DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

New materialistic inventions play an important role in the development of technology

and evolution of modern civilization. Early civilization has been called after some of such
materials are employed in that period. For the period of the Stone Age 10,000 BC to 3,000 BC,
people used merely the materials existing nearby them such as stone, wood, and bone, especially
to make weapons to kill the animals for their food and survival. Later in the Bronze Age 3000
BC to 1000 BC, people are situated capable to mine copper from its ore and during the Iron Age
1000 BC to AD 1860, the mining of iron from its ores indicated another main expansion. Heat
treatment techniques emerged during Iron Age. In the Steel Age AD 1860 onward, overall
practice of steel as a building material underway during this period. Later around the similar
period, Bessemer and open hearth methods for the production were advanced. Since 1950
straight on, the period is entitled the Silicon Age and expansion of silicon has led to the growth
of knowledge such as electronics, computers, and automation. It is right perfect after the history
that the discovery and improvement of new materials are the main factors for the progress of
civilization.

The designer plants his different ideas put into practice to the use of new developments
etc. meanwhile the performance of conventional materials is inadequate. Hereafter there is an
essential to advance innovative processes and innovative materials by greater efficiency and
genuineness for contemporary hi-tech applications. In this context, it will prudent to about that
the innovative materials produced should have noble and improved properties like light weight
and capability to survive the extreme environments such as high temperature, high pressure, low
temperature, low pressure and highly corrosive. In excess of the years, so numerous new
materials have evolved and have been advanced to meet the technical requirements. But in
certain circumstances, it may not be likely to encounter the stringent property condition by using
a single material or a material of its own type. Hereafter a mixture of materials was believed of
and thus composite materials have evolved. Since the best properties of the components can be
acquired from the composite materials, forecasts recommend that the usage of such materials is
supposed to grow steadily in the near future. In the previous 50 years, there has been a rapid
escalation in the production of synthetic composites, specifically the fiber-reinforced polymer
composites. In current times, the metal and ceramics centered composites are too making an
important participation in composition.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 1

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

1.1 Definition
There is no unanimously accepted definition for composite materials and definitions in the
literature vary widely. As a matter of fact, no one can reject that composite materials are finished
up of at least two diverse phases. Therefore, this definition covers a wide-ranging of multiphase
materials and at the similar time excludes conventional multiphase materials. It can be said that
composite materials are the arrangement of two or more materials in such a way that definite
improved or desired properties are achieved. In a composite, the dispersed phase(s) is distributed
in a constant medium called the matrix. The first rule is that the dispersed phase must hold its
original form even later processing and/or during provision/reusing. On behalf of example,
plastics are recognized used for their decent processability and low-cost, however; it is so tough
to practice the plastics for several load-bearing applications since of their deprived mechanical
properties. Modulus of elasticity of plastics is merely a few GPa and strength is usually fewer
than 50 MPa. In a similar way synthetic fibers, Whereas glass fibers, ensure decent mechanical
properties by modulus close to 70 GPa and the strength is of the order of 3000 MPa. Once a
composite is prepared by glass fiber, roughly 50 vol% and plastics around 50 vol% the
composite manufactured can ensure worthy mechanical properties. The modulus and strength
values of this composite will be 30 GPa and 1000 MPa correspondingly. This composite material
is also suitable on behalf of several load-bearing applications. Hence, it can be securely
determined that the mechanical properties of plastics are better by making a composite with glass
fiber and the glass fiber retains is said to retain its original identity in the processed composite.

Therefore, the definition of composite material contains consistent composites, as well as

in-situ composites. In certainty, all regular composites are in situ composites, in which the
strengthening stage advances throughout the growth of matrix phase. But this definition omits
age-hardenable alloys and other multiphase alloys since the dispersed level is not steady during
service/reheating. The composition of the Constituents, their relative proportion, the geometry,
distribution, and orientation of the discrete stage control the properties of the composites.
Hereafter, by choosing a correct mixture of materials in suitable proportion it is possible to get
desired properties.

Later, it is promising to get desired properties in the ultimate composite by choosing the
exact mixture of materials in their appropriate proportion.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 2

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

1.2 Brief History of Composites

Nature has been crafting composites used for millions of years and hereafter the history of
composites is as from the past as that of existence on earth. This is evident as a maximum of the
plant parts needs embedded fiber structures for enhanced mechanical properties.

