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Bacterial cellulose composites: Synthetic strategies and multiple applications

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 Biotechnology Biotechnol. J. 2015, 10, 1847–1861 DOI 10.1002/biot.201500106
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Review

Bacterial cellulose composites: Synthetic strategies and multiple

applications in bio-medical and electro-conductive fields

Mazhar Ul-Islam1,2, Shaukat Khan1, Muhammad Wajid Ullah1 and Joong Kon Park1
1Department of Chemical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea
2Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Dhofar University, Salalah, Oman

Bacterial cellulose (BC), owing to its pure nature and impressive physicochemical properties, Received 11 JUN 2015
including high mechanical strength, crystallinity, porous fibrous structure, and liquid absorbing Revised 11 JUN 2015
capabilities, has emerged as an advanced biomaterial. To match the market demand and econom- Accepted 31 Aug 2015
ic values, BC has been produced through a number of synthetic routes, leading to slightly different
structural features and physical appearance. Chemical nature, porous geometry, and 3D fibrous
structure of BC make it an ideal material for composites synthesis that successfully overcome cer-
tain deficiencies of pure BC. In this review, we have focused various strategies developed for syn-
thesizing BC and BC composites. Reinforcement materials including nanoparticles and polymers
have enhanced the antimicrobial, conducting, magnetic, biocompatible, and mechanical proper-
ties of BC. Both pure BC and its composites have shown impressive applications in medical fields
and in the development of optoelectronic devices. Herein, we have given a special attention to
discuss its applications in the medical and electronic fields. In conclusion, BC and BC composites
have realistic potential to be used in future development of medical devices, artificial organs and
electronic and conducting materials. The contents discussed herein will provide an eye-catching
theme to the researchers concerned with practical applications of BC and BC composites.

Keywords: Bacterial cellulose · Biomedical · Composites · Optoelectronics · Synthetic strategies

1  I ntroduction applications in numerous fields, plant cellulose is asso-

Cellulose, the most abundant polymer on the earth surface
is primarily obtained from plants. Besides its intensive
Correspondence: Prof. Joong Kon Park, Department of Chemical Engineer-
ing, School of Applied Chemical Engineering, Kyungpook National Univer-
sity, Daegu 702-701, South Korea
E-mail: parkjk@knu.ac.kr
Abbreviations: BC, bacterial cellulose; Ch, chitosan; CNTs, carbon nano-
tubes; COL, collagen; ePTEE, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene; FE-SEM,
field emission scanning electron microscopy; GNPs, graphite nanoplatelets,
ITO, indium tin oxide; MMT, montmorrilonite; MWCNTs, multiwalled car-
bon nanotubes; (NH4)2S2O4, ammonium peroxydisulfate; OLEDs, organic
light emitting diodes; PANi, polyaniline; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline;
PEDOT:PSS, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate);
PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PGA, polyglycolic acid; pHEMA, polyhy-
droxyethyl methacrylate; PLA, polylactic acid; pNIPAA, Poly N-isopropy-
lacrylamide; PVA, polyvinyl alcohol; QCM, quartz crystal microbalance;
RGD, Arg-Gly-Asp; SBF, simulated body fluid
ciated with some serious inadequacies. Among which,
the most important is its impure nature and the need
for intense pretreatments prior to utilization in various
applications. Bacterial cellulose (BC), a purified form of
cellulose, is produced by various types of bacterial species
mainly belonging to the genus Acetobacter [1, 2]. BC con-
sists of microfibrils that are arranged in a 3D web-shaped
manner, providing a porous geometry and high mechani-
cal strength [3, 4]. Compared to plant cellulose, BC pos-
sesses a much higher crystallinity, liquid absorption
capacity, and mechanical properties that make it an ideal
biomaterial for numerous applications in the medical and
other industrial fields [5–7]. Although being a material of
prime importance in numerous fields, pure BC has certain
limitations that restrict its applications in several fields,
including the medical and electronic field [4, 8–10].
Since a few decades, the polymer composite technol-
ogy has gained enormous fame. The limitations associ-
ated with pure polymers themselves can be effectively

