ions
- reduces Al toxicity by binding the Al ions in non-
toxic complexes
- increases soil native supply of N, P, S, etc
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- adsorbs pollutants such as Pb, Cd and Cu
- inactivates toxin and pesticides
Iii. Biological
- provides C and energy to soil organisms and thus
Increases their diversity and activity
... enhances micro'bial functions such as N fixation,
decomposition, and nutrient transformations
• soM decompo11ttoo
Organic materials such as crop residues, animal
manures and other carbonaceous and nitrogenous
compounds are decomposed by the heterotrophlc
micronora in the soil.
- Decomposition is the enzymatic oxidation by soil
organisms under aerobic condition with CO2, heat
or energy and water as the major products.
- in the process, soil organisms derive carbon and
energy for their use
- essential nutri ents like N,P and S are released for
plant absorption
- anerobic soil organisms act upon organic materials
under nooded conditions or in poorly drained soils
- toxic gases and organic adds produced may kill
newly transplanted rice seedlings
- Microbial Activity Related to SOM decomposition:
o Fungi : unaff,ected by pH level
o Bacteria and Actinomycetes: inhibited at pH S.S
• CtdPon/NltrOAM rttlo
31
 - The carbon nitrogen ratio of organic materials is a
convenient tool for predicting the rate of
decomposition and regulating the quantity of
mineral nitrogen available to plant.
- The higher the C/N ratio (usually 30), the slower is
the rate of organic matter decomposition because
the nitrogen is immobilized by microorganisms.
Soil microbes use whatever N is available,
approximately 30:1 C/N
- 20/1 is the optimum C/N ratio of organic materials
for raster decomposition; When the CfN ratio
narrows (20) mineralization predominates and
N03- levels increase.
- Nitrogen-rich materials such as legumes or blood
meal are metabolized very rapidly, and the micro
nora reSf)Ollds little to supplemental nitrogen while
the addition or ammonium or nitrate to st.ra'fl or
other nitrogen-deficient substrates greatty
enhances decomposition.
- C/N ratio of organic material ,s determined by
analysis of the total C and N
• MIR9bltl tr1adecm1t1001 pf N
I. Nlnerallzlltlon : conversion of organic N to inorganic N;
renders N available for plant use
II. Immobilization
- conversion of inorganic N to organic N; renders N
unavailable for plant use
- happens when available N is used by soil
microorganisms and assimilated it into their bodies
Green EMPIRE PH (www.facebook. com/greenempirepl,)
Ill. trltlff#a,tlon
- the biological formation of N03- or N02 from
compounds containing reduced nitrogen
- The most common initial substrate is NH.- and the
final product is N03' •
Two separate and distinct steps: 1st is initial
oxidation of ammonium to nitrite, 2nd Is the further
oxidation or nitrate.
- The production of NOJ- is related to soil and
solution pH values.
o Optimum pH values may vary from 6.6 to 8.0
o Rate decreases below pH 6.0 and become
negligible below pH 4.5
- Micororganisms responsible
o N/trog)mOfldS. chemoautotrophic, gram-
negative, non spore forming, ellipsoidal or
short rods, responsible for the oxidation of
NH.♦ to N~·
o Nitrobilcter. chemoautotrophic, gram-negative,
non- spore forming, short rods, further
oxidizes nitrite to nitrate.
- Nitrate can be lost through denitrification and in
leaching particularly in sandy soils, under heavy
rainfall, or where excessive irrigation. Eicess NOJ-
leached from soil orten ends up in ground water,
lakes, and streams lead to water pollution such as
eutroph/C4tion or the excess growth of plant and
algae, and the health problem in infants and
animals methemog/obinemla.
ill. Denltrfflatlon
- biochemical reduction of nitrate-N to gaseous N by
ra01ltative anaerobic soil organisms
32
 - Oenltrificans reduce the No3• to nitrite then to
gaseous nitrogen forms, nitrous oxide (NO) and
elemental Nitrogen (N2) that are commonly lost to
the atmosphere
- Denitrification is all aerobic but nitrate is used as
the electron acceptor In the absence of 02,
- The microorganisms Involved: PseudomonM,
Achromobacter, B«ll/us and Micrococcus
- a major avenue or loss of N in paddy soils and
contributes to the low efficiency of applied
nitrogen fertilizer
- No)· In the thin aerobic surface or paddy soils is
leached down to the reduced subsoil
11. Ammonlflcatlon :
- The process of ammonification is the result of the
breakdown or organic matter sudl as dead animals
and plants or waste materials like exaement.
- This breakdown Is accomplished by
mlaoorganlsms which utilize dead organic material
for energy and produce ammonia and related
compounds as a byproduct of their metabolisms.
vi. Symbiotic Blologlcal N fixation
renders N available to plants
- occurs in legumes in the presence of rhizobia
which are aerobic, gram-negative, non-spore·
forming rods which are typically motile with simple
nutritional requirement
- Rhlzobia enter and irritates the roothair causing
the formation of root nodules
- the bacteria In root nodules trap atmospheric N
which is transformed to NH3 which will combine to
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organic compounds to rorm amino adds and
proteins
- In return, the plant supplies the carbohydrate.s and
energy for bacteria's metabolism
- When the legumes are plowed into the soil, the
fixed N is added into the soil.
