Teacher Education and Special

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Immersing Students in the Culture of Disability Through Service Learning

Rosa Milagros Santos, Andrea L. Ruppar and Laurie M. Jeans
Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the
Council for Exceptional Children 2012 35: 49 originally published online 8 September 2011
DOI: 10.1177/0888406411413143

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413143
al.Teacher Education and Special Education
TESXXX10.1177/0888406411413143Santos et

Teacher Education and Special Education

Immersing Students in the

35(1) 49­–63
© 2012 Teacher Education Division of
the Council for Exceptional Children
Culture of Disability Through Reprints and permission:
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Service Learning DOI: 10.1177/0888406411413143
http://tese.sagepub.com

Rosa Milagros Santos1, Andrea L. Ruppar1,

and Laurie M. Jeans1

Abstract
This article provides a description of service learning implemented in an introductory spe-
cial education course focused on the culture of disability. Collaborating with liaisons from five
community service organizations, students provided services to individuals with disabilities in
a variety of projects across two semesters. Communication and collaboration at all phases of
the project were essential to ensuring that service learning was salient to the organization and
meaningful to the students. The students presented a final report about their service-learning
project and individually submitted a paper reflecting on their experience. Pre- and post-ratings
of students’ perspectives of the culture of disability were gathered. Students reported increased
knowledge related to course content, and all participants reported satisfaction with the proj-
ects. Strategies that proved successful in assisting students accomplish their project goals are
discussed. Recommendations for the use of service learning in personnel preparation of future
special educators are presented.

Keywords
special education, service learning, teacher preparation practices and outcomes

Service learning is gaining increased attention strengthen students’ citizenship preparation

as a pedagogical strategy in higher education
(Butin, 2006) as colleges and universities are
increasingly emphasizing community or public
engagement designed to strengthen and high-
light important links between institution of
higher education and society. The utility of ser-
vice learning for the preparation of special edu-
cation teachers has been noted as a means to
promote critical thinking, an understanding of
the social context of disability, and reflective
teaching (Mayhew & Welch, 2001). Service
learning values the community and embraces a
spirit of diversity through service. As Howard
(2003) noted, “Instructors, from elementary
schools to graduate and professional schools,
are turning to the community as a laboratory to
and academic learning” (p. 1).
In service learning, student learning goals
are met by addressing a community need. It
differs from traditional community service or
volunteer activities because it directly
addresses the curriculum and requires collab-
oration between the students and community
partners so that the benefits are reciprocal. In
addition, service learning should include an
1
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, USA
Corresponding Author:
Rosa Milagros Santos, Department of Special Education,
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 288
Education, 1310 South Sixth Street, IL 61820, USA
Email: rsantos@illinois.edu

