Bbe 105 - Business Calculations Methods PDF

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS –
BBE 105AB
MAMELLO MATUMELO G. LEBOKO
NUL-IEMS
Business Calculations Methods

Mamello Matumelo G. Leboko
National University of Lesotho
Edition <No.1>
____________________
National University of Lesotho © 2017
Any part of this document may be reproduced without permission but with attribution to
the National University of Lesotho using the CC-BY-SA (share alike with attribution).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LESOTHO

Institute of Extra Mural Studies
Private Bag A47
Maseru 100
Lesotho
Telephone: +266 223202238
Fax: +266 22341033
Web: www.nul.ls
E-mail: info@nul.ls
BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Institute of Extra Mural Studies’ (IEMS) Business and Management Development
Department of the National University of Lesotho wishes to acknowledge contributions of
the course authors and support of the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) in the creation of
this and other course guides for Open and Distance Learning (ODL) programmes at the
Institute. We are particularly grateful to the writer of this course guide, Mrs Matumelo M.
Leboko, course content editor, Dr........... University of Botswana and the course Designers,
Prof M. P. Ramollo (NUL) and Prof V Polaki (CHE).

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................. 2
COURSE OVERVIEW..................................................................................................................................... 10
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Course Goals ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Description .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Recommended Readings ........................................................................................................................ 10
Assignments and Activities ..................................................................................................................... 10
Assessment Methods .............................................................................................................................. 11
FEEDBACK ON MARKED TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS ........................................................................................ 11
GRADING .................................................................................................................................................. 12
COURSE SCHEDULE ..................................................................................................................................... 12
STUDENT SUPPORT ..................................................................................................................................... 14
ACADEMIC SUPPORT .................................................................................................................................. 14
HOW TO SUBMIT ASSIGNMENTS ................................................................................................................. 15
TECHNICAL SUPPORT .................................................................................................................................. 15
TUTORS AND TUTORIAL .............................................................................................................................. 15
UNIT ONE – Real number systems and their operations ............................................................................ 16
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 16
Unit Objectives ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Unit Readings .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Assignment1............................................................................................................................................ 16
1.1 – Sets OF Real Numbers .................................................................................................................... 17
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Subsets of Real Numbers .................................................................................................................... 17
Properties of real Numbers................................................................................................................. 20
Prime factorization.............................................................................................................................. 21
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 22
1.2 Decimals and Fractions ..................................................................................................................... 23
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 23
Objectives............................................................................................................................................ 23

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1.2.1 Fractions ..................................................................................................................................... 23

1.2.2 Decimals ......................................................................................................................................... 26
1.3 Estimations .................................................................................................................................... 29
Activity 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 36
Unit One References ........................................................................................................................... 38
UNIT TWO – Exponents and Ratios ............................................................................................................. 39
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 39
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................... 39
Unit Readings .......................................................................................................................................... 39
2.1 Exponents.......................................................................................................................................... 40
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 40
Objectives............................................................................................................................................ 40
Types and Rules of exponents ............................................................................................................ 40
Arithmetic operations of Exponents ................................................................................................... 41
Standard Notation............................................................................................................................... 42
2.2 Ratios................................................................................................................................................. 45
objectives ............................................................................................................................................ 45
2.3 RATES ................................................................................................................................................ 46
2.4 Proportions ....................................................................................................................................... 47
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 50
Activity 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 51
Unit Two- references .......................................................................................................................... 52
UNIT THREE – Percentages and Their Applications .................................................................................... 53
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 53
Objectives............................................................................................................................................ 53
Unit Readings .......................................................................................................................................... 53
3.1 Percentages and Fractions ................................................................................................................ 53
3.2 Applications to Percentages ............................................................................................................. 55
3.2.1 Interest Rates ............................................................................................................................. 55
Simple Interest .................................................................................................................................... 55
Compound Interest ............................................................................................................................. 56

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3.2.2 Discount, Profit and Loss............................................................................................................ 57

Percentage Profit and Loss ................................................................................................................. 58
Discount .............................................................................................................................................. 59
3.2.3 Hire purchase ............................................................................................................................. 60
3.3 Tax ..................................................................................................................................................... 61
3.3.1 VAT ............................................................................................................................................. 61
3.3.2 PAYE ........................................................................................................................................... 61
Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 63
Activity 3 ................................................................................................................................................. 64
Unit Three- References ....................................................................................................................... 66
UNIT FOUR – PROGRESSIONS AND COUNTING STRATEGIES ...................................................................... 67
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 67
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................... 67
Readings .................................................................................................................................................. 67
4.1 PROGRESSIONS ................................................................................................................................. 67
4.1.1 Sequences .................................................................................................................................. 67
4.1.2 arithmetic progression ............................................................................................................... 69
4.1.3 Geometric progression .............................................................................................................. 71
Activity 4.1 .......................................................................................................................................... 71
4.2 Counting Strategies ........................................................................................................................... 72
4.2.1 Counting Principle ...................................................................................................................... 73
4.2.2 Permutation ............................................................................................................................... 74
Permutation (with repeated objects) of n objects, not all distinct..................................................... 76
Product of permutations (Independent permutations)...................................................................... 76
Sum of permutations (Mutually exclusive permutations) .................................................................. 77
4.2.3 Combination............................................................................................................................... 77
Product of Combinations (Independent combinations) ..................................................................... 78
Sum of combinations (Mutually exclusive combinations) .................................................................. 79
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 80
Activity 4.2 .......................................................................................................................................... 81
4.3 BINOMIAL THEOREM ........................................................................................................................ 82

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Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 82
Objectives............................................................................................................................................ 82
Binomial Theorem ............................................................................................................................... 82
Unit four Summary.............................................................................................................................. 84
Activity 4.3 .............................................................................................................................................. 85
Unit Four- References ......................................................................................................................... 86
UNIT Five – INTRODUCTORY STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY ...................................................................... 87
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 87
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................... 87
Readings .................................................................................................................................................. 87
5.1 STATISTICS ......................................................................................................................................... 88
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 88
5.1.1 Frequency Tables and Charts ..................................................................................................... 88
5.1.2 Measures of averages ................................................................................................................ 92
5.1.3 Measures of Spread ................................................................................................................... 95
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 96
5.2 – PROBABILITY................................................................................................................................... 98
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 98
Objectives............................................................................................................................................ 98
definition of terms .............................................................................................................................. 98
5.2.1 An Event ......................................................................................................................................... 98
5.2.2 Simple And Compound Events ..................................................................................................... 100
5.2.3 PRINCIPLES OF PROBABILITY ........................................................................................................... 102
5.2.4 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY ............................................................................................................ 104
UNIT Five – SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................... 105
Activity 5 ............................................................................................................................................... 106
Unit Five- Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 107
UNIT Six – EQUATIONS, GRAPHS AND FUNCTIONS .................................................................................. 108
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 108
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................. 108
Unit Readings ........................................................................................................................................ 108

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6.1 Equations ........................................................................................................................................ 109

6.1.1 An algebraic Expression ........................................................................................................... 109
6.1.2 Linear Equations....................................................................................................................... 110
Solving Linear Equations ................................................................................................................... 110
TRANSLATING SENTENCES INTO EXPRESSIONS AND E QUATIONS WITH ONE VARIABLE ................................ 110
Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations ............................................................................................ 112
TRANSLATING SENTENCES INTO EXPRESSIONS AND E QUATIONS WITH TWO VARIABLES ............................. 115
6.1.3 Quadratic Equations................................................................................................................. 116
Factorization ..................................................................................................................................... 116
Quadratic formula ............................................................................................................................. 117
Activity 6.1 ............................................................................................................................................ 119
6.2 FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 121
6.2.1 Domain and Range ....................................................................................................................... 122
6.2.2 Inverse Functions and Implicit Functions .................................................................................... 123
6.2.3 Evaluation of Functions................................................................................................................ 124
6.2.4 Quadratic Functions ..................................................................................................................... 124
6.2.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions ....................................................................................... 125
6.2.6 Applications of Functions ............................................................................................................. 126
6.3 Graphs ....................................................................................................................................... 129
6.3.1 Graphs of Basic Functions ............................................................................................................ 129
6.3.2 Linear And Quadratic Graphs ....................................................................................................... 136
6.3.3 Graphical Solutions .................................................................................................................. 138
6. 3.4 Graphing Quadratic Functions ................................................................................................ 138
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 142
UNIT Six – SUMMARY............................................................................................................................ 142
Unit Six Activities................................................................................................................................... 143
Unit Six- References .......................................................................................................................... 144
UNIT Seven – INTRODUCTORY CALCULUS ................................................................................................ 145
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 145
Objectives ............................................................................................................................................. 145
Readings ................................................................................................................................................ 145

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7.1 Differentiation................................................................................................................................. 146

Differentiation Formulas or Rules ..................................................................................................... 146
Applications of Derivatives ............................................................................................................... 148
Further Applications of Derivatives: maxima and minima................................................................ 150
topic Summary .................................................................................................................................. 151
7.2 Integration...................................................................................................................................... 153
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 153
Objectives.......................................................................................................................................... 153
7.2.1 ANTI-DERIVATIVE ....................................................................................................................... 153
7.2.2 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL ........................................................................................................... 154
7.2.3 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES ......................................................................................................... 155
7.2.4 DEFINITE INTEGRALS ................................................................................................................... 158
7.2.5 AREA UNDER A CURVE ................................................................................................................ 159
Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 161
Activity 7 ............................................................................................................................................... 161
Unit Seven- References ..................................................................................................................... 162
COURSE SUMMARY................................................................................................................................... 163
Lessons Learned .................................................................................................................................... 163
Course Journal Submission ................................................................................................................... 163
Course Evaluation ................................................................................................................................. 163
COURSE APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 164
Appendix One – Curve sketching guidelines ......................................................................................... 165
Appendix Two – Decimals and Estimations .......................................................................................... 167
Appendix Three- Percentages ............................................................................................................... 169
Exercises A ........................................................................................................................................ 169
Exercises B ........................................................................................................................................ 169
Exercises D ........................................................................................................................................ 172

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COURSE OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
This course equips Business and Entrepreneurship students with problem solving skills
using mathematical concepts. These involve application of mathematical skills and
knowledge of differentiation and integration to solve problems related to: demand
and supply analysis, break even analysis, market equilibrium, marginal revenue, profit
and cost. This information can be analysed algebraically and graphically. The counting
strategies techniques will be employed to solve counting problems.
COURSE GOALS
After successfully completing this course, students should be able to:
1. Formulate equations and functions relating quantities

2. Demonstrate graphically information on equations and functions
3. Use counting strategies and techniques to solve problems
4. Calculate the marginal profit, revenue and cost
5. Calculate the point elasticity of demand
6. Integrate marginal functions to obtain the profit, revenue and cost functions.
DESCRIPTION
There are two contact hours weekly. The course is taught as a series of lectures,
interactive class discussions, and extensive problem solving activities which provide an
opportunity for students to solve mathematical problems on their own. Assistance will
be given in answering application questions.
RECOMMENDED READINGS
 Introductory Mathematical Analysis, 10th Edition, Hauessler& Paul.
 Intermediate Algebra, 2nd Edition, K. Elayn Martin-Gay
 Introductory Statistics, 7th Edition, Mann
 Precalculus Mathematics for Calculus, 6th Edition, Stewart, Redlin andWatson
 A survey of Mathematics with Applications, 5th Edition, Angel and Porter
ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES

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As you study this unit, you will come across a number of illustrations and
worked examples. Study these illustrations and worked examples carefully.
Then do Activities questions for that appear in Appendices at the end of the
module. The Activities Questions are practice exercises that are intended to
assist you to prepare for the examination.
You will be provided with detailed instructions for your project/s by your
Assignments and facilitator. The course has been designed to provide you with guidance and
Review Questions activities that will assist you to answer all related question in other course in
the following year.
ASSESSMENT METHODS
A continuous assessment approach will be taken to evaluate the leaner’s
understanding and mastery of given concepts. The goal of the course is to apply
mathematical methods learnt during course of the term to day-to-day business
situations. As a result, real life situations will be presented to test the learner’s
mastery and application of concepts. Assignments may therefore be modified by
the hosting institutions and tutors in line with the goals of the course.
Assessments will take the form of responding to activities, as well as coursework

assignments, common tests and examinations as determined from time to time by
the institution. The course shall be assessed using coursework component and a
written final examination in May/June. The coursework shall be made up of
assignments and tests up to an average of no less than four items taken over two
semesters. The final mark shall be 33% or 1/3% of coursework plus 67% or 2/3% of
final examinations.
Examination will be written at the end of the semester for all courses and all
students are expected to attend them.
FEEDBACK ON MARKED TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS

All students will have contact person who from the onset can provide constructive
feedback on academic performance and guidance on academic progression. You will
receive your tutor-marked assignments/tests with comments as feedback on every
assignment and test you completed and submitted.