11/I. Non symbiotic N fixation
- conversion of atmospheric N amounting to 20 to
100 kg N/ha per year by microorganisms without
an associated plant host
- the organisms indude bacteria (Azotobacter,
Beijerlncxia and Clostrld/um piJstetlrianum) blue-
green algae and some fungi species
Azotobacters are strict aerobes, mesophiles with
an optimum temperature or 30° c, gram-negative,
large coed.
- Members of genus Oostridium are anaerobes,
gram-positive rods, which are found in soils with
pH 5.0 and are still capable of growth at pH 9.0.
oo Oostridia proliferate when organic matter is
added, and they often are numerous around plant
roots.
Blue green algae (BGA) are believed to help
maintain fertility of lowland rice paddies.
- Common BGA In the Philippines are Al14"6eM
uari.Jbllls, Gloetrichiaf1iltans, Nostoc commune,
Nostoccarneum, HapiJ/osophon sp., Af1ilbilenopsis
spp. and To/ypothrlx sp.
• 1noraIols Pso1u1p1111,uon
- Genera of bacteria capable of solubilizing Calcium
phosphates
33
 o Pseudomonas
o Mycobacterium
o Bacillus
o Micrococcus
- Genera or fungi capable of solubilizlng Calcium
phosphates
o Penidlllum
o Fusarium
o Asperglllus
- Microbiological means by which inorganic P is
solubillzed
o Production of organic adds
o Nitric add or sulfuric add production
o Flooding resulting in the reduction or Fe in
insoluble ferric phosphates
o Mycorrhizal association ( related to organic
production); Two general types:
- Ectotrophic ; fungus f orms a mantle
around root exteriors hyphae enters into
spaces between plant cells hyphae
enters into spaces between plant cells
examples (pine, eucalyptus)
- Endomycorrhira : fungus penetrates the
cells or the plants examples (orchids,
coffee, fruit trees, rice and corn)
• Mlqpbltl Rtn,Cgnn1t1,a ol' IYlfur
- The major sulfur in soil Is In the organic traction
with low concentration of sulphate, the form
available for plants.
- Decomposition or organic S compound
o Microbial assimilation or immobilization or S
and their incorporation into microbial cells.
Green EMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/greenempirep/,)
o Oxidation of Inorganic compounds such as
sulfides, thlosultates and elemental S.
o Reduction or so/· and other anions to sulfides.
- In anaerobic conditions, sulfate availability may be
limited in the soil.
o Sultate-redudng bacteria, predominantly of the
genus Desvlfovibrio and Desu/fotom1K1Jlum
use sulfate as the hydrogen acceptor in their
energy-yielding metabolism, reducing sulfate
to sulfide.
- In aerated environments, the combined sulfur is
ultimately metabolized to sulfate.
o Members of the genus Th/obddllus are capable
of oxidizing elemental sulfur to sulfate. They
are gram-negative, non-sporulating rods which
are predominantly aerobes.
o The oxidation of demental sulfur leads to the
formation of enormous amounts or sulfuric
add which decreases soil pH.
IC9D PCICIPltltlRP bx 1911 bedmt
- brought about a group of bacteria sometimes
termed as the Iron bacteria
- These transformations can be (a) Ferrous
Oxidation from Fe• 2 to Fe.i , (b) Iron Reduction,
and (c) Iron precipitation trom organic salt.
• composts •ad compostlna
- Composting : process of creating humus-like
organic materials by piling, mixing, and storing of
organic materials under conditions favourable tor
aerobic decomposition
Compost : finished product of compostilg and
used as soil conditioner or slow-release fertilizer
34
 - Aft.er composting, the C/N ratio of organic
materials Is reduced to about 14-20:1
.. Pathogenic organisms are destroyed during
thermoph ilic stage (50-75 oq but heavy metals
(Inorgani c contamin ants) are not destroyed. v. PRINCIPLES AND MANAGEMENT
OF SOIL FERTILITY
• C•IMl9H decomposttion
.. Cellulose : one of the most abundant organic
matter in nature
• Soil fertHity
.. The genera or cellulose decomposing bacteria and
- the capability or the soil to supply the nutrients In
the right amounts and proportions to meet the
fungi are the ronowing : nutrient requirement or the aop, as affected by
o Strongly cellullotic fungi are represented by
soil properties and condition
or
species the genera Aspergillus,
oo only among the many factors that makes the soil
Olaetomi um, Cuvularla, Fusarium ,
productiv e
Memnonl ella, Phoma, Thielavla and oo A fertile soil Is not necessarily a productiv e soil.
Trichoderma.
o A bacterial genus that contains representatives
digesting
• 5off productlyltv
cellulose in dudes Bacillus, oo the ability of the soil to support or produce a
Cellulomonas, Oostridlu m, Corynebackterium,
desired quantity or plant yield
Cytophaga, Polyangium, Sporoccytophaga and .. A productive soil Is necessarily rertile.
Vibrio).