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50 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)
opportunity for students to reflect on their
experiences. The definition of service learn-
ing varies; however, it commonly includes
the following components (Pritchard &
Whitehead, 2004):
1. Assessing community need: Com-
munity members may be surveyed or
interviewed to determine what types
of services are needed. Students and
teachers collaborate to determine
which potential project would most
closely match their learning needs.
2. Collaborative planning: Students
work together with the community
partner to plan the steps, outcomes,
and evaluation of the project. The
partnership between the students and
the community member is a very
important feature of service learning.
3. Project implementation: Students
work together to complete the ser-
vice project. In addition, students
are addressing learning goals.
4. Reflection: Reflection activities
“help students link the actions of ser-
vice with academic ideas and under-
standings” (Pritchard & Whitehead,
107). Reflection can be done in
a variety of ways. Students may
choose to keep a journal, provide
written reflections, or reflect face-
to-face with an instructor or peers. It
is also an opportunity for the teacher
to assess the progress of the project
and make any necessary changes
based on student feedback.
5. Evaluation: Students, teachers, and
community members collaborate to
evaluate the success of the project.
All participants provide feedback
about whether to carry out a simi-
lar project again, and if so, what
changes should be made.
6. Celebration: The students and com-
munity members have an oppor-
tunity to reward each other for the
accomplishments of the project.
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Service Learning in
Teacher Education
Service learning has been used as a peda-
gogical strategy in higher education, and
teacher education specifically. Campus
Compact (www.compact.org) and the
National Service Learning Clearinghouse
(www.servicelearning.org) have indexed
hundreds of service learning syllabi in a
variety of disciplines, as well as articles,
toolkits, and funding resources to support
the use of service learning in higher educa-
tion. In the area of teacher education, the
National Service-Learning Partnership
(www.service-learningpartnership.org), the
International Center for Service Learning
in Teacher Education (http://www.clemson
.edu/icslte/), and the American Educational
Research Association Special Interest
Group on Service-Learning and Experi­
ential Education (www.aera.net/sigs) all
offer suggestions, resources, and profes-
sional networking for faculty interested in
using service learning in their teacher edu-
cation programs.
When implemented early in preservice
teacher education, service learning may play
an important role in shaping attitudes toward
people with disabilities. It has been suggested
that field-based experiences help teacher can-
didates know what to expect in their future
careers (President’s Commission on
Excellence in Special Education, 2002).
Service learning has been shown to improve
students’ attitudes toward people with dis-
abilities (Burns, Storey, & Certo, 1999).
Therefore, interactions with individuals with
disabilities have the potential to shape teach-
ers’ understandings and attitudes at an early
stage in their education. By engaging in
“meaningful, reciprocal relationships with
individuals who have historically been mar-
ginalized by society” through a service-learning
project, preservice teachers have an opportu-
nity to learn inclusive values that will guide
their future practice (Mayhew & Welch,
2001, p. 217).
Santos et al. 51
Mayhew and Welch (2001) asserted that
service learning may influence preservice
teachers to be reflective and encourage criti-
cal thinking about prevailing educational
practices. The authors described that stu-
dents in a Human Exceptionalities course
responded more positively to items related to
citizenship and course content than other stu-
dents participating in service-learning activi-
ties throughout the university. Carrington
and Saggers (2008) likewise described how a
service-learning project developed preser-
vice teachers’ early attitudes about inclusion
and designing inclusive instruction. Results
of the students’ reflections indicated that
they increased their knowledge about col-
laboration, values, and respect; developing
relationships with community partners; and
cultural diversity. This suggests that service
learning may reinforce the principles of col-
laboration, inclusivity, and respect in teacher
education.
An advantage of inclusive service learning
is that it provides an opportunity for students
with and without disabilities to work together
in equal roles. College students may have few
opportunities to interact with peers with dis-
abilities, and when they do, it is typically in a
“helping” role (Gent & Gurecka, 2001).
Inclusive service-learning projects have been
found to result in more favorable attitudes
toward people with disabilities than those in
which students without disabilities provided a
service to people with disabilities (Burns
et al., 1999; Gent & Gurecka, 2001). When
students with and without disabilities work
together on a service-learning project, each
group of students can address their own goals
and participate in equal roles. In this way, col-
lege students can acquire the skills to treat
students with disabilities as peers, and stu-
dents with and without disabilities have the
opportunity to build relationships.
The use of service learning in teacher edu-
cation may also influence teachers’ decision
on whether to use service learning in their
future classrooms. Wade et al. (1999) found
that when service learning was incorporated
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into the curriculum of teacher education,
teachers were more likely to implement ser-
vice learning in the future. Because of this
potential impact of service-learning projects,
Anderson and Erickson (2003) cautioned that
teacher educators must understand service-
learning principles and theories to achieve
positive outcomes.
As an early, applied learning experience
related to the lives of people with disabilities,
service learning has the potential to influence
the perspectives of future teachers. Students
may develop positive attitudes toward people
with disabilities, may view inclusive practices
more favorably, and may be more likely to use
the practice in their own classrooms. In addi-
tion, creative application of service learning
can give students opportunities to interact
with individuals with disabilities in a variety
of ways, allowing them to serve an authentic
need while meeting their own learning goals.
In these ways, service learning can be a valu-
able addition to a teacher education program.
The purpose of this article is to describe
how service learning was implemented within
an undergraduate course in special education
at a large Midwestern Research University-
Extensive with an additional Carnegie desig-
nation of Community Engagement (http://www
.carnegiefoundation.org/). We also examined
the extent to which service learning influ-
enced the students’ attitudes toward the dis-
ability culture and their perceptions of their
knowledge related to individuals with dis-
abilities. To this end, we evaluated the impact
of service learning on students and the partici-
pating community organizations. Results and
implications of our findings will be described.
Finally, we will highlight one team of students
(i.e., humane society service-learning group)
to provide examples and additional detail on
the service learning as applied in the course.
