Endocrine system

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Major endocrine glands. (Male on the left, female on the right.) 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary
gland 3. Thyroid gland 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testis. [Note: the Thymus
(labelled 4.) has endocrine function, though it is not considered to be an endocrine gland.]

In physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of
hormone into the bloodstream to regulate the body. It derives from the Greek words endo (Greek
ένδο) meaning inside, within, and crinis (Greek κρινής) for secrete. The endocrine system is an
information signal system like the nervous system. Hormones are substances (chemical
mediators) released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream that attach to target tissue and
allow communication among cells. Hormones regulate many functions of an organism, including
mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism. The field of study that deals
with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.

The endocrine system is made up of a series of ductless glands that produce chemicals called
hormones. A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an
axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Typical endocrine glands are the
pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless
nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing
their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands
within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.

In addition to the specialised endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part
of other body systems, such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine
functions. For example the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Endocrine organs and secreted hormones

o 1.1 Central nervous system
 1.1.1 Hypothalamus
 1.1.2 Pineal body (epiphysis)
 1.1.3 Pituitary Gland (hypophysis)
 1.1.3.1 Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)
 1.1.3.2 Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
 1.1.3.3 Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)
o 1.2 Thyroid
o 1.3 Alimentary system
 1.3.1 Stomach
 1.3.2 Duodenum
 1.3.3 Liver
 1.3.4 Pancreas
o 1.4 Kidney
o 1.5 Adrenal glands
 1.5.1 Adrenal cortex
 1.5.2 Adrenal medulla
o 1.6 Reproductive
 1.6.1 Testes
 1.6.2 Ovarian follicle / Corpus luteum
 1.6.3 Placenta (when pregnant)
 1.6.4 Uterus (when pregnant)
o 1.7 Calcium regulation
 1.7.1 Parathyroid
 1.7.2 Skin
o 1.8 Miscellaneous
 1.8.1 Heart
 1.8.2 Bone Marrow
 1.8.3 Adipose tissue
 2 Major endocrine systems
 3 Diseases
 4 Other types of signaling
o 4.1 Autocrine
 o 4.2 Paracrine
o 4.3 Juxtacrine
 5 See also
 6 References

[edit] Endocrine organs and secreted hormones

[edit] Central nervous system

Endocrine glands in the human head and neck and their hormones

[edit] Hypothalamus

Secreted hormone Abbreviation Produced by Effect

Stimulate thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyrotropin-
Parvocellular (TSH) released from anterior pituitary
releasing hormone TRH, TRF, or
neurosecretory (primarily)
(Prolactin-releasing PRH
neurons Stimulate prolactin release from anterior
hormone)
pituitary
Dopamine Dopamine
Inhibit prolactin released from anterior
(Prolactin- DA or PIH neurons of the
pituitary
inhibiting hormone) arcuate nucleus
Neuroendocrine
Growth hormone- Stimulate Growth hormone (GH) release
GHRH neurons of the
releasing hormone from anterior pituitary
Arcuate nucleus
Somatostatin SS, GHIH, or Neuroendocrine Inhibit Growth hormone (GH) release from
(growth hormone- SRIF cells of the anterior pituitary
inhibiting hormone) Periventricular Inhibit thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
 nucleus
release from anterior pituitary
Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone
Neuroendocrine
Gonadotropin- GnRH or (FSH) release from anterior pituitary
cells of the
releasing hormone LHRH Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release
Preoptic area
from anterior pituitary
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
Corticotropin- Stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone
CRH or CRF neurons or the
releasing hormone (ACTH) release from anterior pituitary
Paraventricular
Nucleus
Magnocellular
neurosecretory
neurons of the
Uterine contraction
Oxytocin OT or OXT Supraoptic
Lactation (letdown reflex)
Nucleus and
Paraventricular
Nucleus
Parvocellular
neurosecretory
neurons,
Magnocellular Increases water permeability in the distal
Vasopressin
ADH or AVP neurosecretory convoluted tubule and collecting duct of
(antidiuretic
or VP neurons of the nephrons, thus promoting water
hormone)
Paraventricular reabsorption and increasing blood volume
Nucleus and
Supraoptic
Nucleus

[edit] Pineal body (epiphysis)

Secreted hormone From cells Effect

Antioxidant
Monitors the circadian rhythm including
Melatonin Pinealocytes
inducement of drowsiness and lowering of the
core body temperature

[edit] Pituitary Gland (hypophysis)

[edit] Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)

Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect

Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
Growth hormone
GH Somatotrophs Stimulates Insulin-like growth factor 1
(somatotropin)
release from liver
Thyroid-stimulating TSH Thyrotrophs Stimulates thyroxine (T4) and
 triiodothyronine (T3) synthesis and release
hormone from thyroid gland
(thyrotropin) Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid
gland
Stimulates corticosteroid (glucocorticoid
Adrenocorticotropic
and mineralcorticoid) and androgen
hormone ACTH Corticotrophs
synthesis and release from adrenocortical
(corticotropin)
cells
Beta-endorphin - Corticotrophs Inhibits perception of pain
In females: Stimulates maturation of
ovarian follicles in ovary
In males: Stimulates maturation of
Follicle-stimulating seminiferous tubules
FSH Gonadotrophs
hormone In males: Stimulates spermatogenesis
In males: Stimulates production of
androgen-binding protein from Sertoli
cells of the testes
In females: Stimulates ovulation
In females: Stimulates formation of corpus
Luteinizing hormone LH Gonadotrophs luteum
In males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis
from Leydig cells (interstitial cells)
Stimulates milk synthesis and release from
Prolactin PRL Lactotrophs mammary glands
Mediates sexual gratification

[edit] Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)

Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect

Magnocellular
Uterine contraction
Oxytocin neurosecretory
Lactation (letdown reflex)
cells
Increases water permeability in the distal
Vasopressin Parvocellular
convoluted tubule and collecting duct of
(antidiuretic ADH or AVP neurosecretory
nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption
hormone) neurons
and increasing blood volume

Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored.

