Rheology

Rheology (/riːˈɒlədʒi/; from Greek ῥέω

rhéō, 'flow' and -λoγία, -logia, 'study of') is
the study of the flow of matter, primarily in
a liquid or gas state, but also as "soft
solids" or solids under conditions in which
they respond with plastic flow rather than
deforming elastically in response to an
applied force. Rheology is a branch of
physics, and it is the science that deals
with the deformation and flow of
materials, both solids and liquids.[1]

The term rheology was coined by Eugene

C. Bingham, a professor at Lafayette
College, in 1920, from a suggestion by a
colleague, Markus Reiner.[2][3] The term
was inspired by the aphorism of Simplicius
(often attributed to Heraclitus), panta rhei
(πάντα ῥεῖ, 'everything flows',[4][5] and was
first used to describe the flow of liquids
and the deformation of solids. It applies to
substances that have a complex
microstructure, such as muds, sludges,
suspensions, polymers and other glass
formers (e.g., silicates), as well as many
foods and additives, bodily fluids (e.g.,
blood) and other biological materials, and
other materials that belong to the class of
soft matter such as food.

Newtonian fluids can be characterized by

a single coefficient of viscosity for a
specific temperature. Although this
viscosity will change with temperature, it
does not change with the strain rate. Only
a small group of fluids exhibit such
constant viscosity. The large class of
fluids whose viscosity changes with the
strain rate (the relative flow velocity) are
called non-Newtonian fluids.
Rheology generally accounts for the
behavior of non-Newtonian fluids, by
characterizing the minimum number of
functions that are needed to relate
stresses with rate of change of strain or
strain rates. For example, ketchup can
have its viscosity reduced by shaking (or
other forms of mechanical agitation,
where the relative movement of different
layers in the material actually causes the
reduction in viscosity) but water cannot.
Ketchup is a shear-thinning material, like
yogurt and emulsion paint (US terminology
latex paint or acrylic paint), exhibiting
thixotropy, where an increase in relative
flow velocity will cause a reduction in
viscosity, for example, by stirring. Some
other non-Newtonian materials show the
opposite behavior, rheopecty: viscosity
increasing with relative deformation, and
are called shear-thickening or dilatant
materials. Since Sir Isaac Newton
originated the concept of viscosity, the
study of liquids with strain-rate-dependent
viscosity is also often called Non-
Newtonian fluid mechanics.[1]

The experimental characterisation of a

material's rheological behaviour is known
as rheometry, although the term rheology
is frequently used synonymously with
rheometry, particularly by
experimentalists. Theoretical aspects of
rheology are the relation of the
flow/deformation behaviour of material
and its internal structure (e.g., the
orientation and elongation of polymer
molecules), and the flow/deformation
behaviour of materials that cannot be
described by classical fluid mechanics or
elasticity.

Scope
In practice, rheology is principally
concerned with extending continuum
mechanics to characterize flow of
materials, that exhibits a combination of
elastic, viscous and plastic behavior by
properly combining elasticity and
(Newtonian) fluid mechanics. It is also
concerned with establishing predictions
for mechanical behavior (on the
continuum mechanical scale) based on
the micro- or nanostructure of the
material, e.g. the molecular size and
architecture of polymers in solution or the
particle size distribution in a solid
suspension. Materials with the
characteristics of a fluid will flow when
subjected to a stress which is defined as
the force per area. There are different
sorts of stress (e.g. shear, torsional, etc.)
and materials can respond differently
under different stresses. Much of
theoretical rheology is concerned with
associating external forces and torques
with internal stresses and internal strain
gradients and flow velocities.[1][6][7][8]

Elasticity
Describes materials that return to their rest shape
Solid mechanics
after applied stresses are removed.
The study of the physics of
Plasticity
Continuum continuous materials with a
Describes materials that
mechanics defined rest shape. Rheology
permanently deform after a
The study of The study of
sufficient applied stress.
the physics of materials with both
Non-Newtonian fluids do not
continuous Fluid mechanics solid and fluid
undergo strain rates
materials The study of the physics of characteristics.
proportional to the applied
continuous materials which
shear stress.
deform when subjected to a
Newtonian fluids undergo strain rates
force.
proportional to the applied shear stress.