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overcome by the use of composites. Impregnation with
material of interest not only improves the existing proper-
ties of polymers, but also provides additional features to
the polymer [8, 11]. In this scenario, several efforts have
been made to synthesize BC composites using different
materials and to improve its properties and applications
[3, 8, 12]. The motive towards BC composite synthesis has
been provided by its structural features and production
procedure. During the production process, the micro-
fibrils are arranged in a web-shaped manner that can
encage numerous materials added to the culture medium.
Besides, the porous fibril structure and hydrophilic nature
also facilitate the impregnation and attachment of materi-
als in the fibril network [8].
BC composites showed much improved properties,
leading to additional applications in the medical and
other industrial fields. Impregnation with nanomaterials
having antibacterial properties, such as silver (Ag), zinc
oxide (ZnO), titanium oxide (TiO2), antibacterial clays,
and some polymers have improved the antibacterial and
biocompatible properties of BC and consequently, its
applications in medical fields [1, 3]. Similarly the addi-
tion of conducting materials, including CNTs, graphene
oxide, PEDOT:PSS, and nanoparticles, provided BC with
conducting features [3, 8, 13].
Currently, research is focused on the practical applica-
tion side. The materials, including composites, are mainly
synthesized for targeted applications. To this end, BC
composites have shown impressive results, specifically in
biomedical fields. BC and its composites have been used
in applications, including wound healing, skin and tis-
sue regeneration, healing under infectious environment,
development of artificial organs, blood vessels, and skin
substitutes [8, 14, 15]. Besides, conducting BC compos-
ites have been developed for application in electronics
and research is still in progress to produce conducting
devices, displays, optoelectronics, sensors and bio-sen-
sors, and other advance materials using BC composites
as the base/substrate [4, 16].
The current review describes the development made
hitherto in BC producing techniques and the approaches
adopted for its extensive applications. We summarized
the developmental strategies for utilizing BC composites
in the medical and conducting fields. Additionally, we
focused on describing the practical applications, includ-
ing the use of BC and BC composites in the development
of medical instruments and conducting devices. We hope
that this review will catch the interest of the readers and
will provide information regarding BC structure, develop-
ment, and practical applications.
2  B
 C production
Since its initial production was reported more than a cen-
tury ago, BC has been established as one of the most stud-
1848 © 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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ied biopolymer. While BC presents impressive structural
features and physiological behavior, serious economic
and feasibility concerns remain regarding its production.
Besides the chemically synthesized medium, BC produc-
tion has been established from numerous natural media.
The demand to control the cost of BC production led to
the use of various cheap and waste media [8]. Some of
these reported media include fruit juices, beer wastes,
agriculture wastes, coconut, pineapple water, molasses,
and sugar industry wastes.
As described in the literature, BC is normally pro-
duced at the air-liquid interface in the form of a gel. The
thickness of the produced BC depends upon the culture
time and the presence of carbon sources in the medium.
BC microscopic studies indicate that it presents a web
shaped structure. The microfibrils obtained from the com-
bination of cellulose chains are arranged in a 3D manner
to form a net-like structure. As BC is produced at the air-
liquid interface, newly produced microfibrils are added to
the first layer, increasing the thickness of the BC layers.
Overall, the produced BC has a highly porous structure,
which presents high liquid absorption capabilities. The
morphology of the produced BC is mainly dependent on
the production method [8]. Herein we summarize certain
approaches developed so far for BC production.
2.1  Synthetic strategies for BC
The main motive behind producing BC through differ-
ent methods was its cost effective production. Being a
microbial product, the production is greatly dependent on
the bacterial activities and the fermentation technique.
Initially, BC was synthesized through a static culture
technique, where BC mats were produced with varying
thickness. However, the fermentation was subjected to
agitation techniques for which numerous reactors and
fermenters were designed to enhance the production and
satisfy the commercial demands [17–20]. In addition to
its production, the physicochemical features of BC also
vary to a great extent with culturing technique and this
explains why different methods were applied to obtain
BC with specific properties. Some of the BC production
techniques are summarized in Fig. 1.
2.1.1 Static cultures for BC films production
BC films or pellicles produced through the static culture
technique are the most widely applicable form of BC.
BC films are produced through a very simple static cul-
tivations strategy. In this method, containers are filled
with sterilized growth medium and inoculated with a
freshly prepared preculture. The medium is then kept at
an optimum temperature range for different time intervals
ranging from three to 15 days or more. The pellicles of BC
produced through static culture are shown in Fig. 1.
In static culture, BC films are produced at the air-liquid
interface. The produced BC floats on the medium surface
 Biotechnology
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Figure 1.  Bacterial cellulose production under static and agitated conditions. Various bioreactors for production under agitated conditions. Figure has
been reproduced from Shi et al. [91] with permission from Elsevier.
due to the entrapped CO2 generated from the bacte-
rial metabolism. BC thickness increases with the culture
time, provided that the medium contains glucose or other
carbon sources. Since BC is produced at the surface, the
overall BC production is directly related to the surface
area of the air-liquid interface [21]. While providing BC
for multiple applications, the static culture method is a
very slow process and has the lowest production rate. The
biggest problem in static culture methods is the limited
oxygen supply specifically to the cells beneath the growth
of the surface BC layer.
To overcome this inadequacy, fed batch culturing
was introduced in static cultures. The issue of carbon
source depletion can be addressed using this strategy
and the production rate can be enhanced with culture
time. Besides, there are efforts illustrating the develop-
ment of novel reactors that can produce BC through static
cultures with a much higher efficiency [18].
2.1.2  Shaking cultures for BC pellets production
BC production is a slow and continuous process. Once
begun, the newly produced microfibrils attach to the
growing layer, thus, increasing the thickness in static
cultures. The produced gel shaped pellicles attain the
shape of the container surface. However, the geometry
of the produced BC is quite different when produced by
shaking culture. Due to continuous shaking, BC does not
grow in the form of a steady layer and instead forms small
irregular shaped pellets. In shaking cultures, BC produc-
tion can occur throughout the medium due to continuous
© 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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mixing of the oxygen in the medium. Thus, this method
was the first approach used to enhance BC production.
The irregular shaped BC pellets obtained through
shaking culture are much different from the mats obtained
through static culture. Usually, the produced pellets are
spherical in shape. However, their size and geometry vary
with the rotational speed [22]. The size of the produced
pellets also varies with the agitation speed. These fibers
are synthesized throughout the medium and get attached
to each other, forming a mass of cellulose. However, the
fast rotation speed defines their symmetry and internal
structure. The structural analysis conducted through FE-
SEM revealed that cellulose spheres produced at 200 rpm
were hollow, while spheres produced at 150  rpm were
solid [22].
Along with the irregular shape of produced BC, the
second major problem associated with submerged fer-
mentation is the accumulation of non-BC-producing
mutants [23]. In this regard, certain bacterial species
withstand more effectively the mutant generation effect
and result in higher BC production. For example, Gluco-
nacetobacter xylinus BPR2001 produced 1.8-fold more
BC than the commonly used strain, G. xylinus (ATCC®
23769). Similarly, the use of other bacterial strains also
led to an increase in BC production in shaking cultures
[12, 23, 24].
2.1.3  Agitated culture for producing BC granules
The third important technique that was used to enhance
BC production was high-speed agitation cultures in spe-
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cially designed reactors/fermenters. Once the basic syn-
thetic mechanism of BC production was clear, the impor-
tance of culture media, oxygen, and cells was determined.
Simple static and shaking culture cannot bring about the
perfect mixing and distribution of oxygen in the culture
medium. Furthermore, these former two culture methods
are basically working in batch fermentation techniques.
Therein, the supplementation with additional nutrients is
usually difficult and the process is stopped after one batch
of BC production. All these issues were affecting the
industrialization of BC. The agitation cultures were there-
fore introduced. BC was produced in specially designed
reactors, where the mixing of oxygen and timely supple-
mentation of nutrients or culture medium is assured. The
BC produced in this culture system is in the form of small
sized granules. The fast rotation speed and moving shafts
of the reactors do not allow the produced BC to accumu-
late in the form of large pellets. Owing to the initial suc-
cess of agitation cultures, numerous bio-reactors were
developed with slightly different operation conditions.
Some of these are summarized below.
In 1997, Chao et al. introduced the first air-lift bio-
reactor that can be operated using a low power supply
and can enhance BC production [25]. In this particular
design, air is continuously supplied from the bottom side
that circulates inside the culture medium. The proper
oxygen supply to the cells is one of the keys to enhance
the production. They reported 3.8 g after 67 h of culture
with a slightly modified air lift bioreactor [26]. Jung et al.
introduced a novel reactor with spin filters for enhancing
the production in agitated cultures [27]. The bioreactor
consisted of a six flat-blade turbine impeller along with
a spin filter surrounded by a stainless steel mesh, whose
bottom was attached to the agitator shaft. BC production
was improved (4.7 g/L) and was about three times higher
than the conventional jar fermentation [27]. The first
rotating disk bioreactor for BC production was reported
by Serafica et al. in 2002 [28]. The rotating disc bioreac-
tor is composed of several circular disks accumulated on
a rotating central shaft and an inlet for inoculation. The
main objective of this bioreactor design was the homo-
geneity of the produced BC, which cannot be achieved