[edit] Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)

Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect

Melanocyte-
Stimulates melanin synthesis and release
stimulating MSH Melanotropes
from skin/hair melanocytes
hormone
[edit] Thyroid

Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect

(More potent form of thyroid hormone)
Stimulates body oxygen and energy
Thyroid consumption, thereby increasing the basal
Triiodothyronine T3
epithelial cell metabolic rate
Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II,
thereby promoting protein synthesis
(Less active form of thyroid hormone)
(Acts as a prohormone to triiodothyronine)
Stimulates body oxygen and energy
Thyroxine Thyroid
T4 consumption, thereby increasing the basal
(tetraiodothyronine) epithelial cells
metabolic rate
Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II,
thereby promoting protein synthesis
Stimulates osteoblasts and thus bone
Parafollicular construction
Calcitonin
cells Inhibits Ca2+ release from bone, thereby
reducing blood Ca2+

[edit] Alimentary system

[edit] Stomach

Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect

Gastrin (Primarily) G cells Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin P/D1 cells Stimulate appetite,
 secretion of growth hormone from anterior
pituitary gland
increased food intake and decreased physical
Neuropeptide Y NPY
activity
Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin
(CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal
peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide
(GIP), enteroglucagon
Somatostatin D cells
Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces
smooth muscle contractions and blood flow
within the intestine.[1]
Histamine ECL cells stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin X cells Smooth muscle contraction of stomach[2]

[edit] Duodenum

Secreted hormone From cells Effect

Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas
and duodenal Brunner's glands
Secretin S cells
Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops
production of gastric juice
Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas
Cholecystokinin I cells
Release of bile from gallbladder hunger
suppressant

[edit] Liver

Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect

Insulin-like growth
insulin-like effects
factor (or
IGF Hepatocytes
somatomedin)
regulate cell growth and development
(Primarily)
vasoconstriction
Angiotensinogen
Hepatocytes
and angiotensin release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex
dipsogen.
stimulates megakaryocytes to produce
Thrombopoietin Hepatocytes
platelets[3]

[edit] Pancreas
 Secreted hormone From cells Effect
Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis
in liver and muscle from blood
Insulin (Primarily) β Islet cells
intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in
adipocytes Other anabolic effects
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver
Glucagon (Also
α Islet cells
Primarily)
increases blood glucose level
Inhibit release of insulin[4]
Somatostatin δ Islet cells
Inhibit release of glucagon[4] Suppress the
exocrine secretory action of pancreas.
Pancreatic Self regulate the pancreas secretion activities
PP cells
polypeptide and effect the hepatic glycogen levels.

[edit] Kidney

Secreted hormone From cells Effect

Activates the renin-angiotensin system by
Renin (Primarily) Juxtaglomerular cells
producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Extraglomerular
Erythropoietin (EPO) Stimulate erythrocyte production
mesangial cells
Active form of vitamin D3
Calcitriol (1,25-
Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate
dihydroxyvitamin D3)
from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit
release of PTH
stimulates megakaryocytes to produce
Thrombopoietin
platelets[3]

[edit] Adrenal glands

[edit] Adrenal cortex

Secreted hormone From cells Effect

Stimulates gluconeogenesis
Stimulates fat breakdown in adipose tissue
Inhibits protein synthesis
Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose
Glucocorticoids zona fasciculata and
tissue
(chiefly cortisol) zona reticularis cells
Inhibits immunological responses
(immunosuppressive)
Inhibits inflammatory responses (anti-
inflammatory)
 Stimulates active sodium reabsorption in
kidneys
Stimulates passive water reabsorption in
Mineralocorticoids
Zona glomerulosa cells kidneys, thus increasing blood volume and
(chiefly aldosterone)
blood pressure
Stimulates potassium and H+ secretion into
nephron of kidney and subsequent excretion
In males: Relatively small effect compared to
Androgens (including
Zona fasciculata and androgens from testes
DHEA and
Zona reticularis cells In females: masculinizing effects (ie. excessive
testosterone)
facial hair)

[edit] Adrenal medulla

Secreted hormone From cells Effect

Fight-or-flight response:

 Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose

to the brain and muscles (by increasing
heart rate and stroke volume,
Adrenaline vasodilation, increasing catalysis of
(epinephrine) Chromaffin cells glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in
(Primarily) fat cells)
 Dilate the pupils
 Suppress non-emergency bodily
processes (e.g., digestion)
 Suppress immune system

Fight-or-flight response:

 Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose

to the brain and muscles (by increasing
Noradrenaline heart rate and stroke volume,
Chromaffin cells
(norepinephrine) vasoconstriction and increased blood
pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat
cells)
 Increase skeletal muscle readiness.

Dopamine Chromaffin cells Increase heart rate and blood pressure

Enkephalin Chromaffin cells Regulate pain