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176 Mechanical Engineering Design

In Sec. 4–9, we will demonstrate the usefulness of singularity functions in solving

statically indeterminate problems.

4–7 Strain Energy

The external work done on an elastic member in deforming it is transformed into
strain, or potential, energy. If the member is deformed a distance y, and if the force-
deflection relationship is linear, this energy is equal to the product of the average force
and the deflection, or
F F2
U5 y5 (4–15)
2 2k
This equation is general in the sense that the force F can also mean torque, or moment,
provided, of course, that consistent units are used for k. By substituting appropriate
expressions for k, strain-energy formulas for various simple loadings may be obtained.
For tension and compression, for example, we employ Eq. (4–4) and obtain
F 2l
U5 (4–16)
2AE
or t tension and compression
F2
U5 # 2AE
dx (4–17)

where the first equation applies when all the terms are constant throughout the length,
and the more general integral equation allows for any of the terms to vary through
the length.
Similarly, from Eq. (4–7), the strain energy for torsion is given by
T 2l
U5 (4–18)
2GJ
or t torsion
T2
U5 # 2GJ
dx (4–19)

To obtain an expression for the strain energy due to direct shear, consider the element
with one side fixed in Fig. 4–8a. The force F places the element in pure shear, and the
work done is U 5 Fdy2. Since the shear strain is g 5 dyl 5 tyG 5 FyAG, we have
F 2l
U5 (4–20)
2AG
or t direct shear
F2
U5 # 2AG
dx (4–21)

Figure 4–8 O

␦ F ␳
d␪
␥ A
F ds
l F B

dx

(a) Pure shear element (b) Beam bending element

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Deflection and Stiffness 177

The strain energy stored in a beam or lever by bending may be obtained by refer-
ring to Fig. 4–8b. Here AB is a section of the elastic curve of length ds having a radius
of curvature r. The strain energy stored in this element of the beam is dU 5 (My2)du.
Since r du 5 ds, we have
M ds
dU 5 (a)
2r
We can eliminate r by using Eq. (4–8), r 5 EIyM. Thus
M 2 ds
dU 5 (b)
2EI
For small deflections, ds < dx. Then, for the entire beam
M2
U5 # dU 5 # 2EI
dx (c)

The integral equation is commonly needed for bending, where the moment is typically
a function of x. Summarized to include both the integral and nonintegral form, the
strain energy for bending is
M 2l
U5 (4–22)
2EI
or t bending
M2
U5 # 2EI
dx (4–23)

Equations (4–22) and (4–23) are exact only when a beam is subject to pure bend-
ing. Even when transverse shear is present, these equations continue to give quite
good results, except for very short beams. The strain energy due to shear loading of
a beam is a complicated problem. An approximate solution can be obtained by using
Eq. (4–20) with a correction factor whose value depends upon the shape of the cross
section. If we use C for the correction factor and V for the shear force, then the strain
energy due to shear in bending is
CV 2l
U5 (4–24)
2AG
or t transverse shear
CV 2
U5 # 2AG
dx (4–25)

Values of the factor C are listed in Table 4–1.

Table 4–1

Strain-Energy Correction Beam Cross-Sectional Shape Factor C

Factors for Transverse Rectangular 1.2
Shear Circular 1.11
Source: Richard G. Budynas, Thin-walled tubular, round 2.00
Advanced Strength and Applied
Box sections† 1.00
Stress Analysis, 2nd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999. Structural sections† 1.00
Copyright © 1999 The
†
McGraw-Hill Companies. Use area of web only.
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178 Mechanical Engineering Design

EXAMPLE 4–8 A cantilever beam with a round cross section has a concentrated load F at the end,
as shown in Fig. 4–9a. Find the strain energy in the beam.

x
Figure 4–9 l F
F
ymax

V
(a) (b)