with agitation and airlift bioreactors. During the process,
the disc area is half embedded inside the medium, while
the other half is exposed to air. While rotating, the disc
surface alternatively interacts with air and liquid medium,
allowing the adhesion of BC to the disc surface and pro-
viding BC with additional mechanical strength. Recently,
much improved bioreactors, including immobilized-cell
reactors, hollow fiber reactors, and cell recycle reactors,
have been employed to improve BC production. Cheng et
al. reported 7.05 g/L BC production using plastic compos-
ite biofilm reactors [29].
1850 © 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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3  BC composite
Both natural and synthetic composite materials are cur-
rently in demand for almost all industrialized processes,
owing to their impressive features. In composites, the
base is a matrix acting as a scaffold, while reinforcement
materials impart additional features to the matrix [8]. A
wide variety of both matrices and reinforcing materials
allows the synthesis of numerous composites through a
broad range of synthetic techniques. Polymers, including
biopolymers have been impregnated with a great number
of reinforcement materials to synthesize multifunctional
composites [30, 31].
BC is an excellent biopolymer for the synthesis of com-
posites. There are two major driving forces for the syn-
thesis of BC composites. First, the outstanding structural
features of BC are ideal for the synthesis of its composites
with various materials. The nicely arranged web shaped
fibrous network structure of BC fibers can encage nano-
particles, thus working as a matrix. Besides, the presence
of hydrogen bonded sites on cellulose chains allows inter-
action with other polymers to form strong composites [6,
7, 32]. Secondly, pure BC lacks certain features that limit
its applications in different fields. For instance, pure BC
does not present antibacterial, magnetic, and conducting
properties. This is a drawback in designing BC based
medical or conducting devices. [8].
To date, there have been numerous reports on the syn-
thesis of BC composites with multiple materials to attain
BC with increased mechanical strength, biocompatibil-
ity, bactericidal activities, conductivity, and magnetic
properties [33–35]. Based on the intended application and
suitability of material impregnation, different methods
have been developed to synthetize BC composites. The
most common method used for biopolymer composite
synthesis is the initial addition of reinforcement materials
to the culture medium (in situ composite synthesis). BC
composites have been synthesized with polymers, includ-
ing chitosan, gelatin, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, nanoma-
terials, CNTs, and other solid particles, including clays
and silica [7, 8, 28] using the in situ composite synthetic
strategy. The reinforcement materials impregnate well
inside the growing BC fibrils. The effectiveness of in situ
composite synthetic strategy has been hindered by the
antibacterial nature of reinforcement materials that kill
the BC producing cells as well as the insolubility of various
materials in culture media.
The second approach adopted to cope with the dis-
crepancies of the in situ method was the post-synthetic
modification of BC with reinforcement materials. The
approach is termed the ex situ composite synthetic strat-
egy. As mentioned earlier, the web shaped porous geom-
etry of BC provides space for impregnation of different
materials inside its surface. Polymer solution and suspen-
sions of nanoparticles when treated with BC films pen-
etrate inside the BC matrix. Depending upon their chemi-
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cal nature, the materials are physically encaged either
within BC fibers or they form chemical bonding with the
cellulose chains [6–8]. A number of BC composites have
been produced through ex situ synthesis strategy. These
include BC composites with chitosan, gelatin, polyethyl-
ene glycol, silver nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, and
CNTs [33–37]. The major limitation of this strategy is
that only particles of specified size can penetrate inside
the BC fibers. Besides, hydrophobic materials cannot be
combined with BC through this approach.
Recently, the most advance strategy adopted allows
the synthesis of BC composites from dissolved BC solu-
tion. BC dissolved in some specific solvents can be
regenerated in the form of films and fibers [3, 7]. Using this
particular strategy, reinforcement materials are added to
the dissolved BC solution to produce a homogenous com-
posite solution. Films or regenerated BC is then casted
from the composite solution to produce BC composites.
This strategy seems more effective as materials of differ-
ent nature and size can be mixed in the BC solution. BC
composites with nanoparticles, including ZnO and TiO2,
have been synthesized by using this new technique [1, 3].
The composition of matrix and reinforcement materials as
well as their homogenous distribution can be easily con-
trolled using this strategy. The major drawback with this
particular strategy is the difficulties in the dissolution of
BC. In fact, BC is insoluble in water as well as in the most
widely used organic solvents [38].
4  I nspiring features for multiple applications
of BC
BC possesses several unique features such as ultrafine
fibrous structure, biocompatibility, porosity, crystallinity,
transparency, and biodegradability. All these features
make BC an important material for applications in the
medical as well as various industrial fields. Herein, we
briefly discuss a few of these features.
4.1  Ultrafine thin fibrous structure
The wide spread applications of BC starts from its unique
structure itself. Pure BC has a fine network of ultra-thin
fibers. These are well arranged and giving a firm appear-
ance to BC. The fibers are arranged in a web shaped
manner. The cross sectional morphology observed by
microscopy shows that fibers are arranged in layers.
The arrangement of cellulose fibers is the basic reason
of its higher crystalline properties as well as mechanical
strength. The microfibril arrangement plays a vital role in
the development of BC for applications in optoelectronic
devices and medical instruments [1, 8].
© 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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4.2  Macrostructure control and orientation
BC structure, both in wet and dry form, presents excit-
ing features. Generally, the produced BC is in the form of
a gel, which can be directly utilized in the medical field
and for separation purposes. Furthermore, its physical
structure is flexible enough to be controlled at the macro,
micro, and even nanoscale level. By varying the growth
and culture conditions, the BC producing microorgan-
isms can be directed to produce BC in several shapes or
forms such as flat sheets, pellets, and granules [8]. Stud-
ies have shown that several characteristic features of BC
such as surface chemistry, porosity, and fiber orientation
can be optimized at the micro and nanoscale. This mac-
rostructure control offers great advantages in developing
BC for multiple applications [14, 15, 39].
In nature, BC shows an anisotropic pattern in the
culturing plane. This randomness of cellulose fibers could
be attributed to the bacterial motion in the culture medi-
um. Despite this random behavior of cellulose fibers, the
overall cellulose structure is quite compact and strong. It
can achieve a comparable isotropic alignment and has
been proven useful for several applications. Wang et al.
optimized the bacterial motion using the microfluidic
channels and successfully obtained aligned BC fibers
[40]. Uraki et al. obtained a honeycomb pattern of BC by
using honeycomb-patterned microgrooves in an agarose
film [41].
4.3  Porosity and liquid absorbing capabilities
BC presents a certain level of porosity that differs largely,
depending upon its production and treatment processes.
The porous geometry provides an ideal environment
for the absorption of liquids, including water, solutions,
media, or wound exudates. Although the existing poros-
ity of BC is convincing for certain applications, it is still
low, limiting its use in a wide range of medical applica-
tions. In general, this feature of BC is advantageous since
it prevents the invasion of microbial cells, but, from the
biomedical application perspective, it is a limitation that
prevents the penetration of mammalian cells [42].
Currently, artificially porous BC is developed through
various strategies such as the use of porogens. A porogen
is any material (e.g. salt, paraffin, ice, gelatin, and sugar)
that is initially incorporated into BC as a space holder,
which is later on removed without disturbing the native
chemical and molecular structure [39]. In their study,
Bäckdahl et al. investigated potato starch and paraffin
wax as porogens in BC tubes and successfully altered
the pore size and interconnectivity by controlling the
size of the paraffin particles. Moreover, partial particle
fusion was created by heat-treating the initial paraffin
wax particles at specific temperatures. They successfully
attached the smooth muscle cells inside the pores [39].
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Figure 2.  Illustration of the cell adhesion biocompatible behavior of BC
and BC composites. Fibroblast cell attachment on BC surface (A), confo-
cal microscopy images of MC3T3-E1 osteoprogenitor cells seeded on BC
scaffolds (B) Optical micrographs of HEK cells for one day of culture in
nanocomposite of BC-Hap; and (C). The figure is modified from Khan et
al., 2015 [3] (A), Bäckdahl et al., 2006 [62] (B) and Grande et al., 2009 (C).
4.4  Biocompatibility
BC biocompatibility is defined as its ability to remain in
contact with living tissues without causing any toxic or all-
ergic side effects. BC biocompatibility is directly associa-
ted with its higher liquid absorbing capabilities that assist
the prolonged and sustainable growth of living cells. Seve-
ral studies reported moderate to strong levels of biocompa-
tibility against different cells [43, 44]. Helenius et al. in their
in vivo study demonstrated BC biocompatibility in rats by
subcutaneous implantation for 12 weeks. The microscopic
results demonstrated the complete absence of any fibrotic
capsules or giant cells, indicating no foreign body reaction.
Moreover, no redness, swelling, or exudates developed
around the implantation sites was shown by macroscopic
observations [45]. The biocompatible behavior of pure BC
and BC composites has been observed against various ani-
mal and human cells (Fig. 2). However, in certain cases, the
biocompatibility is not up to the desired levels and, thus,
further enhancement is required. One of the solutions to
achieve this goal is the development of BC composite with
biocompatible materials. A great success has been achie-
ved in this regard and we will discuss it later.
4.5  Biodegradability
BC biodegradation, due to its high degree of crystallin-
ity and compact structure, is the most difficult feature to
achieve in order to meet the requirements for biomedi-
cal applications. Since the cellulase enzyme required for
its degradation does not exist in mammalian cells, an
alternative strategy for its degradation is needed. Li et al.
reported the enhanced degradation of BC in vitro through
periodate oxidation [46]. Because of this treatment, BC
became biodegradable in water, PBS, and SBF, while the
original network structure of BC remained intact.
5  A
 pplications of BC and BC composites
BC has been used extensively in different fields. In fact,