Program Description
In this section, we provide the context in
which the project we describe was developed,
implemented, and evaluated.
52 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)
Table 1. Student Participant Demographics
Demographic information
Major of study
Business and accounting
Education
Engineering
Liberal arts and sciences
Recreation, sports management, and
tourism
Speech and hearing science
Human development and family studies
Undeclared
Ethnic background
African American
White
Latino/Latina
Other
Experience working with people
with disabilities (volunteer or paid)
None
Less than 1 year
1-3 years
More than 3 years
Course Description
Service learning was implemented in a 3-hour
credit undergraduate course at a large mid-
western Research University-Extensive. The
course title is “Culture of Disability” and is
offered through the Department of Special
Education, which is housed in the College of
Education. There are several sections of this
course offered during the fall and spring
semesters. The service learning was imple-
mented in the “Discovery” section of the
course, which is only open to 19 first-year
students per semester and taught by a tenured
faculty. The “Discovery Program” is an initia-
tive within the university designed to facilitate
greater interaction between 1st-year students
and faculty in a small class setting. Discovery
sections of courses across the university are
offered on a wide range of disciplines designed
by faculty to share their research in a particular
area. The Discovery course offered through the
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Department of Special Education fulfills the
General Education (Humanities) requirements
%
for undergraduate students at the university.
Because of its wide appeal on campus, the
16 course has drawn students from various
42 departments and colleges. Students are able to
3 enroll in the course on a first come, first
13 served basis. Per university policy, the faculty
5 assigned to the Discovery course is not
allowed to open or offer any seats to other stu-
6 dents. A copy of the syllabus for this course
3 may be obtained from the first author.
13
4 Student Participants
85
A total of 38 freshmen, enrolled in the
8
3
Discovery section of the course, across two
16-week semesters (spring and fall semes-
ters), participated in the service learning. Per
32 the university’s requirements, a Human
24 Subjects Research form was completed and
19 approved by the campus Institutional Review
27 Board to allow the authors to collect, analyze,
and report data related to the service learning.
At the beginning of the semester, the third
author who is not associated with the course
explained to the students the voluntary nature
of their participation in the data collection
(i.e., completing the pre- and postquestion-
naire and the satisfaction questionnaire, and
allowing the authors to use their reflection
papers in the analysis). All of the students
agreed to participate. With their consent,
demographic data on students were collected
at the beginning of the semester. A summary
is provided in Table 1.
The majority of students declared “Education”
as their major (42%). For students who are plan-
ning to major in education (i.e., special educa-
tion, early childhood, elementary, and
secondary), the Culture of Disability course is a
required general education course, which
accounts for a substantially higher number of
education majors enrolled in the course com-
pared with other majors. Furthermore, most of
the students are White (85%), which mirrors the
overall population of students enrolled in the
university. Finally, one third of the students
Santos et al. 53
(32%) indicated that they did not have any vol-
unteer or paid experiences working with indi-
viduals with disabilities prior to enrolling in the
course.
Participating Community
Organizations
Five local organizations were invited to par-
ticipate in this project. They were selected to
serve as a partner organization because they
are key groups within the community who
employ and/or serve individuals with dis-
abilities from a variety of backgrounds. It was
also important that each organization had a
built-in capacity to work with community
volunteers (e.g., dedicated volunteer coordi-
nator). The directors of the organizations
were contacted initially by telephone to share
information about the course, service learn-
ing, and ultimately to obtain their informed
consent to participate. Each of the organiza-
tions contacted agreed to participate. In
the fall semester, three organizations worked
with the students on their service-learning
projects. In the following spring semester,
two organizations were added to provide
more options for the students. The participat-
ing organizations included a statewide dis-
ability advocacy group, a disability-specific
family network, a local humane society, a
local not-for-profit disability rights group,
and a special recreation program through the
local park district.
Each organization signed a Memorandum
of Understanding which signified their com-
mitment to providing the students enrolled in
the course with opportunities to complete their
service learning within the semester. Each
organization was represented by a liaison who
participated in all of the meetings to develop
their individual service-learning activity. The
liaisons were the primary contact for the stu-
dents as they designed and implemented their
service learning. The liaison also evaluated the
projects and assigned a final grade to the stu-
dents at the end of the semester. Communication
and collaboration with each organization at all
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phases of the project was essential to ensuring
that the service learning was salient to the orga-
nization and meaningful to the students
enrolled in the course.
Service Learning
Components and
Expectations
At the 2nd week of classes, after the students
completed their prequestionnaire forms, liaisons
from each organization came to class and pre-
sented descriptive information about their orga-
nization to the students. They also shared their
ideas for engaging students in service learning.
The service learning included applied projects
or activities that were developed and imple-
mented so that community groups, particularly
individuals with disabilities, would benefit. A
description of one of the projects completed by
a team of students is provided in Box 1.
At the end of the presentations, the students
independently selected an organization with
which to complete their project. Each organiza-
tion determined the maximum number of stu-
dents needed for a given project and once those
slots were filled, students were asked to select
another organization. Once teams were formed,
the liaison met with their team of students to plan
their service learning. A portion of class time (1
hour and 30 minutes), once a month was allotted
for students to meet with their liaison and/or to
work on their service learning. On average, stu-
dents spent 8 to 10 hours outside of their class
time to complete their service learning.
Students completed three products for their
service learning. First, as a team, students com-
pleted the tasks required by their service learn-
ing. Individual student grades were assigned
both by the instructor and the organization liai-
son, based on criteria listed in Table 2. This
grade represented 25% of the students’ total
grade for the course.
Second and also as a team, the students pre-
sented an in-class final report about their service
learning. Each team prepared a presentation
about their service learning, in which they
54 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)