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GRADING
All grades are subject to participation and submission of assignments. Non
submission of any scheduled assignments will result in zero mark. All assessable
projects will be graded according to the following system:
Progression from one level to another
Score (%) Symbolic Classification
80 + A Proceed with distinction

70 – 79 B Proceed with merit
60 – 69 C Proceed
50 – 59 D Proceed
40 – 49 E Supplementary mark
39 > F Fail and repeat
End of programme
OWM (%) Classification
70 + Pass with distinction
60 – 69 Pass with credit
50 – 59 Pass
40 – 49 Fail
COURSE SCHEDULE
The course is worth 14 credits, and each credit is equivalent to 10 notional hours.
You are, therefore, advised to spend not less than 140 hours of study on this course.
The notional time includes:
 Going over activities embedded in the study material
 Peer group discussions that you will carry with your classmates when you
find it necessary or in case you get stuck with the study material.
 One-on-one tutoring with your course facilitator by telephone or email
where necessary
 Face-to-face tutorials of 6 hours per semester will be scheduled and
communicated to you at the beginning of the semester.

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 Working on tutor-marked common tests

 Preparing and sitting examinations

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STUDENT SUPPORT
Note: During orientation sessions that will be held at IEMS Maseru main campus at
the beginning of the academic year, you will be informed of the region in which you
belong. Each region has qualified academic faculty members appointed to ensure
that you achieve your highest standard of academic performance. The duties of
academic faculty members at the regional level include:
 Delivery of the scheduled lectures
 Telephonic support
 E-mail Support
You are required to contact the relevant Business Calculations Methods
facilitator/lecturer at times as prescribed at their lecture.
ACADEMIC SUPPORT
A subject coordinator is appointed for each module. This module co-ordinator is a
full-time IEMS lecturer who is available during office hours to provide academic
support to learners. The contact details of the co-ordinator given below do not
change, in a situation whereby the details change; the learners will be informed on
the new details on http//:www.nul.ls
Phone number:
Email:
Office hours:
On registration/orientation, all learners are issued with this Business Calculations

Methods module guide, which outlines the syllabus and details of content to be
covered for the academic year. However, you should note that the study material
provided must be read together with the recommended readings that will be made
available for you on the online at www.thuto.ls
Thuto is an Online Learning Management Tool run by NUL, and accessible to all NUL
community members for purposes of teaching, learning and communication.
The library can be accessed at both Roma and Maseru campuses in person. At
Libraries learners are expected to produce student identification cards to be allowed
in the libraries or to borrow books.
Refer to the library guide available on the university website for a comprehensive
list of library facilities and resources available.

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HOW TO SUBMIT ASSIGNMENTS

You are expected to submit your assignment through either Thuto or email to the
module co-ordinator and copy to the programme coordinator. Your assignment
must be in two copies; one on word file format and the other on PDF file format.
Submission of assignments must be followed up with notification to ensure that

your completed assignment is received before end of the submission deadline.
While step-by-step guide on ‘’How to Submit Assignment’’ is provided separately,
you are advised to generate and keep record of your submitted assignments as well
as the feedback on them.
TECHNICAL SUPPORT
Learners can access the following learning materials through www.thuto.ls
 Important news and announcements
 Programme and module information
 Course and assignment handouts
 PowerPoint presentations
 Tutorials dates
 Tutorial notes where lecturers find it necessary
 Exam schedules, assignment due dates and personalised time tables
 Etc.
TUTORS AND TUTORIAL
The dates, times and locations of these tutorials will be made available to you,
together with the name, telephone number and the address of your tutor. Each
assignment will be marked by your tutor. Pay close attention to the comments your
tutor might make on your assignments as these will help in your progress. Your
tutorials are important therefore try not to skip any. It is an opportunity to meet your
tutor and your fellow students. It is also an opportunity to get the help of your tutor
and discuss any difficulties encountered on your reading.

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UNIT ONE – REAL NUMBER SYSTEMS AND THEIR OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTION
The set of real numbers and its properties is called the real number system. Taking the
set of real numbers as our universal set, we review its subsets and basic properties.
Using factorization principle, we easily find the lowest common multiple and the
greatest common divisor which we use in arithmetic operations of fractions and
decimals. We then use the place value information to approximate a number to a given
accuracy.
UNIT OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
1. Represent the set of numbers on the real line.

2. Identify the properties of real numbers being used in each operation.
3. Write a number as a product of its primes
4. Transform decimals to fractions.
5. Estimate a number to given accuracy.
UNIT READINGS
As you complete this unit you are required to read the following chapters/articles:
 A survey of Mathematics with Applications, 5th Edition, chapter 3
ASSIGNMENT1
Further instructions and details of this assignment will follow together with a due
date.
Q1. Determine the set of real number the given numbers belong “to”.
Q2. Arrange the given fractions in descending/ ascending order.
Q3. Perform the arithmetic operations on fractions and decimals.
Q4. Write given decimals as quotients of integers and estimate numbers to a certain
accuracy.

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1.1 – SETS OF REAL NUMBERS

INTRODUCTION
The theory of sets is very general, however, the commonly used set in analysis is the set
of real numbers. The set of real numbers and its properties is called the real number
system. Taking the set of real numbers as our universal set, we review its subsets, basic
properties and apply the properties. We then use factorization principle to answer
related real life problems.
SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS

The number may be real or complex. Complex numbers are imaginary, so in this topic
our focus is on the real numbers. Real numbers can be represented or obtained on a
number line. This line shows unique numbers that are in the world. These numbers
form different sets depending on their properties.
Natural Numbers
The set Natural Numbers is the set of real numbers that are used in counting. That
is, the natural numbers are the counting numbers. Therefore, the set of natural
numbers, denoted by ℕ, is ℕ = {1,2,3 … . . }
Whole Numbers
When we include zero in the set of natural numbers, then we get the set of Whole
numbers. That is, the set of whole numbers denoted by 𝑊, is 𝑊 = {0, 1, 2, 3 … . . }
Integers
If a number is greater than zero, then it is said to be positive. If it is less than zero
then it is said to be negative. Now, the set that contains the negatives of the
Natural numbers and the Whole numbers is the set of Integers, denoted by ℤ. That
is,
ℤ = { … , −2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, … }
Among the integers, there are numbers which have 1 and themselves as the only
factors. This numbers are called the Prime numbers. That is, a prime number is a
number which is divisible by itself and 1 only. The set of prime numbers, denoted by
P, is 𝑷 = {2, 3, 5, 7 … }.

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Definition
Two numbers are said to be relatively prime if their common factor is 1 only.
e.g. 3 and 4 are relatively prime but 4 and 6 are not relatively prime because beside
1, their other common factor is 2. Note that 4 is not a prime number but 3 and 4 are
relatively prime according to the above definition.
Rational Numbers
A rational number is a number that can be written in the form 𝒂/𝒃, where 𝒂 and 𝒃
are relatively prime integers. Thus, the set of rational numbers, denoted by ℚ, is a
set of numbers that can be written as a quotient of two relatively prime integers.
Note that
 All integers are rational numbers since they can be written as quotient of
3
integers, for example, 3 = 1.
 All fractions are rational numbers. E.g;
 The decimal form of a rational number terminates or repeats endlessly. E.g

the decimals 1.5 and 0.75 terminates and their quotient representations are
3 3
and , respectively. The numbers 0.3333… and 0.363636… repeat
2 4
endlessly and their fractional representations are 1/3 and 4/11 respectively.
We will learn how to obtain these fractional representations of decimals in
the next topic on decimals.
 ℕ⊂𝑊⊂ℤ⊂ℚ
Irrational Numbers
A number which is not rational is irrational. Therefore, the set of irrational numbers,
denoted by ℚ′ , is the set of all numbers that cannot be written as a quotient of
two integers. E.g 𝜋, √3, √7
Note that the square root of each prime number is irrational.

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The above information on subsets of real numbers can be summarized by the following chart:
Real
Numbers
Rational Irrational
Numbers Numbers
Non Integer
Integers
Fractions
Whole
Numbers
Natural
Numbers

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PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

For real numbers 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄,
Property Under Addition Under Multiplication
Closure 𝒂 + 𝒃 is a real number 𝒂. 𝒃 is a real number
Commutative 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒃 + 𝒂 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒃. 𝒂
Associative (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄 (𝒂. 𝒃). 𝒄 = 𝒂. (𝒃. 𝒄)

= 𝒂 + (𝒃
+ 𝒄)
Identity 𝒂 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝒂 = 𝒂, 𝟎is 𝒂. 𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝒂 = 𝒂, 1 is
the additive identity the multiplicative identity
Inverse 𝒂 + (−𝒂) = (−𝒂) + 𝒂 = 1 1

* a  a *  1 , 𝟏/𝒂is
𝟎, (−𝒂)is the additive inverse a a
of 𝒂. the multiplicative inverse
of𝒂.
Distributive 𝒂. (𝒃 + 𝒄) = 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒂. 𝒄
Zero Product If𝒂𝒃 = 𝟎, then either𝒂 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒃 = 𝟎.
Multiplication by zero For any 𝒂 different from𝟎, 𝒂. 𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝒂 = 𝟎.
Examples
1. Name the property (ies) of real numbers being illustrated
a) 3x + (2y + z) = (2y + 3x) + z
b) 5 *2 + 5 *3 = 5(2 + 3)
2. Is the set of real numbers associative with respect to division?
3. Is the set of Natural numbers closed with respect to subtraction?
Solution
1. a) Commutative property because the order of 3𝑥 and 2𝑦 has been changed,

and Associative property because the grouping of terms has changed.

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b) Distributive property.
2. The question can be rephrased as: For a, b, c  R, is (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) ? Now,

if we take real numbers 1, 2 and 4, we note that (1  2)  4  1 / 8  0.125 and
1  (2  4)  1  (1 / 2)  2 . Hence we can conclude that the set of real numbers is
not associative with respect to division.
3. The question can be rephrased as: For a, b  N , is a  b  N ? The answer is no.

We support the answer by giving an example of two numbers and checking if the
answer is a Natural number. That is, take natural numbers 2 and 3, then
2  3  1 N .
PRIME FACTORIZATION
To factor a number completely is to express the number as a product of its prime
factors. This process is called prime factorization. For example, the number 30 =
2 × 3 × 5 and 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 22 × 32
The idea of prime factorization is used in finding the greatest common factor (GCF)
and Lowest common multiple (LCM) of numbers.
Example
Use prime factorization to find the GCF and LCM of the numbers 36 and 60.
Solution
The prime factorization of the numbers is 36 = 22 × 32 and 60 = 22 × 3 × 5.
Then, the GCF is 22 × 3 = 12 and the LCM is 22 × 32 × 5 = 180.
Applications
Sears has a sale on mechanics' tool chests every 40 days and a sale on mechanics'
tool sets every 60 days. If both are on sale today, how long will it before they are
on sale together again?
Solution
Here we are required to find the LCM of 40 and 60. Instead of multiplying 40 and
60, we just write their prime factorization and identify the unique factors that occur
in both numbers. That is, 𝟔𝟎 = 22 × 3 × 5 and 40 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 = 23 × 5,
the LCM is 23 × 3 × 5 = 120. Thus it will take 120 days before they are on sale
together again.

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SUMMARY
In this topic, you have been introduced to the system of real numbers. The set of
real numbers, contains the set of integers, Rational numbers, Whole numbers,
Natural numbers, and Irrational numbers.
Activity 1 Test your understanding of this topic by answering the

following questions with explanations.
1. Give the counter example to show that the set of real numbers is not
commutative with respect to division.
2. Is there an associative property for subtraction? Explain.
3. The set of Natural numbers is closed with respect to addition but not
with division, true or false?
4. Prime factorization can be used to find the LCM and GCF, true or false?
We noted that the set of integers is not closed with respect to division, rather the
result may be a rational number because it is a fraction or undefined. Below we look
at the fractions and their operations.