Rheology unites the seemingly unrelated

fields of plasticity and non-Newtonian fluid
dynamics by recognizing that materials
undergoing these types of deformation are
unable to support a stress (particularly a
shear stress, since it is easier to analyze
shear deformation) in static equilibrium. In
this sense, a solid undergoing plastic
deformation is a fluid, although no
viscosity coefficient is associated with this
flow. Granular rheology refers to the
continuum mechanical description of
granular materials.

One of the major tasks of rheology is to

empirically establish the relationships
between strains (or rates of strain) and
stresses, by adequate measurements,
although a number of theoretical
developments (such as assuring frame
invariants) are also required before using
the empirical data. These experimental
techniques are known as rheometry and
are concerned with the determination with
well-defined rheological material functions.
Such relationships are then amenable to
mathematical treatment by the
established methods of continuum
mechanics.

The characterization of flow or

deformation originating from a simple
shear stress field is called shear
rheometry (or shear rheology). The study
of extensional flows is called extensional
rheology. Shear flows are much easier to
study and thus much more experimental
data are available for shear flows than for
extensional flows.

Viscoelasticity
Fluid and solid character are relevant at
long times:
We consider the application of a
constant stress (a so-called creep
experiment):
if the material, after some
deformation, eventually resists
further deformation, it is considered
a solid
 if, by contrast, the material flows
indefinitely, it is considered a fluid
By contrast, elastic and viscous (or
intermediate, viscoelastic) behaviour is
relevant at short times (transient
behaviour):
We again consider the application of a
constant stress:[9]
if the material deformation strain
increases linearly with increasing
applied stress, then the material is
linear elastic within the range it
shows recoverable strains.
Elasticity is essentially a time
independent processes, as the
strains appear the moment the
stress is applied, without any time
delay.
if the material deformation strain
rate increases linearly with
increasing applied stress, then the
material is viscous in the
Newtonian sense. These materials
are characterized due to the time
delay between the applied constant
stress and the maximum strain.
if the materials behaves as a
combination of viscous and elastic
components, then the material is
viscoelastic. Theoretically such
materials can show both
 instantaneous deformation as
elastic material and a delayed time
dependent deformation as in fluids.
Plasticity is the behavior observed after
the material is subjected to a yield
stress:
A material that behaves as a solid under
low applied stresses may start to flow
above a certain level of stress, called the
yield stress of the material. The term
plastic solid is often used when this
plasticity threshold is rather high, while
yield stress fluid is used when the
threshold stress is rather low. However,
there is no fundamental difference
between the two concepts.
Dimensionless numbers

Deborah number …

On one end of the spectrum we have an

inviscid or a simple Newtonian fluid and
on the other end, a rigid solid; thus the
behaviour of all materials fall somewhere
in between these two ends. The difference
in material behaviour is characterized by
the level and nature of elasticity present in
the material when it deforms, which takes
the material behaviour to the non-
Newtonian regime. The non-dimensional
Deborah number is designed to account
for the degree of non-Newtonian behaviour
in a flow. The Deborah number is defined
as the ratio of the characteristic time of
relaxation (which purely depends on the
material and other conditions like the
temperature) to the characteristic time of
experiment or observation.[3][10] Small
Deborah numbers represent Newtonian
flow, while non-Newtonian (with both
viscous and elastic effects present)
behaviour occurs for intermediate range
Deborah numbers, and high Deborah
numbers indicate an elastic/rigid solid.
Since Deborah number is a relative
quantity, the numerator or the denominator
can alter the number. A very small Deborah
number can be obtained for a fluid with
extremely small relaxation time or a very
large experimental time, for example.

Reynolds number …

In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number is

a measure of the ratio of inertial forces (

) to viscous forces ( ) and

consequently it quantifies the relative

importance of these two types of effect
for given flow conditions. Under low
Reynolds numbers viscous effects
dominate and the flow is laminar, whereas
at high Reynolds numbers inertia
predominates and the flow may be
turbulent. However, since rheology is
concerned with fluids which do not have a
fixed viscosity, but one which can vary with
flow and time, calculation of the Reynolds
number can be complicated.

It is one of the most important

dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics
and is used, usually along with other
dimensionless numbers, to provide a
criterion for determining dynamic
similitude. When two geometrically similar
flow patterns, in perhaps different fluids
with possibly different flow rates, have the
same values for the relevant
dimensionless numbers, they are said to
be dynamically similar.