Box 1
Humane Society: An Inclusive Service-Learning Experience
During one semester of the course, students had the option to engage in an inclusive ser-
vice-learning project at the local humane society. Five students from the course were paired
with four seniors with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities from a local high school.
Students from the course participated in verbal and written reflections throughout the
semester.
Features of the project:

• Throughout the semester, the two groups of students visited the humane society three
times. At each visit, students worked in teams of two or three to complete duties such as
laundry, folding newspapers for the animal cages, cleaning the walls, and washing the
food dishes.
• At the end of the project, the students held a pizza party hosted by the high school
students. The high school students took the college students on a tour of their school,
followed by an impromptu football game on the lawn.
• Features of the project that promoted inclusion were

○ The project was conducted at a community site rather than at the university or at the
high school
○ Equal roles for all participants
○ Facilitation of positive relationships between students with disabilities, the univer-
sity, and community partners

Following each meeting of the humane society group, the students enrolled in the course
completed written reflections, answering the following questions: (a) What have you learned
about people with disabilities as a result of your experience? and (b) Did anything surprise
you in your interactions with the students? Why or why not? Each student also met with the
project facilitator once during the semester for a verbal reflection.
Highlights from the reflections:

• Students from the course noted that the students with disabilities were skillful workers
and at times were better at the jobs than the students without disabilities.
• Students from the course expressed surprise at how easily conversation flowed between
the groups. One student commented, “They dislike chores as much as I do.”
• Students noticed differential treatment of themselves and the students with disabilities
by community members. One student explained that, because she noticed this, she was
even more careful to interact with the students with disabilities as peers.
• As the semester progressed, students expressed their embarrassment about not having
higher expectations for the skills of people with disabilities at the beginning. One stu-
dent noted that her partner with a disability “definitely has more work experience than
I do.”
• Students talked about the friendships that had developed and were surprised at how well
they were able to get to know one another in such a short period of time. The university
students were not expecting the students with disabilities to be so friendly and open,
and were pleasantly surprised by the relationships that had developed.

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Santos et al. 55

Table 2. Service Learning Grading Criteria

Criteria Points
1. Service-learning project—Grade is assigned by the community liaison and based on 100
the student’s reliability, professional behavior, work production, task completion, quality
of final product, ability to work independently and as a team member, creativity, and
initiative, using the following criteria (20 points each):
  •  Student was very reliable and took initiative in planning and completing the project  
  •  Student demonstrated creativity and quality in his or her products  
  •  Student completed his or her tasks on time and produced a high quality final product  
  •  Student worked well independently and as a team member  
  •  Student demonstrated professional behavior  
2. Class Presentation—Grade is based on the individual contributions of team members, 25
organization of the presentation and overheads, quality of the content, completeness,
reflections, and thoughtfulness.
3. Reflection paper—Grade is based on the quality of the reflections, completeness, 25
neatness, spelling, grammar, and overall organization of the paper.
Total 150

described their group project and shared insights
from their experience. Each presentation lasted
15 to 20 minutes in length with each student
required to present using a team-developed
PowerPoint presentation. In their presentation,
each team was asked to describe their service
learning and its contribution to the community
organization. Specifically, students discussed
the purpose of the project, their target audience,
the major outcomes of the project, the team pro-
cess that was used to complete their service
learning, the roles and contributions of each
team member, and their methods of monitoring
their team’s progress over time. Students also
shared their reflections on the project and their
general insights and overall impressions of the
community resource, as an organization. Finally,
the liaisons were invited to attend class to listen
to the students’ presentations.
Finally, individual students submitted a
three-page paper reflecting on their service-
learning experience. Students were asked to
reflect on their service learning in terms of the
content and process. Students also described
their individual role and contributions toward
the completed service learning and reflected
on how their team worked together. Finally,
students reflected on important lessons they
learned about disabilities based on their ser-
vice learning experience.
Evidence of Impact
In this section, we describe four tools and
measures we used to examine the impact of
the service learning on the students and the
community organizations.
Pre- and Postratings of
Student Perspectives of
Culture of Disability
First, students completed a rating scale during
the 1st week and on the final week of classes.
The rating form was developed exclusively for
the course with support from the campus survey
research office. The rating form was not intended
to measure student outcome based on the service
learning outcomes but instead was developed to
primarily provide an overall measure of student
perspectives on various topic areas related to the
culture of disability that were to be addressed in
the course. The first question asked students to
indicate their overall perspective of inclusion for
individuals with disabilities. The remainder of

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56 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)