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1.2 DECIMALS AND F RACTIONS

INTRODUCTION
This topic is just the recap of decimals and fractions learnt from an early age. We
look at fractions as part of a whole, terminating decimal as a fraction and use
transformation from decimals to fractions and vice versa.
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to:
a) Transform decimals to fractions.

b) Estimate a number to a given accuracy.
c) Perform arithmetic operations on Decimals and Fractions
d) Order both Fractions and Decimals
1.2.1 FRACTIONS
A fraction is simply one number divided by another, for instance ¾ is 3 (called the
numerator) divided by 4 (called the denominator).
3
= 3÷4
4
If the numerator is equal to the denominator, the fraction has the exact value of
one. If the numerator is larger than the denominator, the fraction is termed an
improper fraction, and it can be expressed as a whole number and a proper
fraction. For instance:
11
= 2¾
4
where 4 divided into 11 gives 2, leaving a remainder of 3. Similarly, if we have a

mixed number, we can express this as an improper fraction:
1 21
5 =
4 4
where 5 is multiplied by 4 (the denominator) to give 20, and then the extra 1 in ¼ is
added to give 21. The logic of this process will (should/may) become clearer when
we look at adding fractions together.
Equivalent fractions
Two or more fractions are said to be equivalent if they can be simplified to the same
fraction made of numerator and denominator which are relatively prime.
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1 2 3 5
e.g = = =
2 4 6 10
We can find equivalent fractions by multiplication or division by a special 1.
1. Multiplication
We can find the numerator and denominator by the same non-zero number
5
e.g Find the equivalent fractions of the number 6.
Solution
5 5 2 10 5 3 15 5 4 20
= × = , × = , × =
6 6 2 12 6 3 18 6 4 24
5 10 15 20
Therefore the equivalent fractions are 6 , 12 , 18 and .
24
2. Division
We can divide the numerator and denominator by the same non-zero number.
48
e.g find equivalent fractions to 60.
Solution
48 2 24 48 3 16 48 4 12 48 6 8 48 12 4
÷ 2 = 30 , ÷ 3 = 20 , ÷ 4 = 15 , ÷ 6 = 10 , 60 ÷ 12 = 5.
60 60 60 60
48 24 16 12 8 4
The equivalent fractions to 60 are 30 , 20 , 15 , 10 , 5.
A fraction is said to be in its simplest form if it has been expressed as a fraction
whereby the numerator and the denominator are relatively prime. Every fraction
can be written in its simplest form. Of the equivalent fractions above in 2, the
4
simplest is 5.
Adding fractions
Adding fractions together is simplest if the denominator is identical. For instance:
5 8 5+8 13 1
+ = = = 4
3 3 3 3 3
Note that the denominator remains unchanged in this process. What we did was to
add five objects, each with a value of one third, to eight objects with the same
individual value.
What happens if the denominators in the two fractions are not identical? One or
both fractions have to be transformed so that they have a common (shared)
denominator. In this example, we have expressed the mixed number used in the
example above as two separate fractions, by writing the whole number as a fraction
whose denominator is 1;
1 5 1
5 = +
4 1 4
Here, we can convert both denominators to 4:

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5 1 (5 × 4) 1 20 1 20 + 1 21
+ = + = + = =
1 4 (1 × 4) 4 4 4 4 4
Note that both numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same amount. So
long as you carry out exactly the same multiplication to top and bottom, the value
of a fraction remains unchanged:
15 30 (7 × 30)
= =
3 6 (7 × 6)
Subtracting fractions
The methods used to subtract fractions are the same as are used to add them.
If the denominator is the same for both fractions:
5 3 5−3 2 1
– = = =
8 8 8 8 4
If the two fractions do not have an obvious common denominator, the two
denominators are multiplied together to obtain their LCM:
12 11 (12 × 7) 11 × 6 84 − 66 18 3
– = – = = =
6 7 (6 × 7) (7 × 6) 42 42 7
Multiplying fractions
To multiply two (or more) fractions, you simply need to multiply the numerators
together, and also multiply the denominators:
4 3 (4 × 3) 12 2
( )×( ) = = =
9 6 (9 × 6) 54 9
Note that if both fractions have values smaller than one (as in this case), the answer
will be smaller than either of the original fractions.
Dividing fractions
Whilst multiplying fractions looks very much like adding or subtracting, it is not
quite so easy to see how you can divide one fraction by another:
5 3
÷
8 4
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This expression is a fraction itself, with the numerator equal to 5/8 and the
denominator equal to ¾. By analogy with multiplication, the answer should look like
this:
5 3 (5 ÷ 3)
÷ =
8 4 (8 ÷ 4)
However, it is quite likely that either the numerator or denominator will not be a
2
whole number. For instance, in this case the numerator is 1 3. The way to solve this
is to multiply the numerator by the multiplicative inverse of the denominator and
multiply as usual:
5 3 5 4 5×4 20 5
÷ = ( )×( ) = = =
8 4 8 3 8×3 24 6
1.2.2 DECIMALS
What is a Decimal Number?
Almost everyone knows what a decimal number means, but let’s review it quickly
anyway. Every decimal number has one of the digits from 0 through 9 in each of
several positions. As you move from left to right, the digits represent smaller and
smaller numbers.
For example, what is the meaning of the expression “134.526”? The digits to the left
of the decimal point (“134” in this case) represent the size of the integer (whole-
number) part of the number. Reading digits from the decimal point to the left, the
first represents the “one’s” place, the next, the “ten’s” place, then the “hundred’s”
place, and so on. We can rewrite the whole number 134 as:
1 × 100 + 3 × 10 + 4 × 1,
or better, as:
1 × 10² + 3 × 10¹ + 4 × 10°.
The second expression is better, since we can see the progression of the exponents
(powers of 10) as we work through the digits (You will learn more on exponents
later). For the numbers after the decimal point, the digits are divided by the powers

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of 10 instead of multiplying by them. Thus, the original example “134.526”

represents:
1 1 1
(1 × 100) + (3 × 10) + (4 × 1) + (5 × ) + (2 × ) + (6 × )
10 100 1000
Hundreds Tens Units SEPARATOR tenths hundredths thousandths

DECIMAL
NUMBER 1 3 4 . 5 2 6
VALUE 100 30 4 . 5/10 2/100 6/1000
Decimal places
The decimal part of the number can be thought of as a series of fractions, with the
denominator being ten for the first decimal place to the right of the separator, 100
for the second decimal place, 1000 for the third and so on.
Decimal place refers to the number of digits after the point. For instance, 0.043 is a
number written to three decimal places.
Expressing a value to a specified number of decimal places implies something about

the precision of the measurement. Say we measure the height of seven seedlings
using a 30 cm ruler graduated in centimetres and millimetres. If the seven
measurements are 4.7, 6.3, 5.2, 7.1, 6.9, 3.5 and 5.9 cm, we can add these together
and divide by 7 to calculate the mean (average) value. A typical result for this on a
calculator is 5.6571429 cm. The final '9' represents a length of just 9 nanometres, or
nine millionths of a millimetre (you could fit just 300 helium atoms side-by-side into
this distance). Clearly, writing the result of the mean to many more decimal places
than the original measurements (which were to the nearest millimetre) is absurd,
and the average should have been expressed to one decimal place as 5.7 cm.
You may be asked to express the result of a calculation to a certain number of

decimal places, or you may need to decide for yourself what is appropriate. It is
often sensible to state this if you are providing a written answer (e.g. 'result is 3.942
to three decimal places').
Three Decimal Places Two Decimal Places

6.921 6.92
6.924 6.92
6.925 6.93
6.928 6.93

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Significant figures
You may also come across the related concept of 'significant figures'. This is based
on the same ideas about precision, but extends to the entire decimal number rather
than just the decimal part. Let's look at a real-life example. Looking on Wikipedia, I
find that the Earth's orbital period (or 'siderial' year) is 365.25636042 days. This
value means that the Earth does not go once around the Sun in an exact number of
days - the journey takes about a quarter of a day longer than 365 'whole' days. To
keep our calendars in pace with this, we have leap years every four years, where we
pretend that it takes 366 years to orbit the Sun once. However, if we did this every
four years we would gradually creep ahead, which is why we miss out leap years
occasionally (e.g at the start of a century).
So the 'real' value is 365.25636042 years (where that last '2' is 0.00000002 of a day
or about one millisecond). In practical terms, we take the value of a year to be 365
days, which is using the first three digits of the value, which we also call 'expressing
the value to three significant figures'. If we want to include the adjustment for leap
years in most four year intervals, we would describe the length of a year as 365.26
years. This value has five significant figures, and better describes the length of the
year. That there is a 6 rather than a 5 or a 7 in the second decimal place implies that
we can describe the length of the year with a certainty or precision of one part in
one hundred thousand (equivalent to a clock that gains or loses five minutes in the
space of a year). If we include eight significant figures the value is 365.25636, and
the value in the last decimal place implies a precision of one part in one hundred
million - a clock that gains or loses about a third of a second over one year.
The number of decimal places and the number of significant figures are clearly
related, and both are fundamentally concerned with the precision of the value. The
number of significant figures takes into account the size of the whole-number part.
The most significant digit gives information about the size of a number. There are
steps to be followed in determining the number of significant digits or figures. These
are
1) Non zero digits are always significant
2) Any zeros between non zero digits are significant.
3) The number of significant figures in decimal numbers is best observed when
the decimal number is in fraction form.

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4) Any zero before and after the first and last non-zero digit may or may not be
significant. They are place holders. The last zeros may be significant if we are
estimating or rounding off a number.
5) The most significant digit is the first non-zero digit starting from the left of a
number.
Examples
How many significant figures are in each of the following numbers?
a) 23
b) 0.06
c) 3027
d) 0.0058080
e) 56000
Solutions
a) 23 has 2 significant figures (S.f)
6
b) 0.06 = 100, hence it has 1 S.f
c) 3027 has 4 S.f
58080 5808
d) 0.0058080 = 10000000 = 1000000, has 4 S.f
e) 56000 has 2 S.f
1.3 ESTIMATIONS
We will estimate numbers using significant figures and rounding off a number.
Approximations and Rounding off
When we round a number off, we approximate it by either
a) correcting it to a given number of significant figures or
b) writing it to a given number of decimal places or
c) writing it to the nearest given place value.
In this lesson you are expected to round off a number using the three techniques above.
The estimate must be close to the number being estimated.
In rounding off a number to a certain number of S.fs, follow these guidelines
1) Start counting S.fs from the first non-zero digit on the left.
2) If the next digit is greater than or equal to 5, round up by adding 1 to the next
digit on the left. Replace the rest of the digits with zeros if your number is a
whole number. The zeros are place holders.
3) If the next digit is less than 5, round down by keeping the digit on the left
unchanged while replacing the rest of the digits with zeros if your number is a
whole number. The zeros are place holders.
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Examples
Round off the following numbers to (i) 1 S.f (ii) 2 S.fs (iii) 3 S.fs
a) 3682
b) 7998
c) 7200
d) 0.0064089
Solutions
a) (i) 4000
(ii) 3700
(iii) 3680
b) (i)8000
(ii) 8000
(iii) 8000
c) (i) 7000
(ii) 7200
(iii) 7200
d) (i) 0.006
(ii) 0.0064
(iii) 0.00641
Ordering decimals
Compare numbers from left to right. Find where the digits differ and compare which one
is smaller or greater.
Examples
Arrange the following numbers in order of size, starting with the smallest;
(a) 0.45, 0.09, 0.48, 0.032, 0.5
(b) 3.74, 4.8, 4.15, 3.08, 4.22
(c) 6, 8.34, 6.02, 8.08, 6.009
Solutions
a) 0.032, 0.09, 0.45, 0.48, 0.5
b) 3.08, 3.74, 4.15, 4.22, 4.8
c) 6, 6.009, 6.02, 8.08, 8.34

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Addition and subtraction of decimals

To add or subtract decimals we take the following steps.
1. Write the numbers vertically and line up the decimal points.
2. Fill in an empty place values with zeroes.
3. Add or subtract as if they were whole numbers.
4. Write decimal point aligned with the numbers to be added or subtracted.
Examples
Work out the following
a) 35.43 + 121.9
b) 7.005 − 0.55
c) 0.075 + 3.25 + 5
Solutions
3 5 . 4 3
a) 35.43 + 121.9 = + 1 2 1 . 9 0
1 5 7 . 3 3
7 . 0 0 5
b) 7.005 − 0.55 = − 0 . 5 5 0
6 . 4 5 5
0 . 0 7 5
3 . 2 5 0
c) 0.075 + 3.25 + 5 = + 5 . 0 0 0
9 . 3 2 5
Multiplication and division of fractions

For multiplication;
1. Convert the numbers to be multiplied to fractions of the powers of 10.
2. Multiply decimal fractions just like multiplying fractions.
3. Write the decimal fraction in decimal form.
For division;
1. Multiply both the dividend and divisor by a special 1 of a power of 10 depending
on the decimal places in the divisor in order for the divisor to be a whole
number.
2. Divide as usual.
3. Put the decimal point in the result directly above the decimal point in the
dividend.