Typically it is given as follows:

where:

us – mean flow velocity, [m s−1]

L – characteristic length, [m]
μ – (absolute) dynamic fluid viscosity,
[N s m−2] or [Pa s]
 ν – kinematic fluid viscosity: ,

[m2 s−1]
ρ – fluid density, [kg m−3].

Measurement
Rheometers are instruments used to
characterize the rheological properties of
materials, typically fluids that are melts or
solution. These instruments impose a
specific stress field or deformation to the
fluid, and monitor the resultant
deformation or stress. Instruments can be
run in steady flow or oscillatory flow, in
both shear and extension.
Applications
Rheology has applications in materials
science, engineering, geophysics,
physiology, human biology and
pharmaceutics. Materials science is
utilized in the production of many
industrially important substances, such as
cement, paint, and chocolate, which have
complex flow characteristics. In addition,
plasticity theory has been similarly
important for the design of metal forming
processes. The science of rheology and
the characterization of viscoelastic
properties in the production and use of
polymeric materials has been critical for
the production of many products for use in
both the industrial and military sectors.
Study of flow properties of liquids is
important for pharmacists working in the
manufacture of several dosage forms,
such as simple liquids, ointments, creams,
pastes etc. The flow behavior of liquids
under applied stress is of great relevance
in the field of pharmacy. Flow properties
are used as important quality control tools
to maintain the superiority of the product
and reduce batch to batch variations.

Materials science …

Polymers …
Examples may be given to illustrate the
potential applications of these principles
to practical problems in the processing[11]
and use of rubbers, plastics, and fibers.
Polymers constitute the basic materials of
the rubber and plastic industries and are
of vital importance to the textile,
petroleum, automobile, paper, and
pharmaceutical industries. Their
viscoelastic properties determine the
mechanical performance of the final
products of these industries, and also the
success of processing methods at
intermediate stages of production.
In viscoelastic materials, such as most
polymers and plastics, the presence of
liquid-like behaviour depends on the
properties of and so varies with rate of
applied load, i.e., how quickly a force is
applied. The silicone toy 'Silly Putty'
behaves quite differently depending on the
time rate of applying a force. Pull on it
slowly and it exhibits continuous flow,
similar to that evidenced in a highly
viscous liquid. Alternatively, when hit hard
and directly, it shatters like a silicate glass.

In addition, conventional rubber undergoes

a glass transition (often called a rubber-
glass transition). E.g. The Space Shuttle
Challenger disaster was caused by rubber
O-rings that were being used well below
their glass transition temperature on an
unusually cold Florida morning, and thus
could not flex adequately to form proper
seals between sections of the two solid-
fuel rocket boosters.

Biopolymers …

Linear structure of cellulose — the most common

component of all organic plant life on Earth * Note
component of all organic plant life on Earth. * Note
the evidence of hydrogen bonding which increases the
viscosity at any temperature and pressure. This is an
effect similar to that of polymer crosslinking, but less
pronounced.

Sol-gel …

Polymerization process of tetraethylorthosilicate

(TEOS) and water to form amorphous hydrated silica
particles (Si-OH) can be monitored rheologically by a
particles (Si OH) can be monitored rheologically by a
number of different methods.

With the viscosity of a sol adjusted into a

proper range, both optical quality glass
fiber and refractory ceramic fiber can be
drawn which are used for fiber optic
sensors and thermal insulation,
respectively. The mechanisms of
hydrolysis and condensation, and the
rheological factors that bias the structure
toward linear or branched structures are
the most critical issues of sol-gel science
and technology.

Geophysics …
The scientific discipline of geophysics
includes study of the flow of molten lava
and study of debris flows (fluid
mudslides). This disciplinary branch also
deals with solid Earth materials which only
exhibit flow over extended time-scales.
Those that display viscous behaviour are
known as rheids. For example, granite can
flow plastically with a negligible yield
stress at room temperatures (i.e. a viscous
flow). Long-term creep experiments (~10
years) indicate that the viscosity of granite
and glass under ambient conditions are on
the order of 1020 poises.[12][13]
Physiology …