- Bacillus: aerobic, spore-forming, gram-
p ositive rods
- Cellulomonas : short gram-negltlve rods • P11nt Nub:Jt1on
- th e supply and absorption or chemi cal elements or
that produces yellow, water-insoluble
compounds required by the plant
pigments - Roots absorb mineral nutrients as Ions In soil
- Oostridiu m: anaerobic, non-motil e, gram
water.
negative rod, which does not rerment - Ions can be readily available to roots or could be
carbohyd rates other than cellulose; "tied up" by other elements or the soil Itself.
produces a yellow pigment .. Many factors innuence nutrient uptake for plants.
- Cytophaga: aerobic, long, nexuous rod
with pointed ends; abundant in soils • N11bj90ts : chemical elements or compounds required by
receiving straw or manure plants for normal growth

GrccnEMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/green empireph ) 3~


♦ MetaboHc e r - : are medlanisms by which
elements are converted to cellular materials or as sources
of energy, or to drive reactions
• Ib• 17 Euentlal Element,
J, Carbon (C)
oo major component of plant's organic compounds
2, Hydrogen (H)
.., major component of plant's organic compounds
3. Oxygen (0)
00 major component of plant's organic compounds
4. Nitrogen (N)
Constituent of amino adds, proteins and nudelc
adds (DNA, RNA)
00 Integral part of chlorophyll molecule
Associated with high photosynthetic activity,
vigorous vegetative growth, dar~ green color of
leaves and sucrulence of tissues
5. Phosphorus (P)
00 Energy storage and transfer through ATP - ADP
conversion
- Structural component of nudeic adds, coenzymes,
nudeotides, phosphoproteins, phosph oHplds and
sugar phosphates
As constituent of ATP, P is involved in metabolic
processes such as photosynthesis, respiration,
synthesis of proteins, phospholipids, nudeic adds,
lipids, cellulose, hemlcellulose, lignin, pectin etc
Important in seed formation and development of
reproductive parts of plants
- Associated with increased root growth, early
maturity partiOJlarty grain development
GrccnEMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/greenempirepl,)
6. Potassium ( K)
oo Enzyme activator
00 Regulates osmotic pressure in roots
oo Maintains turgor pressure of guard cells and
regulates opening of stomata, thus controlling
photosynthesis and transpiration.
00 Needed in ATP synthesis which is used In
translocation of sugars from leaves, N uptake and
protein synthesis.
~ oo Strengthens straw of grain crops and prolongs the
life of the flag leaf.
- Increases pest and disease resistance.
7. Calcium (Ca)
00 Enhances NOr N uptake and regulates cation
uptake
- Essential for cell elongation and division
c:aldum pectate in cell wall
Magnesium (Mg)
oo Constituent of chlorophyll molerule
Structural component in ribosome which are
associated with protein synthesis
Associated with energy transfer reactions from AP
in metabolic processes like photosynthesis,
glycolysis, TCA cyde, and respiration
9, Sulfur (5)
00 Needed in synthesis of sulfur-containing amino
adds, such as cystine, cystelne and methionine
00 Needed in synthesis of coenzyme A, biotin, thiamin
(or vitamin Bl) and gtutathlone
oo Required for synthesis or chlorophyll
00 OCOJrs in volatile compounds responsible for the
characteristic taste and smell of mustard and
onion.
oo Enhances oil formation In nax and soybeans
36
 - Improves quality of forage by narrowing N/5 ratio I. Perform vital functions in plant metabolism i.e. plants
10. Iron (Fe) cannot complete their life cyde in its absence or
- Chlorophyll synthesis and in enzymes for electron deficiency
transfer ii. Needed as integral part of plant structures and/or
11. Copper (Cu) participates in one or more metabolic processes In the
- catalyst for respiration, enzyme constituent plant
12. Zinc (Zn) iii. No other element can substitute ror that element It It Is
- In enzyme systems that regulate various metabolic ab~t or deficient. The deficiency can only be corrected
activities by the addition of that element
13. Manganese (Mn)
DO Controls several oxidation-reduction systems, • Macronutrtw,q : absorbed by plants in large amounts
formation of 02 in photosynthesis 1, C = CO2
14. Boron (B) 2. H = H20, H2
DO believed important in sugar translocatlon and 3. 0 - 02
carbohydrate metabolism 4. N = NH.♦, N01·
15. Molybdenum (Mo) 5. P-= H2Po,.·, HP0,.2', PO,. 2•
DO In nitrogenase needed for nitrogen fixation 6'. K'= K•
16. Chlorine (0) 1. ca = ca1•
... Activates system for production of 0 2 in 8. Mg= Mg1•
photosynthesis •· s = so..2-
17. Nickel (Ni)
component of enzymes urease and hydrogenease; • Mjqonutrients : needed by the plants in relatively low
involved in the mobilization of nitrogeneous amounts
compounds 1. Fe = Fe2•, Fe1•
18. Cobalt (Co) 2. Mn= Mn2♦
DO Essential for symbiotic nitrogen fixation 3. eu eu
= 2
•
4. Zn= Zn2+
s. Mo= Moel·
6. B = H1BO:i, H1B01'
1. a= a·
I. NI = Ni2•, NIJ+
It. Co= Co1 •
• Crttldl pf EMMtitlltv • Mobll• nutrt.,ts: the deficiency can be seen on older