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Examples
a) 0.03 × 1.1
b) 0.25 × 0.2
c) 27.5 × 21.5
d) 0.1404 ÷ 0.06
e) 5.39 ÷ 1.1
f) 46.32 ÷ 0.4
Solutions
3 11 33
a) 0.03 × 1.1 = 100 × 10 = 1000 = 0.033
25 2 50
b) 0.25 × 0.2 = 100 × 10 = 1000 = 0.05
275 215 59125
c) 27.5 × 21.5 = × = = 591.25
10 10 100
0.1404 0.1404 100 14.04

2.34
d) 0.1404 ÷ 0.06 = = × 100 = , now 6 14.04 ,
0.06 0.06 6
 12
20
 18
24
 24
0
∴ 0.1404 ÷ 0.06 = 2.34
5.39 5.39 10 53.9

e) 5.39 ÷ 1.1 = = × = = 4.9
1.1 1.1 10 11
46.32 46.32 10 463.2
f) 46.32 ÷ 0.4 = = × 10 = = 115.8
0.4 0.4 4
Types of Decimals
Decimals may be classified into three types;
(a) Terminating decimals (Decimal fractions) e.g. 2.5, 0.45,5.345,

̅̅̅̅. The repeating digit(s) is (are)
(b) Repeating infinite decimals, e.g. 0.555 … , 3. 12
represented by putting a bar over the repeating digit or block of digits.
(c) Non-Repeating infinite decimals e.g. 3.141592 …
Terminating decimals can easily be written in fractional form, hence they are sometimes
refer to as decimal fractions.

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Changing Terminating Decimal form to decimal fraction

We first observe the last digit to the right of the decimal point and the place value of
this digit as it indicates the number of zeroes that should be in the denominator of the
fraction.
Let’s follow these steps
1. Determine the number of digits after the decimal.
2. Multiply the decimal by a special one of the power of 10 of the number in (1) above.
Example
Convert the following decimal numbers to fractions:
(a) 0.04
(b) 0.48
(c) 0.36
(d) 8.34
(e) 1.002
Solutions
(a) 0.4 = 4/10 since the digit 4 is in the tenths position
48
(b)0.48 = 102 = 48/100 since the digit on the right, 8, is in the hundredths position
36
(c) 0.036 = = 36/1000 since the digit on the right, 6, is in the thousandths
103
position
34 834 34
(d) 8.34 = 8 + 0.34 = 8 + 100 = 100 = 8 100 This is a mixed number
2 1002 2
(e)1.002 = 1 + 0.002 = 1 + 1000 = 1000 = 1 1000
Changing repeating decimal form to fraction form

Procedure
1. First we create another repeating decimal number with the same repeating digits by
assigning it to some unknown variable. Say, let x be the number to be converted to a
fraction.
2. If there are some digits before the repeating digits, multiply the number in (1) by a
power of 10 formed by those digits so that the repeating digit(s) is (are) after the
decimal point.

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3. If there is 1 repeating digit, multiply the first number by 10 to form another number.
If there are 2 repeating digits, multiply the original by 100 & so on. We multiply by
these powers of 10 so that the repeating digits appear after the decimal point in
both numbers.
4. Subtract the number obtained in (1) or (2) above from a number obtained in (3).
5. Lastly solve for the unknown variable which represents the original number.
Example
Convert the following decimals into fractions;
(a) 0. 3̅
(b) 0. ̅45
̅̅̅
(c) 3.646646 …
(d) 4.235̅
Solution
a) Let 𝑛 = 0. 3̅ … … … (1)
Since there is one repeating digit, multiply (1) by 10 to get 10𝑛 = 3. 3̅ … … … (2)
1 1
Subtract (1) from (2) to get 9𝑛 = 3.0 ⟹ 𝑛 = , that is 0. 3̅ = .
3 3
b) Let 𝑥 = 0. ̅̅
45̅̅ … … … (1) Since there are two repeating digits, multiply (1) by 100 to
get 100𝑥 = 45. 45 ̅̅̅̅ … … … (2) Subtract (1) from (2) to get 99𝑥 = 45 ⟹ 𝑥 = 45 = 5
99 11
̅̅̅ = 5 .
That is, 0. ̅45 11
c) Let 𝑛 = 3.646646 … = 3. ̅̅̅̅̅
646 … … … . (1) Since there are 3 repeating digits,
multiply (1) by 1000 then 1000𝑛 = 3646. ̅̅̅̅̅
646 … … … (2). Subtract (1) from (2) to
get
3643 3643
999𝑛 = 3643 ⟹ 𝑛 = 999 . That is, 3.646646 … = 999 .
d) Let 𝑛 = 4.235̅ … … … (1) There are 2 digits before the repeating digit, so multiply (1)
by 100 to get 100𝑛 = 423. 5̅ … … … (2), Now, there is one repeating digit so we
multiply (2) by 10 to get 1000𝑛 = 4235. 5̅ … … … (3),subtract (2) from (3) to get
3812 953
900𝑛 = 3812 ⟹ 𝑛 = = .
900 225
NB:
Non-repeating infinite decimals cannot be converted to fractions because they are irrational
numbers. Terminating and repeating decimals are rational numbers.

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Several common fractions have exact and simple decimal equivalents, whilst others are either
complicated or do not have exact decimal solutions.
How to Convert Fractions to Decimals
To convert a fraction of the form i/j to a decimal, all you need to do is a long division where you
write the numerator followed by a decimal point and as many zeroes as you want. For example,
to convert the fraction 7/27 into a decimal, begin with the long division displayed below:
0, 25925
2 7)7. 00000
54
160
135
250
243
70
54
160
135
25
At each stage in the long division, the remainder will have to be less than 27, so in
this case there are only27 possible remainders: 0, 1, . . . , 26. If the remainder were
27 or more, you could have divided at least one more 27 into it.
In the case above, the remainders are 16, 25, 7, 16, and 25. But once we are doing
the division in the part of the fraction where all the decimals in the numerator are
zero, if a remainder is repeated, the entire sequence of remainders will repeat from
that point on, forever. In the case above, as soon as we hit the remainder of 16, the
next one will have to be 25 and then the next one will have to be 7, and then 16,
25,7, 16, and so on, forever. Thus, the infinite decimal expansion becomes:
7/27 = .259259259259 . . .
Every fraction will eventually go into a cycle like this. The example above cycles all
of its digits. Other fractions may have a non-repeating part followed by a part that
repeats forever. For example, the fraction1/6 = .1666666 . . .

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In this unit, you have been introduced to the

system of real numbers. The set of real
Summary numbers, contains the set of integers,
Rational numbers, Whole numbers, Natural
numbers and Irrational numbers. The
properties to the set of real numbers involve,
multiplication, division, subtraction and
additions of the real numbers. You also learnt
the basic arithmetic on fractions and
decimals, together with their properties. The
next unit deals with the Exponents and
ratios.
ACTIVITY 1
1. Identify which of the following are improper fractions;
21
a) 4
83
b) 126
7
c. 6
4
d. 5
2. Change the mixed numbers to proper fractions

4
a. 2 5
11
b. 6 17
8
c. 12 45
41
d. 87 69
3. Change the improper numbers to mixed fractions
8
a. 3
10
b. 7
132
c. 11
94
d. 93
4. Identify which of the following are prime

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a. 14 b. 4 c. 11 d. 9 e. 3 f. 17
5. Find the Lowest Common Multiple
a. 2 and 5 b. 2 , 3 and 4 c. 40 and 180 d. 108 and 72 e. 6, 8 and 36 f. 9 and 30
6. Perform the indicated operations
12 3
a. + 17
17
7 2
b. −3
9
2 1
c. −6
3
47 3
d. − 10
50
3 2
e. (5)
5 3
f. (9) (10)
1 3
g. (1 2)
1 1
h. 2 2 × 3 5
1 4
i. ÷5
2
1
j. 1÷8
2
k. 6 5 ÷ 20
4 2
l. 3 5 ÷ 1 15
7. Find the fraction form of the following decimals.

a. 0.3 b. 18.25 c. 0.108 d. 3.2 e. 4.0012
8. Workout the following
a. 1.1 +2.8 b. 9.242+.087 c. 40.4-6.37 d. 0.99 – 0.65
e. 0.7 x 0.4 f. (0.5)2 g. 0.0085 x 0.044 h. 1.06 x 0.45
9. Round your answer to the hundredths place;
a. 0.31 ÷ 0.2
7
b. 8
c. 58 ÷ 4.6
d. 8.709 ÷ 100

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UNIT ONE REFERENCES

 The Number Systems and Operations of Arithmetic – Sciencedraft
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780080114064
 The Real Number System http://math.ucr.edu/~res/math205A/realnumbers.pdf
 The Real Number System and Number Theory Conceptshttp://www.fl-
pda.org/independent/courses/elementary/math/section1/1a2.htm
 A survey of Mathematics with Applications, 5th Edition, chapt. 4, 5, A.R. Angel, S.R. Porter
 Essentials of basic Mathematics, 3rd Edition, Chapt 6, A.J.Washington, S.H. Plotkin,
C.E. Edmond
 The real number system
http://www.jamesbrennan.org/algebra/numbers/real_number_system.htm
 Venn Diagram for ninth grade mathematics By Kenya L. Brown
http://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0534553389_46569.pdf

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UNIT TWO – EXPONENTS AND RATIOS
INTRODUCTION
Exponents are shorthand for repeated multiplication, just like multiplication is a
shortened form of repeated addition. This unit introduces the learner to exponents
and explores the different formats of expressing numerals which are not whole
numbers.
OBJECTIVES
1. Apply rules of exponents to simplify the given expression.

2. Carry out arithmetic operations on exponents.
3. Write a number in standard form.
4. Differentiate between the ratio, rates and proportions.
5. Solve application problems on proportions
UNIT READINGS
 Introductory Mathematical Analysis, 10th Edition, Hauessler& Paul

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2.1 EXPONENTS
INTRODUCTION
When you multiply one expression with itself more than twice, the expression
becomes long. However, that expression can be abbreviated by writing it as an
expression raised to the number of times the expression is written. That is, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ∗
𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 can be abbreviated and written as 𝑥 4 . The expression𝑥 4 is an exponent. In
this unit you will learn types of exponents and their properties or rules.
OBJECTIVES
1. Apply rules of exponents to simplify the given expression.