Physiology includes the study of many

bodily fluids that have complex structure
and composition, and thus exhibit a wide
range of viscoelastic flow characteristics.
In particular there is a specialist study of
blood flow called hemorheology. This is
the study of flow properties of blood and
its elements (plasma and formed
elements, including red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets). Blood viscosity
is determined by plasma viscosity,
hematocrit (volume fraction of red blood
cell, which constitute 99.9% of the cellular
elements) and mechanical behaviour of
red blood cells. Therefore, red blood cell
mechanics is the major determinant of
flow properties of blood.[14]

Food rheology …

Food rheology is important in the

manufacture and processing of food
products, such as cheese[15] and gelato.[16]

Thickening agents, or thickeners, are

substances which, when added to an
aqueous mixture, increase its viscosity
without substantially modifying its other
properties, such as taste. They provide
body, increase stability, and improve
suspension of added ingredients.
Thickening agents are often used as food
additives and in cosmetics and personal
hygiene products. Some thickening agents
are gelling agents, forming a gel. The
agents are materials used to thicken and
stabilize liquid solutions, emulsions, and
suspensions. They dissolve in the liquid
phase as a colloid mixture that forms a
weakly cohesive internal structure. Food
thickeners frequently are based on either
polysaccharides (starches, vegetable
gums, and pectin), or proteins.[17][18]

Concrete rheology …
Concrete's and mortar's workability is
related to the rheological properties of the
fresh cement paste. The mechanical
properties of hardened concrete increase
if less water is used in the concrete mix
design, however reducing the water-to-
cement ratio may decrease the ease of
mixing and application. To avoid these
undesired effects, superplasticizers are
typically added to decrease the apparent
yield stress and the viscosity of the fresh
paste. Their addition highly improves
concrete and mortar properties.[19]

Filled polymer rheology …

The incorporation of various types of fillers
into polymers is a common means of
reducing cost and to impart certain
desirable mechanical, thermal, electrical
and magnetic properties to the resulting
material. The advantages that filled
polymer systems have to offer come with
an increased complexity in the rheological
behavior.[20]

Usually when the use of fillers is

considered, a compromise has to be made
between the improved mechanical
properties in the solid state on one side
and the increased difficulty in melt
processing, the problem of achieving
uniform dispersion of the filler in the
polymer matrix and the economics of the
process due to the added step of
compounding on the other. The
rheological properties of filled polymers
are determined not only by the type and
amount of filler, but also by the shape, size
and size distribution of its particles. The
viscosity of filled systems generally
increases with increasing filler fraction.
This can be partially ameliorated via broad
particle size distributions via the Farris
effect. An additional factor is the stress
transfer at the filler-polymer interface. The
interfacial adhesion can be substantially
enhanced via a coupling agent that
adheres well to both the polymer and the
filler particles. The type and amount of
surface treatment on the filler are thus
additional parameters affecting the
rheological and material properties of
filled polymeric systems.

It is important to take into consideration

wall slip when performing the rheological
characterization of highly filled materials,
as there can be a large difference between
the actual strain and the measured
strain.[21]

Rheologist
A rheologist is an interdisciplinary
scientist or engineer who studies the flow
of complex liquids or the deformation of
soft solids. It is not a primary degree
subject; there is no qualification of
rheologist as such. Most rheologists have
a qualification in mathematics, the
physical sciences (e.g. chemistry, physics,
geology, biology), engineering (e.g.
mechanical, chemical, materials science,
plastics engineering and engineering or
civil engineering), medicine, or certain
technologies, notably materials or food.
Typically, a small amount of rheology may
be studied when obtaining a degree, but a
person working in rheology will extend this
knowledge during postgraduate research
or by attending short courses and by
joining a professional association (see
below).

See also
Bingham plastic
Die swell
Glass transition
Liquid
List of rheologists
Microrheology
Rheological weldability for
thermoplastics
 Rheopectic
Solid
Thixotropy
Transport phenomena
Viscosity
Interfacial rheology