Table 3. Pre- and Poststudent Ratings

Significance
Statement Mean difference SD T (two-tailed)
1. It is important to include individuals with –0.158 8.55 –1.138 .262
disabilities in all aspects of society.
2. My knowledge of the following topics (within the context of disabilities as a culture) is
  a. Laws and litigations related to disability 1.605 1.104 8.965 .000
  b.Inclusion of people with disabilities in society 1.342 1.047 7.903 .000
  c. Civil disability rights movement 2.026 1.305 9.575 .000
  d. Families of people with disability 1.054 1.224 5.240 .000
  e. Universal design 2.297 1.222 11.438 .000
  f. Athletics and people with disabilities 1.474 0.893 10.178 .000
  g. P  ortrayal of people with disabilities in 1.395 1.054 8.160 .000
  the media
  h. Advocacy for people with disabilities 1.842 1.175 9.667 .000
  i. Employment of people with disabilities 1.474 1.202 7.557 .000
  j. Transitions for people with disabilities 1.649 1.136 8.830 .000
  k. Politics and people with disabilities 1.895 1.008 11.590 .000
  l. Leisure activities for people with disabilities 1.368 1.101 7.662 .000
  m. Quality of life of people with disabilities 1.632 1.025 9.816 .000
 n. Independent living for people with 1.868 1.018 11.314 .000
 disabilities
  o. Technology and people with disabilities 1.737 1.155 9.269 .000
  p. Ethical issues and people with disabilities 1.842 1.242 9.145 .000
  q. Cross-cultural views of disability 1.632 1.303 7.717 .000

the questions asked students to indicate the level

of their knowledge on various topics related to
disabilities. A copy of the rating form may be
requested from the first author. Descriptive sta-
tistics was used to examine changes in student
perspectives (see Table 3).
Using paired sample tests, statistically sig-
nificant differences were found between the
students’ pre- and postratings for all of the
items in which the students indicated the level
of their knowledge on topics related to culture
of disability. At the beginning of the semester,
the students indicated that the inclusion of
individuals with disabilities is very important.
At the end of the semester, the students remained
consistent with their responses, thus resulting
in no statistically significant differences in the
students’ overall perspective of inclusion of
individuals with disabilities at the pre- and post-
service learning project timepoints.
Students’ Ratings of
Satisfaction With Service-
Learning Experience
Second, students completed a Likert-type
satisfaction questionnaire on the final day
of classes. Similar to the pre- and post-rat-
ing form, the satisfaction questionnaire was
developed exclusively for the course by the
first author with support from the campus
survey research office. This 18-item satis-
faction questionnaire was not designed to
measure student outcomes. Rather, it was
designed to examine the extent to which
students were satisfied with their service
learning experience (See Table 4). At this
point in the semester, all of the students had
already completed their service learning
and submitted their requirements for the
course.

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Santos et al. 57
In the form, students indicated whether
they strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed, or
strongly disagreed with each statement in the
questionnaire. Across all the items, students
also had an option to indicate whether the
statement was not relevant to their service-
learning experience.
Overall, the majority of the students posi-
tively rated their satisfaction with their
service-learning experience. Notably, all of
the students indicated that they were able to
link the concepts covered in the course with
the practical experiences they gained from
their service learning (Items 13 and 14).
Students’ Reflections on
Their Service-Learning
Experience
Third, as part of their course requirements,
each student submitted a final reflection
paper related to their service learning.
Students were provided guiding questions to
organize their reflection focusing on two
areas. First, students were asked to reflect on
the content and the overall process for com-
pleting their service. Specifically, they
addressed their individual roles and contribu-
tions and reflected on their team process.
Second, students reflected on lessons they
learned about disabilities based on their
service-learning experience.
All of the students had overwhelmingly
positive reactions to their service-learning
experiences. They recognized the importance
of the organizations they worked with and the
value of their service and gained a deeper
understanding of disability issues in the com-
munity. The following are three representa-
tive excerpts from student reflections:
My experience with my community orga-
nization this semester was amazing. I
have learned so much about disabilities
working with them. I am definitely
more comfortable around people with
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disabilities. One of the most important
lessons I will take away from this expe-
rience is that people with disabilities
really are just normal people like me.
Overall, the project was a very enrich-
ing and interesting experience. I feel
like I learned a lot about the culture of
disability through this project. Now that
I am aware of the fight for equal rights
for people with disabilities, I feel I can
make a better impact on the world that
I live in.
Throughout the entire project, I have
gained a greater understanding about
disabilities. I learned the importance of
organizations like the special recre-
ations and how vital they are in every
community. In fact, they are essential
for not only people with disabilities but
everyone else as well . . . When people
with disabilities think they belong
nowhere, groups like special recre-
ations prove that they are mistaken.
The majority of the students reported that
their team worked together collaboratively
and effectively. Each one also described their
individual contributions to the team. The stu-
dents also felt they received adequate support
from their liaison. Access to additional
resources such as a vehicle to travel around
town seemed to be an important factor for the
team. As one student noted, “Driving worked
out for the most part because S, in our group
had a car, so we could all pile in her car.”
Typical group dynamics issues did arise for
some of the student groups (e.g., “It is diffi-
cult with seven people to keep in contact and
since we split our group into two for the last
part of our project, our group has been trying
to make sure the other three guys were on task
with the last part. Therefore, we just have to
trust them to complete their part.”). In the end,
it appeared that the students were able to work
through the issues.
58 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)