Since the last 2000 years or so, composites need to be present prepared by human beings.
The initial composites dated back while Israelites prepared bricks by means of clay and plant
straw, which are the initial samples for the man-made composites. Far ahead Samurais of Japan
created swords using laminated metals through the fifteenth century. In the early twentieth
century Concrete, packed rubber and phenolic resins have evolved. In the Second World War,
composites have established and evolved through the expansion of technique to manufacture
glass fiber. And this combination of glass fiber and plastics resulted in an extremely tough
material named Fibre reinforced polymer plastics. The chief commercial boat hull was
acknowledged in 1946. Throughout 1950’s in the United States and Europe composite science
and technology raised quickly. Everywhere 1970’s composites industry underway to improve
and during this historical DuPont presented the aramid fiber in the name of Kevlar. Carbon fiber
fabrication also taking place through the same time. As the time accepted many great efficiency
composites gave been established with these fibers. Due to the structural applications composites
have been completely recognized as practical engineering materials. So, these composites have
developed wide approval and anywhere possible typically these are being exchanged in place of
the out-dated and conventional materials. Presently, few fields like the aircraft, automobile,
marine, sports, electronic, chemical, and medical manufacturers are fairly reliant on FRPs.

Even today, the technology of composites is evolving with the expansion of Nano-
reinforcements, novel matrix materials, production techniques and design software’s etc. The
major apprehension of the present world is energy conservation, therefore the operating
efficiency of every machinery can remain improved when the light materials are utilized.
Currently, as the world is tending near non-conventional energy sources among them wind
energy is evolving as one of the foremost source of energy in the utmost of the countries. As a
matter of fact, the huge blades of the windmill are being made up of these polymer composites.
Therefore, there is no suspicion that these composites would play a vital role in the developing
modern world for energy saving/generation.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 3

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

1.3 Types of composites

There are about five elementary types of composite materials as shown in figure 1.1.

 Particle,
 Fibre,
 Flake,
 Laminar or layered,
 Filled composites.

Fig: 1.1 Types of Composites

1.4 Classification of composites

Composites can be largely categorized into two forms one being natural composites and
another one is synthetic composites. Some of the instances of natural composites are wood, bone
etc. Wood is a composite made of tough and flexible cellulose fibers in lignin matrix. Even
though the constituents exist in adequate scale in the natural composites, it is precise tough to
tailor the properties of ordered composites. On the contrary synthetic composites, retain the
adequate flexibility of picking an appropriate reinforcement and a matrix from the wide variety
of matrices so that composites with the chosen properties can be advanced.

Depending on the distributed phase, the composites can be categorized as fiber-

reinforced composites and particulate composites are shown in Figure 1.2. The FRCs can be
made-up as a single layer or as multilayer composites. When the layers in a multi-layered
composite remain prepared with the similar kind of fiber reinforcement, and then they are called
as “laminate”. If two or more sorts of fiber reinforcements are employed in different layers, then
they are called as a hybrid composite. The entire composite is prepared of a particular layer in
the single layer composites. This furthermore comprises of composites retaining the same
orientation and properties in each layer. Single layer composites are composed of long and short

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 4

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
 DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

fibers. Fibre reinforcements make sure that there is improved load transfer and high mechanical
possessions are achieved.

On the other hand, the properties are not similar in every direction. In the direction of
fiber usually, the mechanical properties are higher. Short fibers can be simply used in the
fabrication of isotropic composites. In general, although processing the fibers may bring into line
themselves in a certain path in few of the handling techniques and then the composite possibly
will turn out to be anisotropic. On the other hand, the composites are isotropic if they are
constructed utilizing short fibers for reinforcement.

Composites

Continuous Short Particular

fibre reinforced fibre/whisker Composite
Composites reinforced
composites

Uni- Bi- Tri- Multi- Aligned Random

Directional Directional Directional Directional

Planar 3D
Woven Cross Ply Angle - Ply Random Random

Fig 1.2: Classification of composites based on dispersed phase

1.5 Functions of Fibers and Matrix

A composite material is comprised of supporting plastics with fibers. To improve a superior

understanding of composite performance, one should have a decent awareness of the roles
played by fibers and matrix materials in a composite. The significant purposes of fibers and
matrix materials along with the utilities of the fibers in a composite are enlisted below.