leaves
GreenEMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/greenempirep/r) 37
 J, N - follows Rck's Law
2, p - most nutrients particularly P and Ka re supplied lo
3. K plant by diffusion
4. Mg
5, Zn /II, Contact exchange {intermptlon)
- the direct exchange of Ions between the toots and
• lmmobflt nutrients: the deficiency can be seen on soil colloids as roots come in contact with the
younger leaves colloid
J. Cu
2, Mn
3. Bo ♦ Carrier theory of nutrtmt uptake
- explained why certain aops e.g. sugarcane, root
"· ca
s. s crops, oil aops, etc. absorb more K than other
6, Fe cations
- proposes that ions enter an outer space in the
• MecblDIRDI gf DutrllDt fflRYWDMt roots by diffusion
- a carrier energized by plant metabolism picks up
/,#ll#llow the ion and carries It to the inner space of the
- nutrients are carried by mass movement of water roots
as water Is absorbed the roots - al't:er depositing the ion in the inner space, the
- the amount of nutrients absorbec( depend on ttie carrier Is ready to repeat the process
amount of water and the rate of water flow to the - the 1• stage of diffusion is called passive uptake
roots and the concentration of nutrients In the - the 2nd stage is called active uptake which requires
water energy
- believed to be the major avenue by which ca, Mg,
Zn, Cu, B, and Fe are absorbed
- low amount of nutrients are absorbed when
absorption and transpiration of water by the plants
is low

• QlfJereoce bttWMD e••x• 104 Acttye Uptake

II. Dlll'u6/on
- the movement of ions from a zone of high i. Passive llpblke
concentration to a zone of low concentration
GreenEMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/greenempireph) 38
 - Uptake is by diffusion and ion exchange, hence
controlled by concentration and electrical gradient
non-selective process and not requiring energy
from metabolic reactions in the cell
- ocairs outside the casparian strip and
plasmalemma as a barrier to dil'fusion and Ion
exchange
II. Active Upan
- transport of ions into the inner cells requ1nng
energy due to the higher concentration of ions
beyond the plasmalemma and into the cytoplasm
which is against an electrochemical gradient
- The process is selective in that specific ions are
transported by specific carriers
• Nfb:oqen UDtakl
- taken up as No,· and /or NH.• but the nitrate is
often the predominant form
- NH.• is easily oxidized by bacteria in aerobic soil to
NO/ as soon as NH.♦ appears
- No3• uptake occurs against an electrochemical
gradient or actively absorbed ( energy requiring).
- No1· and NH.♦uptake differ with pH or medium.-
o NH.♦ uptake is optimum at neutral pH and
deaeases as pH deaeases.
o No3• uptake inaeases with deaeasing pH and
deaeases with inaeasing pH probably due to
competition with OH.
- NH1 is toxic to plant roots; it can penetrate cell
membranes.
00 The fertilizer Urea which is converted toNH.• by
ure.,se In soil can be taken directly by plants,
though at slower rate than NO3
Grccn EMPIRE PH (www.fl1cehook.co111lgreenempireph)
• Phesphon,1 uetak1
The active uptake is pH-dependent i.e. higher P
uptake at low pH (4.0) than at high pH (8.7).
- P is readily translocated up and down plant and
quickly assimilated into organic compounds.
• Pogplum uetfk•
.. actively taken up in high rate by plant tissues
even to the point or luxury consumption
.. K Is the only one essential nutrient cation which
can be transported against an electrochemical
gradient into plant cell.
- K in plant is very mobile with main transport
direction towards the meristematic tissues.
.. K uptake is high when plant is sufficiently supplied
with N, with bulk of K uptake during the vegetative
stage (in cereals, from tillering to ear emergence)
- K uptake and retention in plants are competitively
affected by H•, ca•♦, Mg.. and Na•.
Plants with enough amount of K have lower
transpiration rate and require relatively lower
amounts or water (more drought resistant) due to
the lowering or the osmotic potential or cell sap,
and the regulation of stomata! opening by the
guard cells with the presence or K.
• Ctldum UPtlk•
I. absorption is passive
ii. Ca is largely Immobile In the plant. Once deposited, it is
not moved from older to younger leaves, but with the
preferential direction is the shoot apex ( actively growing
parts).
39
 Ill, Ca content or legumes is higher in dicotyledons than in
monocotyledons and also higher in legumes than in other
species
• MtanMum unt•ke
/, Taken up in lower amount than Calcium
II. Competitive relationships: NH 4, K, Ca, Mn
iii. Mg moves similarly as Ca in plant, except that Mg (unlike
Ca) is mobile in the phloem; passive uptake in the
transpiration stream. ~ A = maximum possible yield
• Sulfur upt•k•
i. Active uptake; absorbed as so/-
n.Translocation is mainly upward (acropetal).
Ill. Plant use atmospheric S as S1 (sulfide) by absorption
th rough the stomata.
ht. Sis also an important component or mustard oil.