it is quite hard to summarize its potential applications. In
1852 © 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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this review, we focused on describing its application in
the medical field and in developing conducting devices.
Pure BC naturally presents certain features that drive its
multiple applications. Herein, we will summarize the driv-
ing features for these applications.
5.1  Medical applications of BC and BC composites
The above-mentioned structural features and physico-
chemical properties of BC offer several exciting appli-
cations in the biomedical field. Some of the biomedical
applications of BC include topical covering for severe
wounds, artificial skin, coverings for nerve surgery, dura-
mater prosthesis, and arterial stent coating [15]. Biopro-
cess®, XCell®, BASYC®, and Biofill® are few of the impor-
tant products that are already available commercially for
topical application in wound healing [14, 47].
Studies have shown that BC could be effectively
used as wound dressing material to reduce pain and the
regeneration time of the damaged tissue, ease wound
observation and drug application, and accelerate the
epithelialization process [14, 15]. Due to its high water
holding capacity and slow release rate, it serves as an
ideal moisturizer during wound healing by maintaining
a proper water balance. Similarly, owing to its unique
structural and physico-mechanical features, it can serve
as support material (scaffold) for the skin regeneration
process [8, 15]. It supports the adhesion and prolifer­
ation of epithelial cells (Fig. 2) and thus, could serve as a
semi-permanent artificial skin. Moreover, this developed
graft could be used as an autograft during the grafting
process for severe damaged skin tissues [15]. BC has
shown a remarkable potential in bone tissue regeneration.
During this process, the scar tissue formation at healing
sites is prevented through the implantation of a barrier
membrane that keeps fibroblasts away, allowing slower
osteogenesis to take place [15]. Some of the impressive
applications of BC and BC composites are illustrated in
Fig. 3 and 4.
BC composites with several polymeric and non-poly-
meric compounds and nanomaterials have been prepared
to impart antimicrobial, antifungal, tissue regeneration,
and biocompatible properties to BC [6, 7, 34, 48]. BC
composite with chitosan (BC-Ch) displayed higher water-
holding capacities and retained water for a long time with
very slow water release [31]. Consequently, it enhan-
ced the biocompatibility, cell adhesion, and proliferation
properties of BC and showed better results as a wound
dressing material and as a scaffold in tissue engineering
[34, 49]. Kim et al. found that BC composite with gelatin
showed fibroblast adhesion and proliferation when provi-
ded with the appropriate growth conditions. Moreover,
the biocompatibility was also improved compared to pure
BC and the developed scaffolds were bioactive, indicating
their potential for wound dressing [34]. The composite
of BC with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with controllable
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mechanical and anisotropic features was found useful to
replace cardiovascular and other connective tissues [50].
BC-collagen (BC-COL) composites have been developed
for potential tissue engineering applications through an
in situ composite synthesis strategy. These composites
enhanced the mechanical properties of COL and the cell
adhesion properties of BC and hence, can be effectively
used for biomedical applications [51]. The BC composite
with silver (Ag) nanoparticles has been found very useful
against many bacterial and fungal species. As a result, the
healing process becomes safer and faster. BC composites
with metallic oxide (BC-TiO2 and BC-ZnO) also possess
excellent antibacterial properties and hence, can be uti-
lized for various biomedical applications [1, 52]. BC com-
posites with clay materials such as MMT displayed tre-
mendous potential as biomedical materials by enhancing
BC mechanical properties and conferring antibacterial
properties, and wound healing potential to BC [6, 7, 53].
5.2  B
 C and BC-composite based biomedical
materials and devices
BC and BC based composites have been used for the
development of numerous biomaterials and medical
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Figure 3.  Illustration of various biomed-
ical applications of BC-based biomateri-
als and medical devices
devices [14, 49]. Some of their applications include their
use as artificial skin, vascular grafts, scaffolds for tissue
engineering, artificial blood vessels, medical pads and
dental implants, artificial cornea, heart valve prosthesis,
artificial urethra, artificial bone, artificial cartilage, artifi-
cial porcine knee menisci, and deliveries of drug, hormo-
ne and proteins. Table 1 represents BC based biomaterials
used for several medical applications. Biofill, a membrane
prepared from BC, is used as a temporary skin substitute
for patients with burns and ulcers [33]. Instead of discus-
sing the generalized applications in this review, we will
focus on few examples, indicating the use of BC and BC
composites in the development of medical devices and
biomaterials.
5.2.1  Scaffold
The success of tissue regeneration requires the devel-
opment of a three dimensional scaffold that provides
the structural support for cell attachment, spreading,
migration, proliferation, differentiation, and shape of the
developing tissue. Pure BC is not biodegradable by
mammalian cells due to the absence of cellulase. Li et al.
developed a method involving the periodate oxidation of
BC by which the scaffold could be developed and is read-
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ily biodegraded in water, phosphate-buffered saline, and
simulated body fluid [46].
A review of the literature reveals that the earlier
attempts of developing scaffolds with biodegradable
materials were overshadowed by several limitations such
as a higher degradation rate of scaffold material compared
to the growth rate of cells. This issue could be address
through the development of permanent scaffolds by using
more biocompatible, porous, and highly resistant materi-
als. To date, several materials have been evaluated for
such purposes such as PGA, PLA, PVA, pHEMA, and
poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAA) [54]. Currently, the
development of BC based scaffolds is receiving a lot of
interest due to its non-toxic nature and ability to be used
as implanted material or as a substrate. It has been exten-
sively evaluated as a scaffold material both in native and
modified forms. However, the native BC could not support
cell growth due to its limited biocompatibility. However,
upon soaking in serum and electrolytic solution such as
sodium hydroxide, the cells readily started to adhere and
proliferate on BC-based scaffolds [55].
5.2.2  Cornea
Wang et al. developed a biocompatible, flexible, and one-
piece artificial cornea [56]. In their study, they attempted
to develop an artificial cornea using BC based composite
with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). PVA is more stable, while
BC is biocompatible and possesses high mechanical
properties. Therefore, a composite was developed from
1854 © 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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Figure 4.  Transparent BC nanocompos-
ite films and their application as sub-
strate for OLED fabrication. Transparent
acetylated BC film (A), BC acrylic nano-
composite film (B), OLED fabricated on
transparent BC films (C) and (D). Fig-
ures modified from Ifuku et al., 2007 [73]
(A), Nogi and Yano, 2008 [74] (B and C)
and Ummartyotin et al., 2011 [77] (D)
BC and PVA using the freeze-thaw method. They made
a hydrogel composite by impregnating various amounts
of PVA into a transparent BC polymer matrix and charac-
terized its various features. The key features of the com-
posite that played an important role in the development
of the artificial cornea included the water content, light
transmittance, structure, thermal stability, and mechani-
cal properties. The presence of large amount of hydroxyl
groups on the two components ensured the interfacial
interactions through hydrogen bonding that resulted in
the desirable adhesion at the BC-PVA interface. They
found that the optical properties, thermal stabilities, and
mechanical characteristics of the BC-PVA composites
met the requirements of artificial cornea materials and,
thus, proved to be a promising biomaterial candidate for
cornea replacement.
5.2.3  Heart valves
The development of artificial heart valves is another area
of interest in BC applications in the biomedical field.
Currently, two types of valve replacements are in prac-
tice, porcine valves presenting a limited lifespan and
mechanical heart valves, which have longer lifespan, but
require lifelong blood thinning medication and thus cause
increased shear forces on red blood cells, cell rupture,
and associated anemia. These issues could be addressed
by developing BC composite-based heart valves. Millon
and Wan developed a BC-PVA composite that possesses
mechanical features comparable to native heart leaflets.
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In their study, they showed that the stress-strain proper-
ties of porcine aorta are matched by one of the BC-PVA
[50]. In another study, Mohammadi also developed BC-
PVA composites for the production of heart valve leaflets
to mimic the non-linear mechanical properties displayed
by porcine heart valves and their anisotropic behavior.
He achieved this goal by applying a controlled strain to
the sample, while undergoing low-temperature thermal
cycling in order to induce oriented mechanical features
[57].
Fink et al. evaluated the hemocompatibility of BC-
based vascular graft tubes and compared them with
commercial grafts of PET and ePTEE. They observed
that BC-based grafts did not induce plasma coagulation,
but rather induced the slowest coagulation cascade [58].
Moreover, Andrade et al. further addressed this issue by
coating BC with the tripeptide RGD to assist endotheli-
alization and thus, improve BC hemocompatibility [59].
5.2.4  Blood vessels
Artificial blood vessels are tube-like materials made from
synthetic materials to restore the blood circulation in case
of blockage of coronary vessels near the heart. BC could
be used as a substitute for chemically synthetic materi-
als such as vinyon, Teflon, and synthetic fiber Dacron to
synthesize artificial blood vessels since it carries a lower
risk of blood clot formation (Table  1). Moreover, it pos-
sesses high mechanical features appropriate for shape
retention and tear resistance. When processed into a film
or sheet, BC has shown remarkable mechanical strength
compared with many organic sheets like polypropylene,
polyethylene terephthalate, or cellophane. Thus, tubular-
shaped BC could serve as an attractive candidate as a
blood vessel replacement [44]. Upon interaction with
the blood, BC does not cause any toxic effect and, thus,
can serve as a useful element for synthesizing artificial
blood vessels. The BC fibers support the growth and
proliferation of smooth muscle, endothelial, and fibroblast
cells that ultimately create a viable artificial blood vessel.
Moreover, its high mechanical properties such as tensile
strength and flexibility assist in withstanding the high
pressure generated by the circulatory system. A BC-
based PVA nanocomposite has displayed the required
medical features for the development of artificial blood
vessels with the desired medical properties owing to its
high biocompatibility.