Table 4. Percentage of Student Satisfaction With Service Learning

Strongly Strongly Not

Statement agree Agree Disagree disagree relevant n
  1. Overall, I am satisfied with my experience 61 34 5 0 0 38
  completing my service-learning project.
  2. I feel that the service I performed 63 34 3 0 0 38
  through the service-learning project
  was helpful to the disabled community.
  3. I have learned particular skills that will 68 24 8 0 0 38
  be useful to me in the future.
  4. The service-learning project met my 45 42 10 3 0 38
 expectation.
  5. The time I spent on the service-learning 66 34 0 0 0 38
  project was reasonable.
  6. I developed a good working/professional 51 41 5 3 0 37
  relationship with my community
  partner during the project assignment.
  7. I learned how to deal with conflicts 53 44 3 0 0 38
  when they occurred during my service-
  learning project experience.
  8. I learned to listen to others’ opinions 66 32 0 0 2 38
  while working with my community
  partner and team.
  9. I knew where to locate useful resources 45 39 8 0 8 38
  when I encountered problems throughout
  the service-learning project experience.
10. Our team achievement was determined 42 42 10 3 3 38
  by the amount of effort I put forth.
11. I liked it when I got to make decisions 49 49 0 0 2 37
  related to the service-learning project.
12. I felt that I had little control over the 11 11 43 35 0 37
  things that happened during the
  service-learning project experience.
13. I made connections between our course 89 11 0 0 0 36
  lectures and the real world.
14. I was able to apply the concepts I have 78 22 0 0 0 37
  learned in class to the service-learning
 project.
15. In completing the service-learning 73 19 5 0 3 37
  project, I interacted with people that I
  would not have typically interacted with.
16. I now have a greater appreciation for 89 11 0 0 0 37
  the disability culture that I did not have
  before I took this course.
17. I learned a lot from people with 78 19 0 0 3 37
  experiences that are different from
  mine through the service-learning
 project.
18. I now have a greater appreciation for 78 22 0 0 0 37
  other students who have different
  interests that I did not have before.