• Yletd response to Increasing nutrient filpply
00
the growth curve is described as a Sigmoid cu rve
.. the development of plants is initially rapid,
exponential or quadratic [with increasing level of
nutrients], then slows down and finally l evels off
00 crop yield increases as nutrient supply increases
but the increment progressively becomes smaller
for each succeeding increase in nutrient supply
until further addition reduces yield
00
beyond the maximum yield is the zone of luxury
consumption or nutrients
• Llebls..s Law of Minimum
.. Plant growth is limited by that nutrient present
below the minimum requirement
GrcenEMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/greenempirep/,)
•ey the deficiency or absence or one necessary
constituent ail others being present, the soil is
rendered barren for all those crops to the life of
which that one constituent is indispensable.•
• Mlbsbldlch'I IAYttlPD
00 The equation : DY/DX = (A·Y)c
where: DY = increase in yield
DX = increase in input
Y = actual yield
c= constant depending on the nature of x
.. If plants were supplied with adequate amounts of
ail nutrients except one, the growth is proportional
to the amount of this limiting element which was
added to the soil.
00 Plant growth increases as more of the element
was added but not in direct proportion to the
amount of the growth factor added.
The total increase in growth becomes less as
increments or the growth factor increases.
• Growth Ftcton
I. TemJl(fraturw
- temperature range for agricultural crops; 1soc -
40°c
- has effects on photosynthesis, respiration, cell wail
permeability, absorption of water and nutrients,
transpiration, enzyme activity, protein coagulation
 optimum temperature is lower for photosynthesis Plant tissue analysis
than for respiration oo Fertilizer Field Trials
inaeasing temperatures (0oC-60oC) increase 00 Pot experiments
absorption of water, nutrients and activity of soil
organisms II. (Jualitatlw methods
oo Nutrient deficiency symptoms
II. No/stJJre supply
oo water is needed to manufacture carbohydrates, • son Analysis
maintain hydration of protoplasm, and tor oo Quick and precise methods of evaluating soil
translocation of carbohydrates and nutrients • fertility status
00 low moisture level impairs nutrient absorption / ~ 00 Principle: the amount of nutrient extracted by
thru its etfect on mass now, diffusion and root chemical reagents at any one time is the amount
interception available throughout the growth period of the crop
oo excess water impairs nutrient absorption due to oo consist of taking soil samples properly, StJbjecting
respiration caused by lad< of 02 soil samples to chemical analysis, and
Interpretation of results
Ill. Solar Energy In making interpretations, the following are
most plants grow best In full sunlight; Some are considered:
shade tolerant (e.g. black pepper, cacao) o Kind of aops grown during the preceding 3-5
00 high density plant cause shading \. years
00 less shading in plants with more el ect leaves o The crop intended to grow
o The kind and amount of fertilizer used
Iv. S o l l ~ o When was the soil last limed
- physical (texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, o The slope and extent of erosion
water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity) • son 11manna
chemical (pH, CEC, base saturation, salinity, toxic Main objective is to collect a small amount of soil
elements) sample weighing about 0.5 kg that will represent
00 biological (OM content and kind and amount of the soil in a large area
microbial population) 00 Accuracy ot soil testing and the fertilizer
recommendation depends largely on proper soil
• Soll F.-tlllty Evaluation sampling
oo Rooting habit of plants must be considered
I. (Juantitati11• methods o Shallow rooted aops: samples should be
00Soll analysis collected from the surface layer (20-30an)
11rl'l'nFMP IR F PR ( w 1nr fr1rl'hnnk rnm lv rPPnPm nirPnl,\
 o Deep rooted crops: soil samples must be
collected up to the subsoil
- seeps In proper soil sampling:
o Make a map of the farm showing the sampling
areas.
o Collect spot soil samples from each sampling
area
o Take composite sample
• Plant Anlb.,,
... The nutrient content in the plant tissue is related
to the available nutrient supply of the soil.
00 chemical laboratory analysis of the plant tissu e Is
related to the available nutrient status of the soil
on which the plant is grown
... fertilizer recommendations using this method
become more reliable when correlated with th e
results of fertilizer field trials
• Fertilizer field Trials
00 assesses the effect of fertilizers and their
interactions with all existing factors of a op growth
and development in any given location usually in a
farmer's field
- The resulting fertilizer recommendation s are
generally more realistic
• Pot EIPldmMt
comparison of several fertilizer treatments
00
induding a control using small amount of soil in
pots to have a better control of environmental
factors
short duration under an artificial condition
00 preliminary in nature
GrecnEMPIRE PH (w11w.facebookcomlgreenempireph)
• Nutrient DeftdMcY symptoms
Requires Sklllrul observation because the
occurrence maybe due to
o insufficient amount and supply of soil nutrients
o unavailability of forms of the nutrients present
o no proper balance among different nutrient
levels
• fertlllJK
00 any substance that is applied to the soil or to the
plantln solid, liquid, or gaseous form to supply one
or more of the essential nutrient elements required
tor the nutrition and growth of plants
... classified broadly into two organic and
inorganic/chemical fertilizers
RttlPDIII ror Fldlllzatlon
... the amount of available nutrients in the soil Is not
enough to meet crop management for high yield
00 The nutrient In the soil is not present in readily
available form .
oo Nutrient depletion or loss is continuous
... There is an increase in crop production and farm
income
• ocaanlc fdllz.KI
oo any fertilizer product of plant andfor animal origin
e.g. animal manures, green manures, compost
that has undergone decomposition through
biological, chemical and or any other process as
long as the original materials are no longer
42
 recognizable, soil-like in texture and free from
plant or animal pathogens
o Pure or9"nic fertilizer. no chemical has been
added to the finished product to Increase
nutrient content.
o Fortif',ed or enriched. has been enriched with
microbial inoculants, hormones or chemical
additives to increase nutrient content.
o Examples or plant residues:
- Rice straw Is one of the most abundant
crop residues in the country and is
usually used with animal manure in
compost making.