Table. 1.  Illustration of recent research on BC and BC-based biomaterials for biomedical applications

BC/BC-composite Application Improved features Reference

BC films Substitution of diseased arteries Substantial permeability to water and [88]
and blood vessels high water holding capacity and
mechanical strength, improved
biocompatibility, low surface roughness
and minimized blood clotting
BC tubes (BASYC®) Synthetic blood vessels in High mechanical strength and [44]
microsurgery moldability, smooth inner surface
BC membrane Scaffold for mammalian cell High permeability [55]
BC sheet impregnated with drugs Wound care Highly nanoporous, allows transfer [14, 89]
of antibiotics or medicines, acts as a
physical barrier against external
infections, accelerated wound healing,
improved mechanical properties
BC-chitosan and silver nanoparticles Skin tissue regeneration Antibacterial activity, improved [89]
mechanical properties and flexibility,
improved transparency
BC-MMT Wound healing Improved mechanical and thermal [6, 53]
properties, antimicrobial activity
BC-hydroxyapatite Cartilage and bone tissue Improved mechanical features and [90]
regeneration and engineering biocompataibility
BC-chitosan Wound healing, scaffold, and Highly nonporous, high water holding [14, 31]
skin burns and slow water release features, high
mechanical properties, enhanced
biocompatibility, cell adhesion and
proliferation
BC-gelatin Wound dressing Improved fibroblast adhesion and [34]
proliferation