2. Carry out arithmetic operations on exponents.
3. Write a number in standard form.
TYPES AND RULES OF EXPONENTS

𝑥. 𝑥. 𝑥 … 𝑥 is 𝑥 𝑛 where 𝑛is called the exponent
The general form of an exponent of ⏟
𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
and 𝑥 is called the base. If the exponent is an integer, then we have the integral
exponent. If the exponent is the rational number, then we have the
fractional/rational exponent. The following rules of exponents apply in integral and
fractional exponents.
For 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑛 a positive integer such that 𝑎 = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑥 is called the 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of 𝑎.
For example, 32 = 9, so 3 is the square root of 9. Note that although(−3)2 = 9, -3
is NOT the square root of 9 because(−3)2 = 32 = 9, that is, before you take the
square root, the number must be positive. However, (−2)3 = −8 means that -2 is
the cube root of -8. If 𝑛 is an even positive integer, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of negative
number is a complex number which we do not cover in this module, so the 𝑛𝑡ℎ root
of negative number, if 𝑛 is even, is undefined.
𝑛
Generally, the principal 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of𝑥 denoted by √𝑥 , is
𝑛 Positive if 𝑥 is positive
√𝑥 = {Negative if 𝑥 is negative and 𝑛 is odd
The sign √ is called the radical sign, the number inside the radical sign is called
the radicand. The radical sign together with the radicand is called the radical. The
𝑛 1
principal 𝑛𝑡ℎ root can be written in exponential form as √𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 . From here you
note that the exponent is a rational number, so the principal 𝑛𝑡ℎ root is one of the

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𝑛 𝑛 𝑚
rational exponents. Generally, for, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍, √𝑥 𝑚 = ( √𝑥 )𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑛 . The following
rules apply for all exponents. For all quotients, division is possible only when the
divisor is different from zero.
Rules/Laws of Exponents
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS OF EXPONENTS

The algebraic expression is said to be simplified if it is written in positive exponents
only. The other conditions to be satisfied are
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1. No fraction should appear in the radicand.

2. No radical should be in the denominator.
We can multiply or divide exponents using the above rules. We can only add and
subtract exponents with the same power and base. There is no restriction on
division and multiplication as the rules of exponents should be applied.
Examples
Simplify the following
a) 34 + 34
b) −52
c) (−3)2
d) 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
e) 𝑎2 𝑏 7 + 𝑎5 𝑏 3 + 3𝑏 7 𝑎2
Solutions
a) 34 + 34 = 2 × 34 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 2 × 81 = 162.
NB: 34 + 34 ≠ 38
b) −52 = −5 × 5 = −25
c) (−3)2 = −3 × −3 = 9
d) 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 cannot be simplified further than this.
e) 𝑎2 𝑏 7 + 𝑎5 𝑏 3 + 3𝑏 7 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 7 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 7 + 𝑎5 𝑏 3 = 4𝑎2 𝑏 7 + 𝑎5 𝑏 3
STANDARD NOTATION
Astronomers, biologists, engineers, physicists and many others encounter quantities
whose measures involve very small or very large numbers. For example, the
distance of the earth from the sun is approximately 144,000,000,000 metres and
the distance that light will travel in 1 year is 5,870,000,000,000 metres.
It is sometimes tedious to write or work with such numbers. This difficulty is

overcome by writing such numbers in standard form.
E.g. 144,000,000,000 = 1.44 × 10¹¹

5,870,000,000,000 = 5.87 × 10¹²
If a quantity is written as the product of a power of 10 and a number that is greater

than or equal to 1 and less than 10, then the quantity is said to be expressed
in standard form (or scientific notation). It is also known as exponential form.
For example, 65 = 6.5 × 10¹

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Note that we have expressed 65 as a product of 6.5 and a power of 10. Clearly, 6.5
is between 1 and 10. So the standard form of 65 is 6.5 × 10¹. The formal definition is
as follows:
A positive number 𝑥 is said to be written in standard form if it can be expressed in

the form
𝑥 = 𝑎 × 10𝑛 , where 1 ≤ 𝑎 < 10 and 𝑛 is an integer.
Example
Write 643 in standard form.
Solution:
The decimal point is shifted to the left by 2 places, and 2 appears as the positive
index in the power of 10.
In converting a number to standard form, if the decimal point is shifted to the

left p places, then p appears as a positive index in the power of 10.
Examples
Express the following numbers in standard form

i) 5,940,000
ii) 0.00000423
Solutions
i) 5,940,000 = 5.94 × 106
ii) 0.00000423 = 4.23 × 10−6
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS IN STANDARD FORM NOTATION
For multiplication and division, the laws of exponents are used. Here are the steps
to follow:
1. Multiply or divide the coefficients.

2. Add or subtract the exponents.
3. Convert the result to standard form.

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Just like with the exponents, the numbers in standard form can only be added and
subtracted if they are of the same order or size.
Here are some steps to adding and subtracting numbers in standard form
1. Determine the number by which to increase the smaller exponent by so that it is

equal to the largest exponent or vice versa.
2. Increase the smaller exponent by this number and move the decimal point of
the number with the smaller exponent to the left the same number of places (i.e
divide by the appropriate power of 10).
3. Add or subtract the new coefficients.
4. If the answer is not in standard form, convert it to standard form.
Examples
Perform the indicated operations by first converting the numbers to standard

form. Write the answer in standard form.
i) (0.003)(0.00015)
24,000
ii) 8,000,000
iii) 0.0012 + 0.047
iv) 5.10802 × 103 − 0.061
Solutions
i) (0.003)(0.00015) = 3 × 10−3 ∗ 1.5 × 10−4 = 4.5 × 10−7

24,000 2.4×104 2.4
ii) 8,000,000 = = × 10−2 = 0.3 × 10−2 = 3 × 10−3
8×106 8
iii) 0.0012 + 0.047 = 1.2 × 10−3 + 4.7 × 10−2 = 0.12 × 10−2 + 4.7 × 10−2 =
4.82 × 10−2
iv) 5.10802 × 103 − 0.061 = 5.10802 × 103 − 6.1 × 10−2 = 5.10802 × 103 −
0.000061 × 103 = 5.107959 × 103
Next we look at the comparison of two or more related quantities, called ratio, and
use it to divide quantities.

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2.2 RATIOS
OBJECTIVES
a. Understand that ratios compare two quantities.

b. Represent ratios using a variety of forms, e.g., 3 to 4; 3:4, or 0.75.
c. Understand that rate is a comparison of two quantities that have different
units of measure.
d. Recognize commonly used rates and explain why they are rates, e.g., speed
is a rate that compares distance and time; 110 km/h; hourly wage is a rate
that compares money to time; $9.50/h.
Definition
A ratio is the quotient 𝒂/𝒃 , where 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎 that provides comparison between the
numbers 𝒂 and 𝒃 . Units of measure found in a ratio must be convertible to the
same unit of measure.
This can easily be expressed in terms of males to females. There is really no way
other than tradition and practice or your specific purpose to determine which figure
is the numerator and which is the denominator. The interpretation of the sex ratio
is that for every male there are 1.06 females. Sometimes we express this as the
ratio per 100, 1,000, or 100,000 persons. So, we could say 106 females for every 100
males. Other ratios commonly used are:
Population Density - the number of people per square mile. In 1990 in KZN, the
population density was: 666,168 persons / 1955 sq. Kilometre = 341 persons per
square kilometre.
The ratio of two numbers (𝒂 and 𝒃) may be written in a variety of ways.
𝒂/𝒃 𝒂÷𝒃 𝒂 𝐭𝐨 𝒃 𝒂∶ 𝒃
In writing the ratio of two numbers, it is usually helpful to express the ratio
(fraction) in simplest form.
For example, if there are 10 boys and 5 girls, then the ratio of boys to girls can be written as
10 2
10 𝑡𝑜 5 ≡ 2 to 1 𝑜𝑟 ≡ 𝑜𝑟 10: 5 ≡ 2: 1
5 1
The order in which the ratio is written is very important as you can see from the above
example that the ratio of boys to girls is 10:5 while the ratio of girls to boys is 5:10.
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Note
 A ratio is a fraction that expresses a relationship between two like

quantities.
 It can be expressed by an infinite set of equivalent fractions.
 It is usually expressed in its simplest form if we use the same units where
comparable.
Example
Find the best form for each ratio;
a. 8/4
b. 8/12
c. 4m/60cm
Solution
a. 8/4 ≡8:4
b. 8/12 ≡ 2/3
4𝑚 4000𝑐𝑚
c. ≡ ≡ 200: 3
60𝑐𝑚 60𝑐𝑚
2.3 RATES
A rate is a quotient that compares two quantities that cannot be converted to the
same unit of measure.
A group of 8 students must decide what kind of pizza to order for lunch. They
decided on pepperoni and extra cheese. In order for each student to have 2 slices of
pizza, where each box has 8 slices, they have to order 2 pizzas.
A ratio which shows the relationship between the number of slices and students is
2:1
Another way to figure out the total slices needed is to write a ratio comparing pizza
slices to people. Write the average number of slices per 1 person as a ratio in
fraction form (2/1)

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What you have just written is a special type of ratio known as a rate. This rate
shows a relationship between quantities measured with different units (slices and
people).
When the rate is per 1 unit, such as slices per 1 student, it is called a unit rate. Unit
rates are easy to spot because they are often written with the word per or with a
slash (/) (for example, slices per person or slices/person).
Continuing with our pizza analogy, the students’ options are 2;
1. “Mama T’s Pizza; Get 2 large 1-topping pizzas for just M19.98! 1 large 1-topping
pizza is M10.99”, or
2. “Toni’s Pizza 1 large 1-topping pizza for M10.99 3 large 1-topping pizzas: only
M29.70”
Is M19.98 for 2 pizzas at Mama T’s Pizza a good deal? To determine this, you must
find the price per pizza. Find the price per pizza by finding an equivalent fraction.
M19.98/2 pizza = M………/ 1 pizza
Therefore the price of one pizza is M9.99 and so it is cheaper to buy 2 large pizzas
for M19.98 instead of 2 single pizzas for M10.99 each.
Exercise:
Compare the best deal against Toni’s Pizza.
Examples of rates:
60miles/3gallons 12 teaspoons/2 quarts 60km/hr
2.4 PROPORTIONS
A proportion is a mathematical statement that two ratios or two rates are equal.
Each of the four numbers of a proportion are terms: First (a) and fourth terms (d)
are extremes; Second (b) and third terms (c) are means.
In a proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means.
If ad = bc, then a/b = c/d
If 6 apples cost M13.80, how much does it cost for 16 apples?
6apples /M13.8 = 16 apples/C

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So;
6 x c = 13.8 x 16
C = (13.8) x (16/6)
C = M36.8
Direct Proportions
Any relationship in the form 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 is defined as direct variation. Here 𝑘 is

nonzero and is called the constant of variation or the constant of proportionality. In
this relationship, as 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 increases as well. For example, if the cost of 1 kg
of sugar is M18, then what would be the cost of 3 kg sugar? It will be M54.
Using the relationship 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥, if we substitute into the above example it will be as
follows;
Let
𝑦 = the unknown, in this case cost
𝑥 = weight
𝑘 = 18
Therefore, if 1 kg costs M18, then 3kg should cost;
y = 3 x 18 = 54
Similarly 5 kg will cost M90. So how much will 6, 8 and 10 kgs cost?
Weight in kg 1 3 5 6 8 10
Cost in M 18 54 90 ………. …….. …….
Complete the blank spaces above.
Indirect / Inverse Proportion
Two quantities may change in such a manner that if one quantity increases, the
other quantity decreases and vice versa. Such quantities are said to be inversely or
indirectly proportional. For example, as the number of workers increases, time

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taken to finish the job decreases. Similarly, if we increase the speed, the time taken
to cover a given distance decreases.
Walking Running Cycling By car

Speed in km/hour 3 6 9 45
Time Taken (in Minutes) 30 15 10 2
Observe that as the speed increases, time taken to cover the same distance
decreases.
As Jessica doubles her speed by running, time taken reduces to half. As she
increases her speed to three times by cycling, time decreases to one third. Similarly,
as she increases her speed to 15 times, time decreases to one fifteenth. (Or, in
other words, the ratio by which time decreases is inverse of the ratio by which the
corresponding speed increases).
Let us consider another example. A school wants to spend M 6000 on mathematics

textbooks. How many books could be bought at M40 each? Clearly 150 books can
be bought. If the price of a textbook is more than M40, then the number of books
which could be purchased with the same amount of money would be less than 150.
Observe the following table.
Price of each book 40 50 60 75 80 100

Number of books that can be bought 150 120 100 80 75 60
We say that 𝑥 and 𝑦 are in inverse proportion.
Hence, in this example, cost of a book and number of books purchased in a fixed
amount are inversely proportional. Similarly, speed of a vehicle and the time taken
to cover a fixed distance changes in inverse proportion.
Think of more such examples of pairs of quantities that vary in inverse proportion.
You may now have a look at the furniture – arranging problem, stated in the
introductory part of this chapter.
Example
Given that y is inversely proportional to x and y=8 when x=5, find:
i) The constant of proportionality;

ii) The equation that relates the variables x and y.
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iii) The value of y when x is 4;

iv) The value of x when y is 64
Solution
(i) 𝑦𝑥 = 𝑘 ⟹ 𝑘 = 8 × 5 = 40. The constant of proportionality is 40.