- Com stover can be composted but needs
to be chopped further for faster
decomposition
- lpil-lpil ( Leua,ena leucrxzp(/11!6) lt:41VCS
with ttleir high nitrogen content can also
be used as green manure.
- Kakawate ( Glyrlddia sep«1m) leaves have
more than 4% nitrogen content and can
be applied to the soil directly as N
fertilizer.
• 1noraIntc r,rtlllzw1
synthesized or are processed from mineral
00
deposits
oo any fertilizer product whose properties are
determined primarily by Its content of mineral
matter or synthetic chemical compounds
00 contain one or more combination of the three
primary elements, N, P, or K
o Single ootrient fertilizers : fertilizers that
supply one primary nutrient; also called
GreenEMPIRE PR (www.facebook.com/greenempireph)
straight fertilizers; Examples: urea
ammonium sulfate
o Multinutrient fertilizers : fertilizers containing
two or three primary nutrients; also known as:
complex, compound and mixed fertilizers;
Example: Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0)
o Complete fertlllzer : contains the 3 primary
nutrients which are historically known to be
deficient in most soils
• ConymtlPDII units of expressing fertillz•
nutrttaP
00 Stated in either pure form or oxide form
oo Nitrogen is expressed as pure element N
00 P and K are in oxides, P2~ and K20
'- The nutrient content in fertilizers is written in %N,
%P20S ~n!! %KP in that order.
common Nltroam fWSHlzm
Ure., (45-0-0) : highest N content among the solid
N-fertilizers (NH 2)iCO; Hygroscopic and 100%
soluble
oo Anhydrous ammon/4: with 82% N has the highest
amount of N among all fertilizers; contained in
pressure tanks and is usually custom-applied by
injecting into the soil; Ammonia gas is basic,
pungent and colorless
- Ammonium svlfate (20-0-0): hygroscopic and
nearly 100% soluble; contains sulfur ( ~24%),
recommended for S·defident soils
• common e rw,111zw:s
43
 oo Ordinary superphosphdte (OSP): contains 20%
P2O5; Pelleted as grayish granules and has a faint
add odor; About 85% of the P is water soluble
and it contains traces of other nutrient elements
00 Triple superphosph6te {TSP) : monocaldum
phosphate monohydrate
• common Kr.t111ze,.
00 Murl4te of pot4Sh or pot4sslum chloride (KO) :
highly soluble and contains traces of other
elements
• FertllllK COIIIPYtatlPDI Md recpfflfflWIClftlMI
l Fertilizer gl'IHle
00 weight percentage of the nutrients contained in a
fertilizer
00 Guaranteed minimum analysis of j:he plant nutrient
In terms of % total N, % avallab~e Phosphoric add
(%P2O5) and % soluble potash (% K\O)
II. Fertilizer ratio
00 relative proportion of each of the primary n,utrients
N, P2O5 and Ki() in a fertilizer material
- Example: 14-14·14 => 1:1:1
Ill. General formu/6.
Weight of fertilizer = wejght or nutrient
nutrient content
00 Sample problem A
The fertilizer recommendation is 90-0-0
How many kg/ha Ammonium sulfate, AS (20·0·0) must
be applied to meet the recommendation?
G~cn EMPIRE PH ( wwwfac1tboo.k.c(>n1/greenempirepl,)
Solution : Kg AS/ha= 90/ 0.20 = 450
If we are going to use urea (45-0-0) instead of AS,
Kg urea/ha = 90/ 0.45 = 200
How many bags AS or urea are needed?
Bags AS/ha = 450 kg/ 50 kg/bag =9
Bags urea/ha = 200 kg / 50 kg/bag = 4
- Sample problem B
The fertilizer recommendation is 90-30-0
The available fertilizers:
Ammonium sulfate (20·0·0)
Ammonium phosphate (16·20-0)
Solution : Solving first for P,
Kg AP/ha = 30/0.20 = 150
150 kg AP contains 30 kg P20, and 24 kg N
150 x 0.16 =H kg N
The remainder N will come from AS,
90 - 24 = 66 kg N
Kg AS/ha = 66/ 0.20 • 330
• MIU!odl of fl'SIIIZK IPPIIC■tlon
00 Bl'Olldalst. when the fertilizer is spread evenly on
the soil surface; suitable for rice crop since they
are dosely planted
00 Band placmnent may be applied on the row
below the seed level or slightly on the side of the
seeds along the row; usually done for crops like
com, sorghum, tobacco, and fruit trees
00 Foliar appliartion: made when quick action of
nutrients is desired or when certain micronutrients
are needed to be supplied with the crop; usually
44
 employed in very plantations such as pineapple or oo In alkaline soils, ammonium fertilizer is necessary
banana deep placed to minimize volatilization ot ammonia
- In-th&-row: fertilizer is applied along the bottom
ot furrow
- Ring. fertilizer is applied around the base of th e
plant or tree VI. SOIL CONSERVATION AND
..