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5.2.5  Bone and cartilage
Naturally, the bone is composed of a collagen matrix
reinforced with hydroxyapatite (HAp). The bone regen-
eration through healing in case of some severe damage
is often a very difficult process and, thus, bone transplant
or substitute is required. The comparable features of BC
with cartilage open new gateways for the development of
BC-based grafts for damaged bone and cartilage. BC has
served as a useful scaffold for the regeneration of bone
and cartilage tissues owing to its biocompatibility, high
tensile strength, fine fibril network, high crystallinity, and
moldability into three-dimensional structures (Zimmer-
mann et al., 2011). Moreover, it can support the growth
of several types of cells such as endothelial cells, smooth
muscle cells, and chondrocytes and does not cause any
toxic effect to these cells. A study of BC as a cartilage
substitute showed that it surpassed alginate and plastic
in supporting chondrocyte migration and proliferation
[60]. Another study showed the development of BC com-
posite with poly(dimethylacrylamide) in the form of a
double network gel and concluded that it could potentially
be used as a cartilage substitute [61]. However, a major
limitation associated with BC is that nanofibrils form a
dense mesh that can limit cell infiltration [62]. This issue
was resolved through the introduction of pores into BC
using porogens [39].
5.3  A
 pplications of BC and BC composites
in electro-conducting fields
BC has been investigated for the preparation of conduct-
ing composites for application in electrical devices, elec-
tronic papers, and display devices [63–67]. Some groups
have reported BC conducting composites with conduct-
ing nanomaterials such as CNTs [68], graphene [69], and
graphite nanoplatelets [70]. However, the first BC con-
ducting polymer composite was prepared by the in situ
oxidative polymerization of pyrrole (Py) on a BC polymer
matrix and a conductance of 1 S/cm was achieved [63].
BC conducting composites with polyan PANi have also
been synthesized by the in situ polymerization of ANi in
the presence of (NH4)2S2O4 and iron III chloride (FeCl3) as
the oxidizing agent [63–66]. The BC-PANi showed good
conducting properties, was suggested for applications
in biosensors, flexible electronics, and work as platform
substrates to evaluate the effect of electrical signals on
cell activity and to guide enviable cell function for tissue
engineering applications. Herein, we review the potential
applications of functional BC nanocomposites with a spe-
cial focus on optoelectronics, biosensors, photocatalytic,
and magnetically active membranes.
5.3.1  Electro-conductive films
Static cultures produce BC in the form of films, which
are non-conductive in nature. The conducting feature
can be introduced in BC by combining it with conduct-
1856 © 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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ing materials. BC composites with multiwalled carbon
nanotubes (MWCNTs) were synthesized by dipping a
BC pellicle in an aqueous MWCNT dispersion contain-
ing a surfactant [68]. The electrical conductivity of the
BC pellicles containing well-dispersed and embedded
MWCNTs was found to be approximately 1.4 × 10-1 S/cm.
Initially, these composites presented a relatively low
optical transparency that was later improved by
incorporating an aqueous silk fibroin solution into BC
membranes. The resultant composite films possess good
optical transparency with a transmittance of 70.3% at
550  nm and electrical conductivity of 2.1  ×  10-3  S/cm.
In another recent study, GNPs were incorporated into
pristine BC membranes to impart electrical conductivity.
BC membrane with 8.7  wt% GNPs showed electrical
conductivity of 4.5 S/cm [70].
BC composites with PANi, a highly conducting poly-
mer, have been extensively investigated [63–70]. Hu
et al. reported the in situ synthesis of PANi in the BC
matrix by polymerization of aniline in the presence of
ammonium persulfate as an oxidant [67]. The obtained
BC-PANi nanocomposites showed excellent electrical
conductivity of 5.5  ×  10-2  S/cm and good mechanical
properties [67]. Interfacial polymerization led to improved
electrical conductivity of PANi/BC composites and the
electrical conductivity was raised to 3.8  ×  10-1  S/cm
[71]. The BC conductive composite films combine the
electronic characteristics of conducting polymers and
nanomaterials with the excellent mechanical properties
of the BC matrix. These can be used in optoelectronics,
including flexible electrodes, flexible displays, and other
electronic devices (Fig. 4).
5.3.2  Optically transparent films
Optically transparent BC has been coated with ITO and
applied as flexible substrate to replace ITO-glass in opto-
electronic devices such as organic light emitting diodes
(OLEDs) [72]. However, the BC membrane only transmits
40% light at 550  nm. Thus, many researchers devoted
their time to improve the optical transparency of BC.
Optical transparency of BC has been greatly enhanced
through various chemical modifications for optoelectronic
applications. BC nanofibers were acetylated to enhance
the properties of optically transparent composites of
acrylic resin. Acetylation decreased the refractive index
of cellulose and the regular transmittance of composites
(63% BC nanofibers) was improved [73]. Foldable and
ultralow-coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) (4 ppm/K)
transparent BC nanocomposites have been prepared with
acrylic resin. This BC nanocomposite exhibited a high
optical transparency with a regular transmittance at a
wavelength of 600 nm of 81.3%. The substrates reinforced
with this unique assembly of cellulose nanofibers have
a minimum bending radius; they can be folded or bent
without damage. These nanocomposites are expected to
shift the electronics display industry from the traditional
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batch process to the much anticipated, more cost-effec-
tive continuous roll-to-roll manufacturing process [74].
Optically transparent BC/polycaprolactone (PCL) nano-
composites have been prepared by impregnation of PCL
acetone solution into dried BC membranes. The optical
transparency of the BC/PCL membrane is increased in
comparison with pristine BC. The good transparency of
the BC/PCL was attributed to the PCL nano-sized spheru-
lites, which are smaller than the wavelength of visible
light and practically free of light scattering. The novel BC/
PCL membrane could be used as a substrate for prepara-
tion of fully biocompatible flexible display devices [75].
Synthesis of BC and polyurethane (PU)-based nanocom-
posites have been reported and applied as a substrate
for flexible OLED display devices. The visible light trans-
mittance of the nanocomposite film was 80%. The nano-
composites showed thermal stability up to 150ºC, while
their dimensional stability in terms of CTE was less than
20 ppm/K. The OLED, fabricated on the substrate through
the thermal evaporation technique, presented the highest
current efficiency of 0.085 cd/A and power efficiency of
0.021 lm/W at 200 cd/m2, while retaining its flexible fea-
ture. The authors concluded that BC/PU nanocomposites
are promising materials for the development of substrate
for flexible OLED display devices [76].
Besides BC, plant cellulose has also been utilized
for the synthesis of transparent membranes for applica-
tion in different fields, including optoelectronics. Highly
transparent conductive networks have been fabricated
on a cellulose nanopaper. Uniform coating of the conduc-
tive nanomaterials such as silver nanowires (AgNWs) and
CNT was achieved by simple filtration of their aqueous
dispersion through the cellulose nanopaper, which acts
both as a filter and as a transparent flexible substrate. The
as-prepared AgNW networks on the nanopaper present
a sheet resistance of 12 Ω sq-1 with an optical transpar-
ency of 88%. These results indicated that the ‘filtration
coating’ provides uniformly connected conductive net-
works because of drainage in the perpendicular direction
through paper nanopores. Furthermore, the conductive
networks strongly adhered to the nanopaper substrate
and provided foldability with negligible changes in elec-
trical conductivity. These optically transparent compos-
ites of BC and cellulose are expected to lead the way to
a wider use of different optically transparent polymers
in optoelectronic devices such as substrates for flexible
displays.
5.3.3  Flexible displays
BC has been used as a substrate in the development of
several flexible displays. The major inevitable adjust-
ments required in BC are surface smoothness and control-
lable hygroscopicity prior to its use in the fabrication of
OLEDs. Ummartyotin et al. suggested the deposition of
SiO thin films through plasma enhanced chemical vapor
deposition that can act as a transparent barrier against
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water absorption [77]. Besides offering protection against
water absorption, the SiO layer additionally provides
smoothness to the surface. Together, the use of SiO and
ferrofluid solution can reduce the BC surface smoothness
to 5 nm [78].
BC composites in various composition were prepared
with polyurethane (PU) based resin. After fabrication,
these composites were applied as substrate for flexible
OLED displays [76]. The composite illustrated very high
visible light transmittance reaching up to 80%. Along with
high transparency, these compounds exhibited much
higher thermal stability (up to 150ºC). Once fabricated on
substrate, the OLED presented a maximum current effi-
ciency of 0.085 cd/A and power efficiency of 0.021 lm/W
at 200 cd/m2. This study suggested that BC nanocompos-
ite could be an astounding material as substrate for the
future development of flexible OLED displays.
5.3.4  Sensors
Its chemical structure (presence of hydroxyl groups),
physical appearance (porous geometry with high surface
area) and physiology (extensive absorption capabilities)
make BC an ideal material to be used as a moisturizer
or gas sensor. Combination with the QCM system, BC
membrane coating could depict a perfect view to be used
in designing remarkably sensitive humidity and gas sen-
sors. Hu et al. reported the fabrication of a very stable and
sensitive humidity sensor composed of QCM coated BC
films [79]. It was observed that the sensors possessed fine
sensing features and doubled in magnitude with increas-
ing (5–97%) relative humidity (RH). Besides, the Log(f)
also illustrated good linearity (20–97% RH) and the sensor
possessed a good reversible behavior and lasting stabil-
ity. The gas sensitivity of BC membranes could be further
enhanced by introducing alternate detective components
to BC. In a study, Hu and coworker developed formalde-
hyde sensors based on PEI/BC membranes coated QCM
[80]. PEI was added as an additional detective material
to reinforce the interaction of formaldehyde molecules
and sensing materials. Test conducted with 1–100 ppm
of formaldehyde illustrated that the sensors exhibited a
high sensitivity and selectively together with a good lin-
earity. This strategy is not limited to a particular detective
material or gases, but can be widely used with different
detective materials and for detecting different gases. BC
composites with gold nanoparticles (BC-Au) have been
used for enzyme immobilization and glucose biosensor
fabrication [56, 81]. A biosensor composed of horseradish
peroxidase (HRP)/Au-BC nanocomposite displayed out-
standing results, including a wider linear range, narrow
detection limits, and quick response toward hydrogen
peroxide, suggesting that Au-BC nanocomposite could
be a suitable matrix for enzyme immobilization [81].
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5.3.5  Magnetically responsive films
BC, which is inherently a non-magnetic biopolymer,
was rendered magnetic by the infiltration of various
nanomaterials for electromagnetic applications (Fig.  5).
Magnetically responsive BC sheets have been prepared
with magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles by using an in situ
co-precipitation method (Fig. 5). The saturation magneti-
zation of the magnetic bacterial cellulose sheets ranged
from 1.92 to 26.20 emu/g at 300 K and ranged from 2.96
to 28.10 emu/g at 100 K [82]. BC flexible magnetic sheets
have been prepared by in situ synthesis of the Fe3O4 nan-
oparticles coated with PEG. These uniform nanocompos-
ites exhibited a saturation magnetization of 40.58 emu/g.
Additionally, the sheets exhibited striking flexibility and
mechanical properties [83]. Flexible magnetic BC mem-
branes have also been prepared by impregnation of the
never dried BC pellicles with ferric chloride, followed by
reduction with sodium bisulfite and alkaline treatment
for magnetite precipitation. The magnetite nanoparti-
cles in the BC pellicles presented a super paramagnetic
behavior with a saturation magnetization in the range of
60  emu/g and coercive force around 15  Oe. This super
paramagnetic property is of great interest for applica-
tion in nonlinear optics, clinical applications as contrast
agents for magnetic resonance imaging, hyperthermia
and cell separation, and sensors [84]. BC has also been
made magnetic by the infiltration of Ni-nanoparticles
via a simple aqueous phase salt reduction method. The
resulting hydrogel exhibited different magnetic behav-
iors due to two distinct size distributions varying from
3.2 nm to 140 nm for the Ni nanoparticles. The dominant
interparticle interactions between the smaller nano-sized
particles resulted in a spin glass-like behavior, while the
small fraction of larger particles exhibited a ferromagnetic
response with a coercivity varying between 60  G and
110 G [85].
1858 © 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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BC films with hydrophobic and lipophobic surfaces
and magnetic properties can be used in electronic actua-
tors, for information storage, in magnetographic printing,
and in electromagnetic shielding coating. Fluorination
of the magnetic Fe3O4/BC membrane resulted in sur-
face modification from amphiphilic to amphiphobic and
showed the highest water contact angle (WCA) of 130º.
These superparamagnetic membranes can be applied
in electronic actuators [86]. High particle loading in the
BC magnetic nanocomposite films resulted in the trans-
formation from a highly porous and flexible, magnetically
actuating aerogel to a solid and stiff magnetic nanopa-
per [87]. The precipitation of ferromagnetic cobalt ferrite
nanoparticles on BC resulted in dry, lightweight, 98%
porous and flexible membranes that can be actuated by
a small household magnet. Owing to their flexibility and
high porosity, these aerogels are expected to be used in
microfluidics devices and as electronic actuators [87].
6  Concluding remarks and future prospects
Recently, research interest in BC has tremendously
increased. BC impressive applications, synthetic routes,
market demand, economic feasibility, deficiencies, and
composites synthetic strategies are the diverse factors
that contribute to the expansion of the BC research area.
Currently, the focus is mainly shifting towards the practi-
cal applications of BC and BC composites, in develop-
ing artificial organs, conducting materials, and display
devices using BC as a substrate material.
The structural modification (specifically chemical) of
BC to enhance the interaction with the living body is
among the possible future strategies that will exceedingly
boost the application of BC. This can not only provide an
insight for developing biomedical devices, but can also
Figure 5.  (A) Schematic illustration of
the synthesis process for the magneti-
cally responsive BC films, (B) illustration
of response by magnetically actuated
BC films to the applied magnetic field.
(C) SEM image of freeze dried magnetic
aerogel with cobalt ferride nanaoparti-
cles. (D) Aerogel actuation with magnet,
water absorption and recovery. Figure
modified from Zheng et al., 2013 [83];
Olsson et al., 2010 [87].
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enhance the attachment of biological molecules (prote-