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Santos et al. 59
Community
Organizations’
Satisfaction With Service-
Learning Experience
Finally, a focus group was conducted by a col-
league external to the course at the end of spring
and fall semesters. The focus group was com-
prised of the liaisons representing each of the
participating organizations. Discussion ques-
tions for the focus group were designed primar-
ily to develop a better understanding of the
satisfaction of the organizations with the service-
learning experience.
Overall, the service-learning experience
was considered a successful endeavor accord-
ing to the partner organizations that partici-
pated in the spring and fall semesters. Students
conducted family interviews, participated in
community special recreation programs, cre-
ated an accessibility evaluation tool for local
businesses, and created brochures for disabil-
ity service organizations. The liaisons partici-
pating in the follow-up focus groups and
interviews were involved in service-learning
projects for two semesters with two different
groups of students. One liaison stated, “I think
it went well on our end.” Another partner
emphasized, “We got some real shiners” and
“Students were very responsible.”
Communication was a key component to
making the service-learning projects run
smoothly and regular meetings between the
liaison and students were considered a funda-
mental part of the success. When the students
were motivated to regularly contact each
other and manage their own learning, there
was little need for the partners to organize and
direct all aspects of the projects and instead
they provided guidance when requested. For
students involved in interactions with families
of children with disabilities, the liaisons felt
role-playing was very useful and pairing stu-
dents for moral support added to the success
of some projects (e.g., family interviews).
Strategies that proved successful in assist-
ing students accomplish their project goals
included (a) sharing a contact list of phone
numbers of all participants (students and
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liaison), (b) establishing a protocol of whom
to contact when absences and emergencies
arose, (c) frequent emails between liaisons
and students, (d) establishing intermediate
deadlines while working toward project com-
pletion, and (e) flexibility in the ways goals
and projects could be accomplished with reg-
ular monitoring of progress. When liaisons
provided an excited and appreciative staff, the
enthusiasm was contagious, translating into
an excited group of students. Partners found
that capitalizing on students’ strengths, such
as their knowledge of computer software, cre-
ated some unique products for advertising
their community organizations.
Transportation was an obstacle for some of
the student groups, particularly when relying
on public transportation. First-year students in
their first semester at the university found this
task difficult because of inexperience, but
accommodations were made by the liaisons to
deliver materials to the students on campus. In
addition, liaisons mentioned that large groups
of students (e.g., more than five) had more dif-
ficulty working together on a single project.
In discussion of the level of satisfaction
with students participating, liaisons indicated
that they would rate their satisfaction as aver-
age or above average. When students were
motivated to accomplish their own project,
they were given an above average/excellent
rating. The liaisons felt they provided good
experiences on accessibility and barriers that
confront people with disabilities on a daily
basis and they felt the university students
developed an awareness of disabilities as well
as an awareness of the purposes of their orga-
nizations. One liaison expressed satisfaction
that their organization’s core principle of suc-
cess through independence was realized in the
university students in their group. Liaisons
expressed surprise that although these stu-
dents did not have special education back-
grounds, their enthusiasm matched the
community partner’s.
In rating the level of satisfaction with the
outcomes of the service-learning experience,
the liaisons indicated they were satisfied with
the results. For example, the liaison noted that
60 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)
the brochures the students created were well
done, the business mailings that students sent
that offered accessibility studies were
researched effectively, and the after-school
program for teens with disabilities was well
planned and executed by the students. Positive
community response to the projects high-
lighted the ability of service learning to move
classroom knowledge into the community at
large. In a unique result of one service learn-
ing, a group of students conducted surveys of
families and individuals with disabilities and
found a strong desire from interviewees to
direct their own services and a need for social
support from other families of individuals
with disabilities. A parent support group was
subsequently formed and they explored new
models of service delivery. The parent group
formed a human service cooperative which
became incorporated and certified as a home-
based services provider.
The liaisons suggested that improvements
are needed on effectively dividing the stu-
dents into service-learning groups. The origi-
nal sign-up process appeared to provide
choices to only the first students to register,
with few options left for the remaining stu-
dents. A more recent system allowed students
to register at different tables of the organiza-
tions in which they were interested. The liai-
sons also suggested that service organizations
could prepare a draft of the service projects,
with the number of students requested, before
the first liaisons–students meeting. In this
way, each organization would be able to proj-
ect their needs and they would be able to
fairly divide the surplus of students that
seemed to occur in some semesters. The liai-
sons suggested continued improvement on
linking in-class material and learning to the
experiences in the community.
Flexibility and growth on the part of the
liaisons were evidenced when they were able
to scale down their original projects to accom-
modate the students’ schedules and skills. The
partners approved the concept of ongoing par-
ticipation in the service-learning projects
where research done in one semester could
be implemented in the next semester. They
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wished to continue to explore ways to pair
university students with community members
with disabilities served by their organizations
and hoped to devise projects that were even
more meaningful and would have long-lasting
positive effects on the students.
Conclusion
The service learning was designed to provide
students opportunities to apply their knowl-
edge and skills gained from the course and at
the same time make a lasting and positive
impact on individuals with disabilities and
local organizations serving individuals with
disabilities. Through a variety of projects,
students had an opportunity to work in col-
laboration with each other as well as people
with disabilities to provide a service while
simultaneously advancing their own knowl-
edge. Similar to the findings of Jenkins and
Sheehey (2009), all of our students reported
increased knowledge about people with dis-
abilities. In reflections, students reported that
they felt more comfortable around people
with disabilities and were more likely to
advocate for people with disabilities. This
finding echoes those of Novak, Murray,
Scheuermann, and Curran (2009), who found
that special education preservice teachers
came to view the abilities of students with
disabilities positively as a result of their
engagement in a service-learning project.
Community partners likewise reported satis-
faction with the projects, and communication
between community partners and student
groups was considered essential for the suc-
cess of the projects. The description of our
project adds to the growing body of literature
validating the use of service learning as a
pedagogical tool in special education teacher
preparation.
There were several unique features of our
project. First, the service-learning projects
were designed to supplement students’ learn-
ing by immersing them in a project with local
community organizations. Because students
were engaged with individuals with disabili-
ties and their families, this experience served
Santos et al. 61