Ho"'- fertilizer is dropped in holes around the tree
Spot. fertilizer is dropped in small amount on the
MANAGEMENT
side ot each hill or plant
oo BIIMI. first of fertilizer applied at planting time • Soll moflpg
.. the detachment and subsequent transport or soil
oo Topd,..,_ application sometime after plants have
materials (lnduding rock fragments) by an agent
emerged
- Fertfgatlo,r, application of fertilizer dissolved ., (water, wind, or gravity) to an area ot deposition
.. an undesirable process in agriculture mainly
irrigation water
because or the losses : soil + nutrient+ water +
water holding capacity
Water is the most important agent of «oslon in
• Con sldentlon s In choosing method or feftlHzer humid tropical areas and recognized a.s the major
IMIICatl91 cause of land degradation in the Philippines
oo Relative mobility ot nutrients in the soil
.. Type of crop and Its rooting pattern
00 Soil textu re
Ntd,1nln or all woslon
- Season of the year /. o.tM:llnMll t/disptlrslow. process by which raindrops
00 Klnd of fertilizer splash soil sediments from the soil surface into the run-
off; requires energy that is supplied by the kinetic energy
• Dffll of fldlllzw IPDllc,Uon ot r alndrops
depends on dimate, soil, nutrient and crop
.. In sandy soils, N is necessarily split as well as K II. Entnllnmett. : transport of suspended soil partidesfrom
.. For heavy days, all of N is sometimes placed at upslope to downhill direction whether in rills, between
planting. rills and in sheet now
.. p and K are usually applied at planting as they are
less mobile, less subject to leaching and less iii. Depos/tlo,r. process by which sediment settles out under
soluble the action or gravity; a selective process depending on
p is also needed at young age to accelerate root partlde size, being rapid for sand and slow ror day
development
GTccnEMPIRE PB (www.facebook.com/greenempirepl,) 4~
 iii. Olanne/ erosion
• TWO GWKII types of 1011 IOslRD
I. 6110log/c erosion
- soil erosion at nabJral rate
- group of natural processes (induding weathering,
dissolution, abrasion, corrosion, and
transportation) by which material is worn away
from the earth's surface
- the process of smoothing down the hills and
mountains, etc.
Soil loss in natural vegetation = lmm/yr, but faicty
matched with the rate of soil formation = lmm/yr
II, Acawated tll'Mlon
- the removal or the topsoil faster than the rate of
soil formation
- approximated to be lOmm/yr
- usually associated with human activities
• ronn, of son -,s1on
I. 116/ndrop •rwion : soll partides are detached due to
the impact of raindrops and splashed at a lon ger distance
in the downslope than in the upslope direction
I
• Factor, .,,tsUna "" WPMPD
II. Sht#lt ll/'0$/on
.. the uniform removal of thin layer or •stieet• of soil
l'rom the land surface by rainfall and surface runorr
00 the most widespread and probably the most
damaging form of soil erosion
- recognized by the soil deposition at the bottom of
a slope, or by the presence or light - colored
subsoil appearing on the surface, or stones left on
pedestals
GrccnEMPIR B PH (www.facebook.com/greenempirepl,)
00 occurs where surface water has concentrated, so
that a large mass or water supplies the energy
both for detaching and transporting the soil
.. can exist as rill, gully, or stream erosion
o Rill Erosion: an erosion process in which
numerous small channels ot only several
centimeters in depth are formed; usually the
result of water washing down between rows
of cultivated aops that is planted up and down
the hill or in implement marks and other slights
and irregularities of the soil surface
o GUiiy Erosion: also !known as advance rill
erosion due to the inaeasing size of rills
eventually leading to a gully or a channel too
large for aossing by farm or to be smoothed
out by ordinary tillage tools
o Stre.1m Erosion: the carrying off of the soil
material on the sides and on the bed of a
permanent or intermittent stream
I. atmam
00 Rainfall is the dimatic element that mainly affects
erosion in humid tropics
Rainfall intensity (not rainfall amount) Is positively
correlated to soil erosion if all other factors are
held constant
- Rainfall erosivity : the potential ability of the rain
to cause erosion
46
 - Downpours of high Intensity and comparatively - high day content induces surface runoff and
short duration invariably cause maximum runoff of increases transportability but decreases
lands subject to erosion detach ability

ii. Rell.ti slope v. Human M:tivities

- slope steepness and slope length aN'ect splash 00 indude management practices and choice of
erosion and runoff behaviour by imparting velocity cropping system
- in longer slopes, the runoff water accumulates - Farm practices conbibuting to soil erosion:
speed as it nears the bottom end of the slope o shortening of fallow periods: more cropping
- a long steep slope causes the most severe soil period due to increase demand in food
erosion o Kaingin system of farming/ swidden
- Land slopes cannot be directly changed but can be agriculturefsla.sh and bum
modified on their effect on runorr by the use, o Monoculture system : plantlng of only one crop
traverse channels of terraces. may have heavy demands for a particular
nutrient
Iii. w,get.ation o overgrazing
intercepts rainfall by absorbing the energy or o Plowing along the slope or the land
raindrops, thus reducing runoff o logging