ins, enzymes, and drugs) to be used in medical applica- Mazhar Ul-Islam obtained his M.S.
tions. Besides, by enhancing the attachment capabilities degree in Organic Chemistry from the
through chemical modifications, numerous materials of Institute of Chemical Sciences Univer-
pharmaceutical nature can be utilized in combination sity of Peshawar, Pakistan in 2006. In
with BC for specific applications. 2009 he joined the lab of Biochemical
Among optoelectronic applications, the major hurdle Engineering, Department of Chemical
is the non-conductivity and lower transparency level of Engineering at Kyungpook National
BC. However, chemical modifications can also help in University and completed his Ph.D.
this regard. BC acetylation can result in a much more in 2012. He worked as post doctorate
transparent film that could prove vital in the development fellow and contract professor for two years in the same institute. Cur-
of electronic devices. rently he is working as Assistant professor in department of chemical
The currently established composite synthesis stra- engineering, Dhofar University, Salalah, Oman. His research expertise
tegies are still facing hurdles in combining several vital is mainly in synthesis of nanobiopolymeric composite materials for
materials homogenously with the BC matrix. In this case, biomedical applications.
the recent approach of BC dissolution and regener­ation
can be proved effective if some easy BC dissolution
methods are developed. The success in attaining homo-
genous BC composites can lead towards the future deve-
lopment of electronic papers, displays, LEDs, and various Joong Kon Park is a professor at the
optoelectronic devices. Department of Chemical Engineer-
ing of Kyungpook National Univer-
sity (South Korea). He received a B.S.
This research was supported by the Basic Science degree (Seoul National University,
Research Program through the National Research Founda- Korea), M.S. and Ph.D. (KAIST, Korea)
tion (NRF) of Korea, funded by the Ministry of Education, all in chemical engineering and was a
Science and Technology (NRF-2014-R1A1A2055756). postdoctoral fellow at the University
Additionally, it was supported by the BK21 plus (2014- of Michigan (USA). He served as the
2019) Korea, (21A.2013-1800001). vice president of the Korean Society of Biotechnology and Bioengineer-
ing, and currently works as the editor-in-chief of the Korean Journal of
The authors declare no financial or commercial conflict Chemical Engineering. His research interests include biological sepa-
of interest. ration and purification, biofuels, biopolymers, and nano-biopolymer
composite materials.