40
(ii) The equation that relates 𝑥 and 𝑦 is 𝑦𝑥 = 40 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 .
40
(iii) When 𝑥 is 3, 𝑦 = 4 = 10. When 𝑦 is 64, 𝑥 = 40/64.
Here is an activity for better understanding of the inverse proportion.
Joint Variation
In a joint variation, we deal with more than two quantities, mostly 3 quantities. The
variables may all be directly proportional (𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥𝑧 ) or one may be directly
𝑘𝑥
proportional and the other indirectly proportional to others (𝑦 = 𝑧 ).
Examples
If 3 copy typists can type 9 pages in 1½hours, how many pages can 9 copy typists
type in 3 hours if they work at the same rate?
Solutions
3
𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡: 𝑃𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠: ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 ≡ 3: 9: 2 ≡ 9: 𝑥: 3 We need to find the value of 𝑥. We note
that the more typists the more the number of pages can be typed, so the number of
typists is directly proportional to the number of pages to be typed. On the other
hand, more typists will take less time to type the given number of pages, therefore,
typists and the number of hours are indirectly proportional. Hence the relationship
between the typists (T), pages (P) and hours (H) is
𝑘𝑃
𝑇 = 𝐻 , where 𝑘 is the constant of proportionality. Using the given quantities,
𝑇𝐻 1 𝑃
𝑘 = 𝑃 = 2 . ∴ 𝑇 = 2𝐻 ⟹ 𝑃 = 2𝑇𝐻 = 2 × 9 × 3 = 54. That is, 9 copy typists can
type 54 pages in 3 hours.
Therefore in general;
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥𝑧 or 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥⁄𝑧
SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied proportional relationships. You learnt that two equal
ratios form a proportion and how to solve a proportion.
You explored and used ratios which provides a comparison between two numbers
and rates, which compare quantities with different units. Both rates and ratios are

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used extensively in shopping, sports, data analysis, banking, and other aspects of
everyday life.
ACTIVITY 2
1. Write each ratio as a fraction in lowest terms
a. 30 metres to 60 metres
b. 45 km/h to 25 km/h
c. 6 minutes to 16 minutes
d. M300 to M450
2. Write each rate as a fraction in lowest terms
a. 48 litres in 14 minutes
b. 21 females to 51 males
c. M42.20 for 36 potatoes
d. 72 correct answers out of 96
3. Find the unit rate
a. 1500 metres in 6 seconds
b. 192km per 6 litres
c. 5 cars for 20 people
d. M36 for 4kg
4. Write each proportion
a. 48 is to 32 as 3 is to 2
b. 6 adults is to 10 children as 18 adults is to 30 children
c. If 12 pens cost M4 then 33 pens will cost M11
5. Solve each of the following
3 𝑥
a. =8
6
52 4
b. =1
𝑥
18 2.4
c. =
𝑥 28
3 𝑥
d. = 3.8
4
6. A motorist averages 30km/h for 5 hours. At what average speed would he need
to drive in order to cover the same distance in 3 hours?
7. If 6 women can sweep 9 rooms in 3 hours, how many rooms can 4 women
sweep in 12 hours if they work at the same rate?
8. A stationery shop can purchase 160 books costing M8.00 each. If the price is
reduced by 25%, how many books can be purchased?
9. If 3 copy typists can type 9 pages in 1½hours, how many pages can 9 copy
typists type in 3 hours if they work at the same rate?

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10. A motorist averages 30km/h for 5 hours. At what average speed would he need
to drive in order to cover the same distance in 3 hours?
11. A tourist drove 156km and her car used 24 liters of petrol. At this rate can she drive
561km on a full tank of 50 liters? How did you decide?
UNIT TWO- REFERENCES

 Ratios and proportions and how to solve them
https://www.mathplanet.com/education/algebra-1/how-to-solve-linear-
equations/ratios-and-proportions-and-how-to-solve-them
 Proportion
Calculatorhttps://www.wyzant.com/resources/lessons/math/algebra/calculators/propo
rtion
 Ratios, rates, proportionshttps://www.khanacademy.org/math/pre-algebra/pre-
algebra-ratios-rates
 Cross Multiplying Proportionshttp://www.aaamath.com/rat-prop-crossx.htm
 Proportions: Introductionhttp://www.purplemath.com/modules/ratio2.htm
 Exponent Rates, Ratios and Proportions
https://books.google.co.bw/books?id=L1p9FL1KybUC&pg=PA134&lpg=PA134&dq=expo
nents+rate+ratios+and+proportion&source=bl&ots=HlTLN_fa3Y&sig=7cJdlgBTa5KX9Sxs
anv553bzyfI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk_YWZwuDTAhUsDsAKHSh4AAQ4ChDoAQgw
MAY#v=onepage&q=exponents%20rate%20ratios%20and%20proportion&f=false
 Algebra Test Helper http://algebratesthelper.com/ratios-and-proportions/ratios-rates-
and-proportions/

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UNIT THREE – PERCENTAGES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
This is a quick reminder of what you have already learned when you were dealing
with fractions. There are some special fractions that you have come across. We are
mainly interested in a fraction called percentage.
OBJECTIVES
1. Convert fractions to percent.

2. Find the total amount with simple interest and compound interest.
3. Obtain percentage profit and loss.
4. Calculate total cost for buying an item on credit.
5. Calculate the pay as you earn.
UNIT READINGS
 Introductory Mathematical Analysis, 10th Edition, Hauessler& Paul, chapter3.

 A survey of Mathematics with Applications, 5th Edition, Angel & Porter,
Chapter 11, pages 520-550
3.1 PERCENTAGES AND F RACTIONS

When we talk about a percent we are talking about a fraction with denominator equal to
100. Percent means per hundred.
When you are asked to write a number as a percentage of another number you are
being requested to write that number as a fraction out of hundred. Here are the
steps:
Make a fraction: Write the number as a fraction of the other number.
Change to percentage: Change this fraction to its equivalent fraction with

denominator 100.
Examples 1:
(a) Write 30 as a percentage of 120.

Solution:

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Make a fraction: 30
120
Change to percentage: 30  30  3  3  1  1  25  25  25%

120 120  3 12 4 4  25 100
(b) Write 4 out of 5 as a percentage.

Solution:
Make a fraction: 4
5
Change to percentage: 4  4  100  400  80  80%

5 5 100 500 100
Note that
100
o We have multiplied by . This is fine since it is multiplication by one.
100
o Some people prefer to multiply by 100% . Again there is no problem since
100% is just another way of writing 100 .
100
(c) What percentage of 150 is 30?

Solution:
30
Make a fraction:
150
30 30 1
Change to percentage:   100%   100%  20% .
150 150 5
To find a percentage of a given number you have to remember the following:
1 1
i. To find of 78 you have to work out  78  39 .
2 2
2 2
ii. of 66   66  2  22  44
3 3
15 3
iii. To find 15% of 20 you have to work out  20   20  3 .
100 20
25 1
iv. Also 25% of 64   64   64  16 . Thus 25% of 64 is equal to 16.
100 4

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3.2 APPLICATIONS TO PERCENTAGES

Percentages can be used in calculating the total amount of investment, comparing
profitable products and tax.
3.2.1 INTEREST RATES

Interest is the fee charged for the privilege of borrowing money. If you get a loan
from a bank or other financial institution, you are charged interest for the
privilege of using the institution‘s money. If you invest money in a savings
account, the bank pays you interest for the privilege of using your money. If you
buy an item like a car or stereo ‖on time,‖ you must pay interest for the privilege
of postponing full payment until after you have taken possession of the item.
SIMPLE INTEREST
When there is an agreement that interest will only be charged on the principal,
and never on the interest, you have what is called a simple interest.
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 × 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Example
You borrow M 1,000.00 from Mr. Secha. This time he charges simple interest at
the rate of 10% per month. How much to you owe him after two months?
Solution
Mr. Secha charges 10% . Hence at the end of the first month the interest is
10%  M 1,000.00  M 100.00 .
Simple interest means that he will only charge you interest on the principal.
Thus interest for the second month will still be the same as first month,
10%  M 1,000.00  M 100.00 .
This time you owe him
M 1,000.00  (2 months)  10%  M 1,000.00

.
 M 1,100.00  2  M 100.00  M 1,200.00
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The total amount of the investment is 𝐴 = 𝑃 + 𝐼 = 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑅𝑇 = 𝑃 (1 + 𝑅𝑇) where

𝑃 is principal for which the principal is borrowed or invested, 𝑅 is yearly interest
rate, 𝑇 is time in years and 𝐴 is the total amount at the end of 𝑇 years.
COMPOUND INTEREST
There is also another way of charging interest. Instead of charging interest on the
principal, it is charged over the amount owed periodically. This type of interest is
called compounded interest.
Example
If M 2,000.00 is invested at rate of 10% compounded annually. Find the total

amount after (a) 1 year , (b) 3 months , (c) 5 years ?
Solution:
The principal amount M 2,000.00 is invested at the rate 10% per year.
The initial amount is M 2,000.00
(a) After the first year this becomes
P1  2000  10%  2000  1  10%   2000

 1  0.1  2000  (1.1)  2000  2200
After one year the total amount will be M 2200.00
(b) After the second year the amount is
P2  P1  10%  P1  1.1  P1  (1.1) 2  2000
After the third year
P3  P2  10%  P2  (1.1) P2  1.11.1  2000  1.1  2000  2662

2 3
After three years the total amount will be M 2662.00
(c) Using the steps in (a) and (b) above we can show that after 4 years the amount
owed is P4  (1.1) P3  (1.1)  2000, and the amount owed after 5 years is
4
P5  (1.1) P4  (1.1) 5  2000  3221.02

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After five years the total amount will be M 3221.02 .
In general if the principal amount P Maluti is invested at the rate R per interval
we have:
The initial amount is P Maluti
After the first interval this becomes
P1  P  RP  1  RP ,
After the second interval the amount is
P2  P1  RP1  1  R P  R1  R P  (1  R) 2 P
We can also show that after the third interval
P3  P2  RP2  (1  R) 3 P
After N intervals the amount owed is
PN  (1  R ) N P
Generally, the compound amount is A  P(1  R)  P(1  nr ) where

N nt
r isthe annual
rate, 𝑛 is the number of intervals in a year and t is time in years.
3.2.2 DISCOUNT, PROFIT AND LOSS
When the cost price is less than the selling price you make profit. Therefore,
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 – 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑆. 𝑃 – 𝐶. 𝑃
When the cost price is higher than the selling price you make a loss.
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 – 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶. 𝑃 – 𝑆. 𝑃
Example 1
If you use M 30.00 to buy a bag of potatoes from a supermarket, and after selling
all the potatoes in the bag you have collected M 45.00 . Then find the profit that you
have made.
Solution
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The cost price of the potatoes is M30, the selling price is M45. Then the profit made
is M45-M30=M15.
Example 2
In Example 1 above, suppose that after spending M 30.00 to get a bag of potatoes
from the supermarket, you find that the demand for potatoes is not as good as you
had thought. You then decide to sell at a lower price. After selling all the potatoes
you have raised only M 20.00 . How much profit or loss have you made?
Solution:
i. The cost price of the potatoes is M 30.00

ii. The selling price that you have charged is M 20.00
iii. The loss that you have made is :
Cost Price − Selling Price = M30.00 – M20.00 = M10.00
The loss made is M 10.00 .
PERCENTAGE PROFIT AND LOSS

In business, you may want to know which product brings in more profit, this cannot
be determined the amount of profit made from the product. We check this with an
example.
Example 1
Thabo pays M 40.00 for a box of apples and M 30.00 for a box of bananas. After
selling all the bananas and apples at the market prices he finds that he has made
M 50.00 from the apples and M 39.00 from the bananas. He wants to know which
product was more profitable so that he can invest the money he has made wisely.
What will give him more profit?