Solution To determine what forms of strain energy are involved with the deflection of the beam,
we break into the beam and draw a free-body diagram to see the forces and moments
being carried within the beam. Figure 4–9b shows such a diagram in which the trans-
verse shear is V 5 2F, and the bending moment is M 5 2Fx. The variable x is
simply a variable of integration and can be defined to be measured from any conve-
nient point. The same results will be obtained from a free-body diagram of the right-
hand portion of the beam with x measured from the wall. Using the free end of the
beam usually results in reduced effort since the ground reaction forces do not need
to be determined.
For the transverse shear, using Eq. (4–24) with the correction factor C 5 1.11
from Table 4–2, and noting that V is constant through the length of the beam,
CV 2l 1.11F 2l
Ushear 5 5
2AG 2AG
For the bending, since M is a function of x, Eq. (4–23) gives
l
M 2dx 1 F 2l 3
Ubend 5 # 2EI
5
2EI #
0
(2Fx) 2dx 5
6EI
The total strain energy is
F 2l 3 1.11F 2l
Answer U 5 Ubend 1 Ushear 5 1
6EI 2AG
Note, except for very short beams, the shear term (of order l) is typically small com-
pared to the bending term (of order l3). This will be demonstrated in the next example.

4–8 Castigliano’s Theorem

A most unusual, powerful, and often surprisingly simple approach to deflection analysis
is afforded by an energy method called Castigliano’s theorem. It is a unique way of
analyzing deflections and is even useful for finding the reactions of indeterminate struc-
tures. Castigliano’s theorem states that when forces act on elastic systems subject to small
displacements, the displacement corresponding to any force, in the direction of the force,
is equal to the partial derivative of the total strain energy with respect to that force. The
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Deflection and Stiffness 179

terms force and displacement in this statement are broadly interpreted to apply equally
to moments and angular displacements. Mathematically, the theorem of Castigliano is
0U
di 5 (4–26)
0Fi
where di is the displacement of the point of application of the force Fi in the direction
of Fi. For rotational displacement Eq. (4–26) can be written as
0U
ui 5 (4–27)
0Mi
where ui is the rotational displacement, in radians, of the beam where the moment Mi
exists and in the direction of Mi.
As an example, apply Castigliano’s theorem using Eqs. (4–16) and (4–18) to get
the axial and torsional deflections. The results are
0 F 2l
a b5
Fl
d5 (a)
0F 2AE AE
0 T 2l
a b5
Tl
u5 (b)
0T 2GJ GJ
Compare Eqs. (a) and (b) with Eqs. (4–3) and (4–5).

EXAMPLE 4–9 The cantilever of Ex. 4–8 is a carbon steel bar 10 in long with a 1-in diameter and
is loaded by a force F 5 100 lbf.
(a) Find the maximum deflection using Castigliano’s theorem, including that due to shear.
(b) What error is introduced if shear is neglected?
Solution (a) From Ex. 4–8, the total energy of the beam is
F 2l 3 1.11F 2l
U5 1 (1)
6EI 2AG
Then, according to Castigliano’s theorem, the deflection of the end is
0U Fl 3 1.11Fl
ymax 5 5 1 (2)
0F 3EI AG
We also find that
pd 4 p(1) 4
I5 5 5 0.0491 in4
64 64
pd 2 p(1) 2
A5 5 5 0.7854 in2
4 4
Substituting these values, together with F 5 100 lbf, l 5 10 in, E 5 30 Mpsi, and
G 5 11.5 Mpsi, in Eq. (3) gives
Answer ymax 5 0.022 63 1 0.000 12 5 0.022 75 in
Note that the result is positive because it is in the same direction as the force F.
Answer (b) The error in neglecting shear for this problem is (0.02275 2 0.02263)y0.02275 5
0.0053 5 0.53 percent.
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180 Mechanical Engineering Design