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1861
 Cover illustration
This special issue, in collaboration with the Asian Federation of Biotechnology and edited
by Professors Yoon-Mo Koo and Penjit Srinophakun , covers advances in bioprocess
­engineering. Several articles in this issue discuss different aspects of lignocellulose-based
biorefining. Miscanthus (shown on the cover) is one example of a plant whose lignocellu-
losic ­biomass can be used for bioethanol production. © M. Schuppich, Fotolia.com

Biotechnology Journal – list of articles published in the December 2015 issue.

Editorial
Bioprocess beyond the large scale production
Yoon-Mo Koo and Penjit Srinophakun
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500618
Editorial
Biotechnology Journal 10 year Anniversary –
Thank you for your continued support
Jing Zhu
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500624
BiotecVisions
Beyond Asian Biotechnology: Collaboration between Asia
and Europe
Hyun Jung Kim
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500623
BiotecVisions
European’s Biochemical Engineering to face the megatrends
and associated challenges beyond 2020
Guilherme Ferreira
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500627
Review
Bacterial cellulose composites: Synthetic strategies and
multiple applications in bio-medical and electro-conductive
fields
Mazhar Ul-Islam, Shaukat Khan, Muhammad Wajid Ullah
and Joong Kon Park
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500106
Review
Incorporating unnatural amino acids to engineer biocatalysts
for industrial bioprocess applications
Yuvaraj Ravikumar, Saravanan Prabhu Nadarajan,
Tae Hyeon Yoo, Chong-Soon Lee and Hyungdon Yun
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500153
Review
Aggregating tags for column-free protein purification
Zhanglin Lin, Qing Zhao, Lei Xing, Bihong Zhou and
Xu Wang
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500299
Research Article
Fatty acid hydration activity of a recombinant Escherichia coli-
based biocatalyst is improved through targeting the oleate
hydratase into the periplasm
Sang-Min Jung, Joo-Hyun Seo, Jung-Hoo Lee,
Jin-Byung Park and Jin-Ho Seo
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500141
Research Article
Understanding β-mannanase from Streptomyces sp. CS147 and
its potential application in lignocellulose based biorefining
Hah Y. Yoo, G. C. Pradeep, Soo K. Lee, Don H. Park,
Seung S. Cho, Yun H. Choi, Jin C. Yoo and Seung W. Kim
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500150
Research Article
Improved growth and ethanol fermentation of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae in the presence of acetic acid by overexpression
of SET5 and PPR1
Ming-Ming Zhang, Xin-Qing Zhao, Cheng Cheng and
Feng-Wu Bai
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500508
Research Article
Enhanced hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass: Bi-functional
enzyme complexes expressed in Pichia pastoris improve
bioethanol production from Miscanthus sinensis
Sang Kyu Shin, Jeong Eun Hyeon, Young In Kim, Dea Hee
Kang, Seung Wook Kim, Chulhwan Park and Sung Ok Han
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500081

© 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.biotechnology-journal.com

 Research Article
Phenolic compounds: Strong inhibitors derived from
lignocellulosic hydrolysate for 2,3-butanediol production
by Enterobacter aerogenes
Sang Jun Lee, Ju Hun Lee, Xiaoguang Yang, Sung Bong Kim,
Ja Hyun Lee, Hah Young Yoo, Chulhwan Park and
Seung Wook Kim
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500090
Research Article
Salt tolerant chromatography provides salt tolerance
and a better selectivity for protein monomer separations
Noriko Yoshimoto, Daisuke Itoh, Yu Isakari, Ales Podgornik
and Shuichi Yamamoto
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201400550
© 2015 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
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Research Article
Dual utilization of NADPH and NADH cofactors enhances
xylitol production in engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Jung-Hyun Jo, Sun-Young Oh, Hyeun-Soo Lee,
Yong-Cheol Park and Jin-Ho Seo
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500068
Biotech Method
Phosphonium alkyl PEG sulfate ionic liquids as coating
materials for activation of Burkholderia cepacia lipase
Yui Matsubara, Shiho Kadotani, Takashi Nishihara,
Yoshichika Hikino, Yukinobu Fukaya, Toshiki Nokami and
Toshiyuki Itoh
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/biot.201500413
www.biotechnology-journal.com