Apples or Bananas? …What
will give Thabo more profit?
Solution:
Thabo has made the following profit:
Apples: Selling Price – Cost Price = M50.00 − M40.00 = M10.00
Bananas: Selling Price – Cost Price = M39.00 − M30.00 = M9.00

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In percentage form
Apples: Percentage profit  10  100 %  1  100 %  25 %

40 4
Bananas: Percentage profit  9  100 %  3  100 %  30 %

30 10
Even though the profit for apple seems to be more, it is the bananas that are making
more profit since Thabo has made 30 % profit. This means that had Thabo invested
M 100.00 on oranges he would have made M 30.00 profit; but for apples the
investment of M 100.00 would make M 25.00 . Therefore it would be wise for Thabo
to choose bananas.
DISCOUNT
Sometimes a product is bought at a reduced price, which is a certain percentage of
the original price for one reason or the other. This reduction percentage is called a
discount. Instead of selling a product at a reduced price, the retailor may increase the
cost price of an item by a certain percentage, this becomes the mark up price.
Examples
1. A refrigerator was purchased by a store for M 5,500.00. It was marked to sell at a

profit of 28 % of the cost. It was sold at a discount of 10 % on the marked price.
Find the selling price, and the profit made from the sale. This profit is called the
gross profit.
2. Tehoho bought a bicycle for M 2,100.00 and marked up the price of the bicycle
by 30 % . He sold it to his friend at a discount of 10 % .
a) What was Teboho’s gross profit?
b) What was his gross percentage profit?
Solution
1. 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀5500, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 − 𝑀5500 = 28% ∗

𝑀5500 = 1540 ⟹ 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀7040.00.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 10% ∗ 𝑀7040 = 𝑀704.00. Therefore the fridge

was sold for 𝑀7040 − 𝑀704 = 𝑀6336. The gross profit is 𝑀6336 −
𝑀5500 = 𝑀836.00.

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2. 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀2100, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀2100 + 30% ∗

𝑀2100 = 𝑀2730. 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 10% ∗ 𝑀2730 =
𝑀273. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀2730 − 𝑀273 = 𝑀2457.
a) His 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝑀2457 − 𝑀2100 = 𝑀257.

𝑀357
b) His 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∗ 100% = 17%
𝑀2100
3.2.3 HIRE PURCHASE

Most people do not have enough money to buy the goods they need. To solve
this business people have made an arrangement whereby a customer pays a
deposit followed by some other payments called installments. The installments
are paid periodically over a specified length of time. After you have paid the
deposit you may take the item and start using it, but it will only be fully yours
when you have paid the last installment. This is a very helpful arrangement, but
there is a catch. Like in the case of money lending, you pay interest.
When you buy in this way you are buying on credit, which is also called hire
purchase.
Example
Thato has just bought herself a new car on hire purchase. She paid a deposit of
M 30,000.00 , and she will be paying monthly installments of M 3,500.00 over a
period of five years. Find out how much more she is going to pay if the cash price
of car was M 150,000.00 .
Solution
The down payment that Thato makes is M 30,000.00 .
The total amount paid in installments will be

M 3,500.00  60 months  M 210,000.00 .
Thus the total amountthat Thato will pay is

M 210,000.00  M 30,00  M 240,000.00 .
This differs from the original price by

M 240,000.00  M 150,000.00  M 90,000.00
She is going to pay M 90,000.00 more than if she had paid cash.

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3.3 TAX
3.3.1 VAT
The Value Added Tax (VAT) is the amount that is added to the bills for service
and purchases. Each time you buy goods the retailer has to charge you some
amount that goes to the government. This is one of the ways that most
governments around the world collect money. Some countries have the General
Sales Tax (GST) policy in place of the VAT.
Example 1
You are about to buy goods to the value of M 345.00 excluding VAT. Find the
total amount you are going to pay if VAT is 10% .
Solution
10 1
The VAT is 10% of M 345.00   M 345.00   M 345.00  M 34.50 .
100 10
The total amount is Cost Price + VAT = M345.00 + M34.50 = M379.50
3.3.2 PAYE
Another way by which the state collects money from its people is to charge them
on the money that they make. People who get a salary pay some tax on it.
People who make money by other means, for example business, are also
expected to pay tax. The money that you make over a certain period, for
example profit or salary per month, is called your income over that period. The
tax charged on this is called income tax. Governments have different policies on
how to charge this tax but all government charge income tax. This tax is also
known as Pay as You Earn (PAYE), since it is calculated as a percentage of the
amount of money that you get. The common practice is that some amount is put
aside without being charged tax, this is called the taxable free income. Then the
remainder, called the taxable income, is charged a certain percentage.
𝑇𝑎𝑥𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 − 𝑇𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒

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Example 1
You receive an offer of a job from a company in another country. The salary
package that you will be paidis M 180,000.00 per year (annually). The policy
of that country on income tax is that M 24,000.00 istax free and the taxable
income is taxed at 50% . Find the tax that you will per each month, and your
monthly take home salary.
Solution
i. The taxable income is M 180,00.00  M 24,000.00  M 156,00.00

The income tax over a year will be
50
50% of M 156,000.00   M 156,000.00
100
1
  M 156,000.00  M 78,000.00
2
The monthly income tax will be M 78,000.00  12  M 6,500.00.
ii. Monthly Salary before tax M 180,000.00  12  M 15,000.00 .

The taxed monthly salary
Salary  Tax  M 15,000.00  M 6,500.00  M 8,500.00
The salary before tax is called the gross salary and the salary after tax is called
the net salary.
Example 2
In 2016, the annual Lesotho PAYE structure is like this,
1) Tax credit M6,732

2) ≤ 𝑀33, 660tax free
3) Between𝑀33,660 and 𝑀56, 964.00 taxed at 20%
4) > 𝑀56, 964.00taxed at 30%
Using this PAYE structure workout the net monthly income of someone who earns
(a) M 30,000.00 a year.
(b) M 4,500.00 per month.
(c) M 150,000.00 per annum.

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Solution
a) The person who earns M30, 000 per annum does not pay tax as he/she is
within the tax free range.
b) 𝑀4,500 per month equals 𝑀54,000 per annum. The 𝑡𝑎𝑥𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 =
𝑀54000 − 𝑀33,660 = 𝑀20,340. This amount is to be charged tax at
20%. That is 𝑀20,340 ∗ 20% = 𝑀4,068.00 is the PAYE paid per annum.
c) From M150, 000, you subtract the upper value in the range of 20%, i.e
150,000 − 56,964 = 93,036. Then 20% of 𝑀56,964 = 𝑀11,392.80 and
30% of 𝑀93,036 = 𝑀27,910.80. The total tax will be 𝑀11,392.80 +
𝑀27,910.80 = 𝑀39,303.60. But M56, 964 includes the tax free amount,
M6,732 will be subtracted from the sum of tax. That is, 𝑀39,303.60 −
𝑀6, 732 = 𝑀32,571.60. Hence the person who earns M150, 000 will pay
M32, 571.60 as tax.
Another approach of solving this can be:
𝑀150, 000 – 𝑀56,964 = 𝑀93,036. This amount is above M56, 964,
therefore needs to be charged at 30%. Then 30% of 𝑀93,036 𝑖𝑠
𝑀27, 910.80. Removing the tax free amount from M56, 964 before
charging 20% tax, you get that 𝑀56,964 − 𝑀33,660 = 𝑀23, 304. Then
20% 𝑜𝑓 𝑀23, 304 𝑖𝑠 𝑀4, 660.80. Hence the total tax will be
𝑀27, 910.80 + 𝑀4, 660.80 = 𝑀32, 571.60
SUMMARY
You have now learnt that
 When a principal amount P is invested at the rate R per interval over a
period of T intervals
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝑅𝑇 and Total Amount A  P  PRT  P1  RT  .
 When a principal amount P is invested at the rate r per annum over a

𝑛𝑡
period of t years. 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑅)𝑁 = 𝑃 (1 + 𝑛𝑟 )
 With the calculation of percentage profit and loss, one could correctly decide
on the item to be bought for more profit.
 The hire purchase calculation could be used to decide whether to buy an item
on credit or cash.
 The PAYE for any income can be calculated in one of the two approaches.

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Note that compound amount is a sequence of payments, next you will learn how to use
sequences that have a specified pattern to have future information given the current and
initial conditions. These sequences are referred to as Progressions.
ACTIVITY 3
Work out the following:
1) Hloni borrows M 4,500.00 from a bank for 3 years at 10.8% compounded annually.
Calculate:
a) The total amount he owes after 3 years.
b) The interest he must pay
2) Tumelo wants to borrow M 35,000.00 for 3 years. She can borrow from a bank at a
simple interest of 11% per annum or from a credit company at 8% compounded
annually. Work out the difference between the amounts of interest she would have
to pay the bank and the credit company.
3) Copy and complete the following table to compare two kinds of interest.
Principal Rate Period Total Amount Compound
(annually) in years (Simple Interest) Amount
(a) M 100 . 00 5% 2
(b) M 9,000 .00 10% 5
(c) M 5,000.00 12.5% 4
(d) M 250.00 7.5% 1
(e) M 75 . 00 5% 1
4) What percentage of
(a) 25 is 5 (b) 200 is 60 (c) 90 is 18
5) Find the number N given that

a) 20% N  15 (b) 14% N  63 (c) 55% of N  121
6) Find the unknown whole number given that

(a) 25% of x  75 (b) 110% of N  77 (c) 300% of y  75
7) Express the first number as a percentage of the second.

(a) 56, 200 (b) 785, 1000 (c) 45, 300
8) Tsepang has 36 marbles in his pocket. This is 60% of the total. How many marbles does he
have altogether?
9) Thabo saves M 50.00 out her wages every week. This is 25 % of her total weekly wage.
How much does she earn per week?

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10) Big Apple Computer Center employs 120 computer programmers. This company has 400
employees. What percentage of the employees are programmers?
11) A bottle contains 2 liters of orange juice. Susan drinks 400 milliliters. What percentage is
left?
12) A company made 450 machines. If 8% were found to be faulty, how many were in good
condition?
13) Bokang spent M 50.00 on a T-Shirt. This was 20% of the money she had saved. How much
money
did she save?
14) Lebohang bought some shirts from a wholesaler for M 75.00 each. He sold them in his
shop and made 30 % profit. What is the selling price of each shirt?
15) Nthabiseng bought a Hi-fi for M 1,750.00 and later sold it at a loss of 8.4 % . How much did
she sell the Hi-fi for?
16) John bought a car for M 64,000.00 and sold it to his cousin for M 48,320.00 . Calculate his
perentage loss.
17) A shop bought a fridge for  M 2,100.00 and sold it to a customer for M 2,800.00 . Find the
perentage profit made by the shop. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
18) Limpho bought a bicycle for M 2790.00 . She later sold it to her friend for M1900.00 .
Calculate her percentage loss, correct to 1 decimal place.
19) Find the total cost of buying on credit and the interest for the following.
a) The cash price of a television is M 7,000.00 . It can be bought with a deposit of 20%
and 12 monthly payments of M 500.00 .
b) A cassette player costs M 2,500.00 . The credit requires a deposit of 15% and 12 monthly
installments of M 210.00 .
c) A bicycle that costs M 3,500.00 can be on credit with a deposit of 25% followed by 24
monthly installments of M150.00 .
20) The price of a computer is plus VAT at . Find the full cost, inclusive of VAT.