The relative contribution of transverse shear to beam deflection decreases as the

length-to-height ratio of the beam increases, and is generally considered negligible
for lyd . 10. Note that the deflection equations for the beams in Table A–9 do not
include the effects of transverse shear.
Castigliano’s theorem can be used to find the deflection at a point even though
no force or moment acts there. The procedure is:
1 Set up the equation for the total strain energy U by including the energy due
to a fictitious force or moment Q acting at the point whose deflection is to
be  found.
2 Find an expression for the desired deflection d, in the direction of Q, by taking
the derivative of the total strain energy with respect to Q.
3 Since Q is a fictitious force, solve the expression obtained in step 2 by setting
Q equal to zero. Thus, the displacement at the point of application of the ficti-
tious force Q is

0U
d5 ` (4–28)
0Q Q50

In cases where integration is necessary to obtain the strain energy, it is more effi-
cient to obtain the deflection directly without explicitly finding the strain energy, by
moving the partial derivative inside the integral. For the example of the bending case,
0M
2M
0U 0 M2 0 M2 0Fi 0M
a a b dx 5 # EI aM 0F b dx
1
di 5
0Fi
5
0Fi #
2EI
dxb 5 # 0Fi 2EI # 2EI
dx 5
i

This allows the derivative to be taken before integration, simplifying the mathematics.
This method is especially helpful if the force is a fictitious force Q, since it can be
set to zero as soon as the derivative is taken. The expressions for the common cases
in Eqs. (4–17), (4–19), and (4–23) are rewritten as

0U 0F
# AE aF 0F b dx
1
di 5 5 tension and compression (4–29)
0Fi i

0U 0T
# GJ aT 0M b dx
1
ui 5 5 torsion (4–30)
0Mi i

0U 0M
# EI aM 0F b dx
1
di 5 5 bending (4–31)
0Fi i

EXAMPLE 4–10 Using Castigliano’s method, determine the deflections of points A and B due to the
force F applied at the end of the step shaft shown in Fig. 4–10. The second area
moments for sections AB and BC are I1 and 2I1, respectively.

Solution To avoid the need to determine the support reaction forces, define the origin of x at
the left end of the beam as shown. For 0 # x # l, the bending moment is
M 5 2Fx (1)
 Deflection and Stiffness 181

Figure 4–10 y
l/2 l/2

A x I1 B 2I1 C

F Q

Since F is at A and in the direction of the desired deflection, the deflection at A from
Eq. (4–31) is
0U l
0M
aM b dx
1
dA 5
0F
5
0
EI 0F # (2)

Substituting Eq. (1) into Eq. (2), noting that I 5 I1 for 0 # x # ly2, and I 5 2I1 for
ly2 # x # l, we get
ly2 l
c (2Fx)(2x) dx d
1 1 1
dA 5
E #
0
I1
(2Fx)(2x) dx 1 #
ly2
2I1
Answer 3 3 3
c d 5
1 Fl 7Fl 3 Fl
5 1
E 24I1 48I1 16 EI1
which is positive, as it is in the direction of F.
For B, a fictitious force Q is necessary at the point. Assuming Q acts down at B,
and x is as before, the moment equation is
M 5 2Fx 0 # x # ly2
(3)
M 5 2Fx 2 Q ax 2 b
l
ly2 # x # l
2
For Eq. (4–31), we need 0My0Q. From Eq. (3),
0M
50 0 # x # ly2
0Q
(4)
0M
5 2 ax 2 b
l
ly2 # x # l
0Q 2
Once the derivative is taken, Q can be set to zero, so Eq. (4–31) becomes
l
0M
dB 5 c # EI aM 0Q b dx d
1
0 Q50
ly2 l
(2Fx) c 2 ax 2 b d dx
1 1 l
5
EI1 #
0
(2Fx)(0)dx 1
E(2I1 ) #
ly2
2
Evaluating the last integral gives
x3 lx 2 l 5 Fl 3
a 2 b` 5
F
Answer dB 5
2EI1 3 4 ly2 96 EI1
which again is positive, in the direction of Q.