00 retards erosion by decreased runotf velocity o Other practices such as; road construction,
- physically restrains the soil movement area development for housing and
- improves aggregation and porosi ty of soil by roofs resettlement
ad plant residue
.. soi1
increases biological activity in the ♦ Qo-•lte effects of soll erosion
00 Its transpiration through the body tissues - effects of erosion from the farm where it oca,rs
decreases soil moisture, resulting in Increased o Loss of soil and partide selectivity
storage capacity - fine soil partides along with the nutrients
are selectively removed
/v, Ml/I properties - the fraction of tile coarse primary soil
" Soll erodibllity : the soil's vulnerability or partides increases in the eroded area
proneness to erosion which is influenced by o surface se.allng and hardening
infiltration capacity and structural stability or the - soil partides are washed into the surface
soil pores, forming a seal up to 1cm thick
wh ich restricts water infiltration and
increases water runorr
GrecnEMPIRE PH (11"111wfacebook.comlgreenempireph) 47
 - upon drying, the seal becomes a crust ( a
dense surface layer of soil partides)
which Impedes seedling emergence
o Loss of nutrients/decreased fertility
- selective removal of abseOfroming
elements (K, Ca, Mg)
- nutrients attached to soil sediments are
lost
- dissolved nutrients are also lost in runoff
- added nutrients (fertilizers) are also
washed away
o Decreased soil depth
- degrades soil as a medium for plant
growth
- rooting depth is reduces
- thin topsoil, otten mixed witJl the subsoll
which is generally more addle and less
fertile
• Qff-•lt• effects or soil erosion
effects of soil erosion downstream where soil
sediments are deposited; usually a cpns,equence of
the on-site effects
o Siltation of irrigation dams, canals, paddy
fields, etc.
o Reduce life span of reservoirs
o Destruction of crops and animals downstream;
buried crops adjacent bottomlands
o Destruction of infrastructure like bridges, roads
and buildings
o sediment deposits raise the level ot riverbeds
reducing its capacity to hold water and
increases the chances of ovenlowing; hazard
to navigation
Green EMPIRE PH ( 11·11111•.facebook. comlgreenempirepl,)
• E,Stm1tton of Soll •Oflon: (USLE) Universal Soil Loss
Equation
Developed to estimate the rate of soil erosion
under various conditions
- It can be a guide for selecting the most
appropriate system and management practices
that limit soil loss through erosion
- A = 0.224 R • K • L • S * C • P
where: A = predicted rate of soil loss In
tons/ha/year
R = rainfall erosivity index
K = soil erodibility factor
L • slope length factor
S = slope gradient factor
C = cropping system and management factor
P m erosion control practice factor
I factor
- reflects dimate(rainfall intensity and erosivity) as a
-
factor of soil erosion
found in long term records of rainfall specific to
each county or state
- determined by the total kinetic energy and the
maximum 30-minute intensity of rain for a given
time interval of a given rainstorm
• K flctor
- reflects the tact that different soils erode at
different rates
the measure of rate of erosion per unit quantity of
erosion for a specific soils determined using the
standard erosion plot
.. can be estimated using data of texture, organic
matter, structure and permeability
48

• Lfutor
- result of correlation studies of slope length and
erosion using standard plots
• s factor
- shows the correlation or erosion to percent slope
and slope gradient
• C factor
The C factor is the crop management t'actor and Is
the ratio of soil loss compared to fallow (bare,
exposed) soil.
• rr.ctor
- The P factor is the erosion control factor expressed
as a ratio of the soil loss with practices
If a farmer plows up and down the slope or a hill,
P=l. When plowing is done following the con tours
of the hill, P is reduced.
• Jofnbfe 19H fou en
- T Is the maximum level of soil erosion ttrat will
permit a high level of crop productivity to be
maintained economically and indefinitely
• son and w,ter con,w:v,tton MHar,,
I. N«:hank:al/WlfllnHrlng trMUllff!JS
GrcenEMPIRE PH (www.facebook.com/greenempireplt)
00 Terr«ing: Involves construction of broad channels
or benches across the slope to break the now of
runoff water; not a practical method for shallow
soils
- GfitSSed wi1terwt1ys: refers to canals or channels
planted with grasses to provide outlets tor disposal
of unavoidable runoff water
oo Pond : a depression or considerable size located
below the chedc dam to collect runoff
- Check dilnr. a struct\Jre above the pond which
retards runoff velocity
II. 8/ologlcal/ V"l/flblt/ve ,._.,,_
- Hutching
o the practice of covering the soil surface with
crop residues
o Mulches maintain a greater infiltration rate
under prolonged erosive rainfall event by
preventing the sealing off or surt'ace soil pores
o Residue mulches are effective In reducing soil
erosion because the scour forces or runoff are
distributed among the mulch elements Instead
or acting entirely on the soil surface
.. Cover cropping
o Involves planting of dose-growing grasses and
legumes to cover and protect the surt'ace of
the soil
o maintains and increases organic matter content
and improves soil physical condition,
suppresses weeds, ancf conserves water
o recommended cover crops: tropical kudzu,
centrosema, calopogonium, guinea grass, para
grass, napier grass, Alabang x
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