References
1. W. R. Schowalter (1978) Mechanics of
Non-Newtonian Fluids Pergamon
ISBN 0-08-021778-8
2. James Freeman Steffe (1 January
1996). Rheological Methods in Food
Process Engineering . Freeman Press.
ISBN 978-0-9632036-1-8.
3. The Deborah Number Archived 2011-
04-13 at the Wayback Machine
4. Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The
presocratic philosophers. ISBN 978-0-
415-05079-1.
5. Beris, A. N.; Giacomin, A. J. (2014).
"πάντα ῥεῖ : Everything Flows". Applied
Rheology. 24: 52918.
doi:10.3933/ApplRheol-24-52918 .
S2CID 195789095 .
. R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, E. N. Lightfoot
(1960), Transport Phenomena, John
Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-07392-X
7. R. Byrin Bird, Charles F. Curtiss, Robert
C. Armstrong (1989), Dynamics of
 Polymeric Liquids, Vol 1 & 2, Wiley
Interscience, ISBN 0-471-51844-1 and
978-0471518440
. Faith A. Morrison (2001),
Understanding Rheology, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 0-19-514166-0
and 978-0195141665
9. William N. Findley, James S. Lai, Kasif
Onaran (1989), Creep and Relaxation
of Nonlinear Viscoelastic Materials,
Dover Publications
10. Reiner, M. (1964). "The Deborah
Number". Physics Today. 17 (1): 62.
Bibcode:1964PhT....17a..62R .
 doi:10.1063/1.3051374 . ISSN 0031-
9228 .
11. A. V. Shenoy and D. R. Saini (1996),
Thermoplastic Melt Rheology and
Processing, Marcel Dekker Inc., New
York.
12. Kumagai, N., Sasajima, S., Ito, H., Long-
term Creep of Rocks, J. Soc. Mat. Sci.
(Japan), Vol. 27, p. 157 (1978) Online
13. Vannoni, M.; Sordoni, A.; Molesini, G.
(2011). "Relaxation time and viscosity
of fused silica glass at room
temperature". Eur. Phys. J. E. 34 (9):
9–14. doi:10.1140/epje/i2011-11092-
9 . PMID 21947892 . S2CID 2246471 .
14. The ocular Vitreous humor is subject
to rheologic observations, particularly
during studies of age-related vitreous
liquefaction, or synaeresis. Baskurt
OK, Meiselman HJ; Meiselman (2003).
"Blood rheology and hemodynamics" .
Seminars in Thrombosis and
Haemostasis. 29 (5): 435–450.
doi:10.1055/s-2003-44551 .
PMID 14631543 . S2CID 17873138 .
15. S. Gunasekaran, M. Mehmet (2003),
Cheese rheology and texture, CRC
Press, ISBN 1-58716-021-8
1 . Silaghi, Florina; et al. (July 2010).
"Estimation of rheological properties
 of gelato by FT-NIR spectroscopy".
Food Research International. 43 (6):
1624–1628.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2010.05.007 .
17. B.M. McKenna, and J.G. Lyng (2003).
Texture in food – Introduction to food
rheology and its measurement .
ISBN 978-1-85573-673-3. Retrieved
2009-09-18.
1 . Nikolaev L.K., Nikolaev B.L.,
"EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF
RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
MELTED CHEESE «MILK»" , Processes
and equipment for food production,
Number 4(18), 2013
19. Ferrari, L; Kaufmann, J; Winnefeld, F;
Plank, J (2011). "Multi-method
approach to study influence of
superplasticizers on cement
suspensions". Cement and Concrete
Research. 41 (10): 1058.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.06.01
0.
20. Shenoy, Aroon V. (1999). Rheology of
Filled Polymer Systems.
doi:10.1007/978-94-015-9213-0 .
ISBN 978-90-481-4029-9.
21. C. Feger, M. McGlashan-Powell, I.
Nnebe, D.M. Kalyon, Rheology and
Stability of Highly Filled Thermal
 Pastes, IBM Research Report,
RC23869 (W0602-065) 2006.
http://domino.research.ibm.com/librar
y/cyberdig.nsf/papers/7AAC28E89CA
36CC785257116005F824E/$File/rc23
869.pdf

External links

Look up rheology in Wiktionary, the

free dictionary.

"The Origins of Rheology: A short

historical excursion" by Deepak
Doraiswamy, DuPont iTechnologies
RHEOTEST Medingen GmbH – Short
history and collection of rheological
instruments from the time of Fritz
Höppler
[1] - On the Rheology of Cats
Societies
American Society of Rheology
Australian Society of Rheology
British Society of Rheology
European Society of Rheology
French Society of Rheology
Nordic Rheology Society
Romanian Society of Rheology
Korean Society of Rheology
Journals
Applied Rheology
 Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid
Mechanics
Journal of Rheology
Rheologica Acta

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