to broaden student perspectives about disabil-
ities as a culture. In addition, students’
engagement with community partners allowed
students to learn about local programs and
services serving individuals with disabilities.
The college freshmen, most of whom were
new to the area, gained an introduction to dis-
ability services and culture of the local com-
munity. Likewise, community partners were
introduced to the students and viewed their
service and work in the community positively.
Collaborations with community organizations
allowed for the creation of projects with mea-
surable, ongoing community impact by con-
tributing some human and financial resources
to accomplish the tasks. This exemplifies the
reciprocal benefits for students and commu-
nity members, which is characteristic of ser-
vice learning.
The project resulted in positive outcomes
for the students and community partners as
well as the university. For students, engaging
in service-learning projects provided opportu-
nities to integrate the concepts and knowledge
that were covered in the course. This is criti-
cal in helping the students broaden their
understanding of the diverse individuals in
our society. For the community partners, the
service-learning projects allowed them to
extend their services to effectively and effi-
ciently meet the mission and goals of their
organization. Likewise, the service provided
them with access to energy and resources that
may be otherwise limited, given the nature
and structure of community organizations
(e.g., nonprofit, volunteer dependent, limited
staff). The service-learning projects also
served to strengthen ties between the univer-
sity and the community. The products that
resulted from the service-learning projects
became a permanent part of the organizations
that participated in this project and thus a con-
stant reminder of the university’s commit-
ment to strengthening ties with grassroots
community efforts.
This article is a descriptive report of a how
service learning was successfully applied to
an undergraduate course at a Research-
extensive institution. The main focus of
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evaluating the impact of the service learning
was to begin to develop an understanding of
the viability of using service learning projects
on student learning. This is not by any means
an empirical investigation of the effects of
service learning components on student out-
comes. However, the description provided in
this article can serve as a foundation for other
researchers to examine components of service
learning on student outcomes. To conduct an
empirical investigation would require devel-
oping appropriate instruments that are valid
and reliable. The tools described in this article
can useful as a starting point for researchers to
develop tools that are reliable and valid mea-
sure of student outcomes.
Implications for Personnel
Preparation
Findings from our survey indicate that students
engaged in the service-learning projects
reported increased knowledge in the goals of
the course. Novak et al. (2009) found that spe-
cial education teacher candidates engaged in a
service-learning project gained content knowl-
edge as well as increased their comfort level
around people with disabilities. Engagement in
service learning during pre-service teacher
education can also lead to the use of service
learning as a teaching tool in the future (Wade,
Anderson, Yarbrough, Pickeral, Erickson, &
Kromer, 1999). As an early experience, service
learning could be a useful means to provide
students with experiences working alongside
people with disabilities as well as provide
knowledge that will serve as the groundwork
for their future learning.
Early experiences with people with dis-
abilities have been found to influence special
education teachers’ belief systems, and beliefs
are known to influence behavior (Bandura,
1986; LePage, Nielsen, & Fearn, 2008).
Beliefs that are developed early are more cen-
tral to an individual’s belief system and are
less likely they are to change over time
(Rokeach, 1968). Service learning imple-
mented early in preservice teacher education,
therefore, can have an impact on students who
62 Teacher Education and Special Education 35(1)
through their life span will have direct and
indirect influence, professionally and/or per-
sonally, in the lives of individuals with
disabilities.
Implications for Research
Although the use of service learning for the
preparation of special educators appears to be
on the rise, there is little research addressing
the implementation of service learning in spe-
cial education teacher preparation (Jenkins &
Sheehey, 2009). Although students in this
study reported increases in their knowledge
about aspects of disability culture, the service
learning did not influence their attitudes toward
inclusion. Therefore, future studies should
examine how service-learning projects may be
designed to improve students’ attitudes toward
school and community inclusion. Although
one of our service-learning projects was inclu-
sive, the differential effects on the students
engaged in that project on inclusive attitudes
are not known. Gent and Gurecka (2001) sug-
gested that students with and without disabili-
ties should engage in service learning together,
rather than positioning students with disabili-
ties in a “helping” role. Future research, there-
fore, should examine the differential effects of
inclusive versus helping forms of service
learning for people with disabilities as it relates
to attitudes and content knowledge. Although
there is some indication that service learning in
preservice education can improve attitudes
toward people with disabilities (Jenkins &
Sheehey, 2009; Novak et al., 2009), the spe-
cific effects of service learning experiences on
preservice special education teachers’ future
practice is not known. Likewise, there are a
few studies that exist that address the design of
service-learning projects for various types of
learning in teacher education and special edu-
cation. As the use of service learning in preser-
vice teacher training in special education
expands, it will be important to know how
various features of service-learning projects
should be implemented to meet specific peda-
gogical goals.
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With far reaching effect, service learning
in teacher education can benefit the teacher
candidates, the community, and the univer-
sity, strengthening ties between the three
groups. The practice is especially useful in the
preparation of special education teachers
because it can provide hands-on experience
and positive early experiences with people
with disabilities. Implemented early in teacher
preparation, service learning promotes the
direct application of content knowledge and
fosters long-lasting positive attitudes toward
people with disabilities. Service learning,
therefore, may be a useful tool at many stages
of teacher preparation for special education
teachers.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of
interest with respect to the authorship and/or pub-
lication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following
financial support for the research and/or authorship
of this article: Development of this article was sup-
ported in part by a grant from the University of
Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Chancellor’s Task
Force on Civic Commitment in the 21st Century
and the Preparing Leaders in Access by Design
(PLAD), a grant funded by the U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Special Education Programs
(H325D050066).
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Bios
Rosa Milagros Santos, Ph.D. is an Associate
Professor in the Department of Special Education
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Her primary research interest focuses on develop-
ing culturally competent professionals who are
knowledgeable and skilled to design and imple-
ment culturally and linguistically appropriate early
childhood intervention services to infants, toddlers
and preschoolers with disabilities and their
families.
Andrea Ruppar, M. Ed. is a doctoral candidate at
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Her research focuses on curriculum planning for
students with severe disabilities.
Laurie M. Jeans, Ed. M. is a doctoral candidate in
the Department of Special Education at the
University of Illinois and a developmental thera-
pist. Her research interests include families and
children with disabilities and their involvement in
their home communities.