 To bear the load: In a structural composite, 70 to 90% of the load is passed by fibers.
 To provide stiffness, strength, thermal stability and additional structural properties in the
composites.
 To address electrical conductivity or insulation, a specific type of fiber is used in the
composite.
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 5
INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

A matrix material satisfies few functions in a composite structure, greatest of which are
crucial for the improved performance of the structure. Fibers themselves are of little use while
they are deprived of a matrix material or binder. The significant functions of a matrix material
include the following:

 The load is generally transferred to the fibers by the matrix as it binds the fibers together
providing a shape to the structure and firmness.
 The fibers can act separately as the matrix effectively separates it thereby it also stops or
hinders the development of a crack.
 Good surface finishes along the net shape or near net shape provided by the matrix.
 Against the chemical damage and mechanical wear, matrix renders protection to reinforcing
fibers.
 Performance characteristics like impact strength, ductility etc are affected by the chosen
matrix material. Normally the toughness of the structure would be raised by a ductile matrix.
Thermoplastic composites are mostly preferred when higher toughness is desired.
 The type of matrix material used in the composite affects the compatibility with the fiber
which also influences the failure of a model.

1.6 Limitations of Composites1

In spite of its numerous benefits composite materials suffer from the below-listed
disadvantages:

 When compared with steel and aluminum the composite materials are expensive. In the
terms of weight, they are 5 to 20 times higher than steel and aluminum.
 Previously, composite materials were utilized for the fabrication of hefty structures at low
volume. The major limitation is the absence of high-volume production methods. Recently,
pultrusion, resin transfer molding (RTM), structural reaction injection molding (SRIM),
compression molding of sheet molding compound (SMC), and filament winding ought to be
used for cutting-edge fabrication rates. And generally, automotive parts need the production
of 100 to 20,000 parts per day. For example, Corvette volume is 100 vehicles per day, and
Ford-Taurus volume is 2000 vehicles per day.
 Several methods for designing products using metals and machinery are available in design
and data handbooks which are exhaustive. Whereas composite materials lack such design
catalogs and handbooks which are essential for designing and production.
 The temperature resistance of the matrix material greatly influences the temperature
resistance of composite and since a great amount of the composites are prepared using

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 6

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

polymer-based matrices whose temperature resistance is inadequate. Distinctive composites

work in the temperature range of -40 to +100°C. In case of high-temperature plastics this
upper-temperature limit ranges between +150°C and +200°C, examples of such high-
temperature plastics are epoxies, bismuleimides and PEEK.
 Few properties like solvent resistance, chemical resistance, environmental stress and
cracking of composites are dependent on polymers. Certain polymers have low resistance to
solvents and environmental stress cracking.
 Due to absorption of moisture by the Composites the properties and dimensional stability of
the composites are disturbed.

1.7 Applications of Composite Materials:

Commercial and industrial applications of fiber reinforced composites are diverse and
numerous. The foremost application areas might be classified as follows:
i) Marine field: The composites are used in the steering wheel, wind transducer as shown
in Fig1.3 where the components of boats finished of carbon fiber.

Courtesy – azom.com

Fig 1.3: Carbon Fiber Reinforced Steering Wheel and Wind Transducer

ii) Aircraft and Space: Flight B787 Dream liner shown in Fig l.4 consist an
unmatched level of composite construction. The aircraft will be manufactured by means
of 50% composites with the remainder made up of aluminum (20%), titanium (15%),
steel (10%), and other materials (5%). It is the first commercial airliner to have the
fuselage and wings man-made completely using carbon fiber as an alternative of
aluminum.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 7

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

Courtesy: Boeing B787 Dream Liner

Fig 1.4: Composite composition of B787 Dream Liner

Automotive: Currently most of the racing car's chassis, which encloses the suspension, body and
engine cover, are built using carbon fiber. Because of its mechanical properties, carbon fiber
reinforced plastic or CRPF which is strong, lightweight though expensive is used in racing cars
at each level. Unique such kind of racing car is shown in Fig1.5.

Courtesy: 3MB Asia

Fig 1.5: Composite Racing Car

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 8

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD
DRDO/ASL/CPDC Chapter-1: Introduction

Sporting goods: Few examples of parts used in sporting goods include Accelerator is the one
piece, 100% carbon-fiber paddle by an ergonomic tit handle and an oval shaft. Weighing less
than 420g, with a full-length foam core. Fibre reinforced thermal composite material which is
strong and abrasion resistant is used in the manufacture of the sports plate.

Courtesy: Wenonah pads & Audi carbon Ski

Fig 1.6: Composite Accelerator Fig l .7: Carbon Fiber Reinforced Sport Plate

Storage pressure vessels: The profiles of different storing pressure vessel prepared using
composite structures are given in Fig1.8 and Fig1.9

Courtesy: Praxair and SpaceX

Fig: 1.8 Composite cylinders with Metallic Liner Fig: 1.9 Composite Air Vessel

Courtesy: CIRA
Fig: 1.10 Evolution in composition of composite by 50 years

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 9

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, HYDERABAD