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UNIT THREE- REFERENCES

 Ratios & Percentages
http://www.firefightermath.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article
&id=20&Itemid=33
 How to Calculate Ratios Into Percentageshttp://sciencing.com/calculate-ratios-
percentages-8098194.html
 Rates and ratioshttps://www.mathplanet.com/education/pre-algebra/ratios-
and-percent/rates-and-ratios

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UNIT FOUR – PROGRESSIONS AND COUNTING STRATEGIES
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we learn about the formulae that can be used to solve problems that follow
a similar pattern (sequence). This will help us to find their values at a specified period or
time. As a result we can decide whether to increase or decrease their values. For an
example, we can determine whether the salary increment of IEMS staff is sustainable or
not by use of arithmetic (if the increment amount is a constant) or geometric
progression (if the increment is in percentage form). We can also determine the values
of assets such as printers over a given period and thus decide when to sell them when
they are still valuable. We will also learn different strategies of obtaining the number of
possible opportunities in passing a test, arranging items or selecting items given some
restrictions.
OBJECTIVES
1. Calculate the 𝒏th term and the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a progression (A.P
or G.P).
2. Differentiate permutation questions to combination question.
READINGS
 A survey of Mathematics with Applications, 5th Edition, chapter

 Pre-calculus Mathematics for Calculus, 6th Ed, chapter 12
4.1 PROGRESSIONS
In this unit, you will learn the Progressions, followed by Counting strategies and conclude the
unit by Binomial theorem.
There are only four formulae that you need to know and use in this topic. These are:
- The 𝒏th term formula of an arithmetic progression

- The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of an arithmetic progression
- The 𝒏th term formula of a geometric progression and
- The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a geometric progression
4.1.1 SEQUENCES
Definition
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A sequence is an infinite list of numbers obtained by a certain formula. The

numbers that make up a sequence are called terms of a sequence.
Examples:
Find a formula used to generate the terms of the following sequences
a) 2, 3, 5, 7…
b) 3, 6, 9, 12…
c) 1, 3, 9, 27…
Solution
a) In this sequence, the first term is 2, except with the first and the second term,
the next term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous term. The formula is a1  2,
an  2n  1 where n  2, n  
b) This is the sequence of the multiples of 3, the next term is obtained from the
previous term by adding 3, so the formula is a n  3n , n  1, n  .
n1
c) The formula of the sequence is an  3 , n  1 .
ACTIVITY 1.1.1
1. Find the formula used to generate the following sequences
a) 5, -1, -7,…
b) -3, 3, -3, 3,…
1 1 1 1
c) 1, , , , ,...
3 9 27 81
2. Find the first five terms of the following sequences.
2n
a) a n 
n 1
2

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4.1.2 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION

If the next term of a sequence is obtained from the previous term by adding a fixed
number, then that sequence is called an arithmetic progression. For example, the
sequence
a1 , a1  d , a1  2d , a1  3d ,..., a1  (n  1)d ,...
is an A.P. where d is the fixed number and a1 is the first term. This fixed number is
called the common difference.
The n th term of the A.P is
a n  a1  (n  1)d
The sum of the first n terms of the A.P is given by
n
Sn  2a1  (n  1)d   n a1  a n 
2 2
Examples
1. Determine whether the following sequences are A.P or not. If the sequence is an
A.P, find the n th term formula.
a) -1, 1, 3, 5, …
b) 4, 8, 16, 32, …
7 9
c)  3, ,4, ,...
2 2
2. Find a n given the following information

a) n  9, a1  8, d  5
b) n  8, a1  4, d  8
c) n  15, a1   2 , d  5
1
3. Find the indicated sums.

a) S 20 of 5, -1, -7, …

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b) The sum of even integers between 21 and 99.
c) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +… + 112
d) The sum of 8, 5, 2, -1, …, -16
4. Applications:
MSG Furniture Company had sales of M1, 500, 000 during its first year of
operation. If the sales increased by M160, 000 per year thereafter, find MSG’s
sales in the fifth year and its total sales over the first five years of operation.
Solution
1.
a) It is an A.P, where a1  1, d  5  3  2  3  1 . Then

a n  1  (n  1)  2  2n  3
b) It is not an A.P because d  32  16  16  16  8  8
 (n  5)
c) It is an A.P with a n 
2
2.
a) a9  8  8  5  48
b) a8  4  7  8  52
1
c) a15    14  5  69.5
2
3.
20
a) Here a1  5, d  6 so S 20  2  5  (20  1)  6  1040
2
b) Here 𝑎1 = 22, 𝑑 = 2, 𝑎𝑛 = 98 = (22 + (𝑛 − 1) ∙ 2) = 2𝑛 + 20 ⟹ 𝑛 = 39
39
Then S 39  (22  98)  2340 . We used second part of the sum formula.
2
c) Exercise.

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d) Here a1  8, d  3, a n  16 then n  9, S 9  9 (8  16)  36

2
4. a1  1,500,000, d  160,000 . You are required to find 𝑎5 and 𝑆5.
Now, 𝑎5 = 1500000 + (5 − 1) ∗ 160000 = 2140000. That is, MSG’s sales in

the fifth year will be M2, 140 000.00. Over the first five years, MSG’s total sales
will be M6, 100,000.00
4.1.3 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION

A sequence of numbers is called a geometric progression if the next term of the
sequence is obtained from the previous by multiplying with the fixed number.
For example, the sequence
a1 , a1r , a1r 2 , a1r 3 ,..., a1r n1 ,...
is a G.P where a1 is the first term and r is the fixed number. This fixed number is
called the common ratio.
The n th term of the G.P is
an  a1r n1
The sum of the first n terms of the G.P is
a1 (1  r n )
Sn  ,r  1
1 r
Note that 1  r  (1  r ) .
n n
The G.P problems are solved in a similar way as the A.P problems. Solve the
problems in the following activity as were done in the A.P example.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. Determine whether the following sequences are G.P or not. If the sequence is
a G.P, find the n th term formula.
a) 4, 8, 16, 32, …

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b) -1, 1, 3, 5, …
c) 10, 10 , 10 , 10 ,...
3 9 27
2. Find a n given the following information
a) n  20, a1  3, r  1
b) n  23, a1  0.1, r  2
c) n  6, a1  2, r  3
3. Find the indicated sums.
a) n  6, a1  3, r  4
b) n  5, a1  3, r  2
1 1 1
c) S10 ,1     ...
2 4 8
4. Applications:
PCS had sales of M2, 500, 000 in its first year of operation. If thereafter, the sales
increased by 12% of the previous year, find the sales of the company in the fifth year
and the total sales over the first 5 years of operation.
Hint:
We are given 𝑎1 = 2,500,000 and 𝑟 = 12%. We are required to find 𝑎5 and 𝑆5

using the nth term formulae.
The counting strategies involve the selection and arrangement of items. This and
more follows in the next topic.
4.2 COUNTING STRATEGIES

When an activity is performed, it can be performed by arranging or selecting items in a
specified pattern. Below we learn these patterns and apply them to solve experiments
problems.

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4.2.1 COUNTING PRINCIPLE

It states that if a first experiment can be performed in 𝑀 distinct ways and a
second experiment can be performed in 𝑁 distinct ways, then the two
experiments in that specific order can be performed in 𝑀 × 𝑁 distinct ways.
The counting principle is also known as a multiplication rule.
Examples
1. A license plate is to consist of two letters followed by three digits. Determine

how many different license plates are possible if
a) repetition of letters and digits is permitted?
b) repetition of letters and digits is not permitted?
c) the first letter must be a vowel and the first digit cannot be a 0 and repetition
of letters and digits is not allowed.
2. In how many different orders may three persons be seated in a row?
Solution
1. There are 26 alphabetical letters and 10 (0-9) digits. There are 5

positions to be filled, that is LLDDD. Now,
a) since repetition is allowed, there are 26 possible choices for the 1st
letter, 26 for the 2nd letter, 10 for the 1st digit, 10 for the 2nd digit and
10 for the 3rd digit. Hence there are 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 =
676,000 possible license plates.
b) since repetition is not allowed, the 1st letter can be chosen from 26
letter, the 2nd letter can be chosen from 25 letters, the 1st digit can be
chosen from 10 digits, the 2nd from 9 digits and the 3rd from 8 digits.
So the possible license plates under these conditions are
26 × 25 × 10 × 9 × 8 = 468,000
c) There are 5 vowels, so if the first letter is the vowels, there are 5
vowels to choose from in selecting the letter. For the second letter,
we choose from the remaining 25 letters. Since the 1st digit cannot be
a zero, it can be chosen from the remaining 9 digits and the 2 nd digit
from 9 digits including zero. The 3rd and last digit can be chosen from

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8 digits, hence there are 5 × 25 × 9 × 9 × 8 = 81,000 different

license plates under these conditions.
2. Three persons are to occupy 3 seats, so the first experiment is that
the first person can sit on any of the 3 seats. Now that 1 seat is
occupied, there are 2 left that can be occupied by 2 remaining
persons. The 2nd person can choose a seat from the remaining 2. That
is the 2nd experiment. The 3rdperson has no option but has to seat on
1 remaining seat, which is the 3rd experiment. Therefore there are 3
experiments performed, the first is done is 3 ways, the 2nd in 2 ways
and the 3rd in 1 ways. Hence the 3 persons can be seated in a row in
3 × 2 × 1 = 6 ways.
4.2.2 PERMUTATION
Definition
A permutation is any ordered arrangement of a given set of objects.
Therefore, the number of permutations of 𝑛 distinct items is 𝑛 factorial

symbolized 𝑛!, where 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 3.2.1
Example
In how many ways can eight different books be arranged on a shelf?
Solution
Since permutation is arrangement, it can be considered as filling in the slots. So

here we need to fill 8 slots in a book shelf. Then, the first book can occupy any
slot of the 8 slots, once it has occupied that single slot, there are 7 slots left and
7 books left. The second book has 7 slots that it can be placed in, the third book
has 6 slots, the 4th has 5 slots, the 5th has 4 slots, the 6th has 3 slots, the 7th has 2
slots and the 8th has 1 slots. That is, the 8 books can be arranged in
8 ways for the first book,
7 ways for the 2nd book,
6 ways for the 3rd book,
5 ways for the 4th book,

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1 way for the 8th book.
From the counting principle, we can look at these as 8 distinct experiments, thus,
the 8 books can be arranged in 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 8! = ways in a
book shelf.
Since permutation is arrangement, it may be considered as filling in the gaps.

Sometimes, you may decide to arrange 𝑟 objects from 𝑛 objects. This leads to the
following definition.
Definition
The number of permutations possible when 𝑟 objects are selected from 𝑛 objects is
found by the permutation formula
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
Examples
1. In how many ways can 5 people boarding a bus be seated if the bus has 8 vacant
seats?
2. NUL senate of 12 members is to form a disciplinary subcommittee of 4 members

for an alleged exam malpractice investigation. The subcommittee is to have a
chairperson, vice chairperson, secretary and vice secretary. In how many ways can
such a subcommittee be selected?
3. In how many ways can an investor select 4 mutual funds for his investment
portfolio from a recommended list of 8 mutual funds?
Solution
1. There are 8 seats and 5 people, so 5 people are to be arranged in 8

seats. So we are choosing 5 seats for 5 people from 8 seats. Thus, they
8! 8!
can be seated in 𝑃(8,5) = (8−5)! = 3! = 8 ∗ 7 ∗ 6 ∗ 5 ∗ 4 = 6720 ways.

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2. There are 4 positions to be filled from 12 members, so the 4 positions

12! 12!
can be filled in 𝑃(12,4) = (12−4)! = = 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 = 11,880
8!
ways.
3. One can invest in a certain stock after checking return and other
aspects. Therefore, before selection he has to arrange them
according to a certain criteria, the most preferred first and the least
preferred last. Thus, the investor can select the mutual funds in
8! 8!
𝑃(8,4) = (8−4)! = 4! = 1680 ways.
PERMUTATION (WITH REPEATED OBJECTS) OF N OBJECTS, NOT ALL DISTINCT

The number of distinguishable permutations of 𝑛 objects such that 𝑛1 are of one
type, 𝑛2 are of a second type, … and 𝑛𝑘 are of a kth type, where 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + ⋯ +
𝑛!
𝑛𝑘 = 𝑛 is 𝑛 .
1 !𝑛2 !𝑛3 !…𝑛𝑘 !
Examples
Find the number of distinguishable permutations that can be formed from the
letters of the word COMMITTEE.
Solution
There are 9 letters that form the word committee and there are 1-c, 1-o, 2-m, 1-
9! 9!
i, 2-t,2-e. Hence there are 1!1!2!1!2!2! = 2!2!2! = 45,360 distinguishable
permutations of the word committee.
PRODUCT OF PERMUTATIONS (INDEPENDENT PERMUTATIONS)

Suppose set 𝐴 has 𝑛 objects and 𝐵 has 𝑚 objects, all distinct, such that there is
nothing common between them, i.e A ∩ 𝐵 = ∅ . Then, the total number of ways
of arranging 𝑘 from 𝐴 and 𝑟 from 𝐵is 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑘) × 𝑃(𝑚, 𝑟).
The word “and” suggests that the arrangement are done at the same time to
make one item, hence the two experiments need to be multiplied. They are
actually independent.
Examples:
In a village there are 5 eligible bachelors and 3 ladies ready for marriage. In how
many ways can

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(a) They be sited on two benches if the bachelors and the ladies are not to sit on
the same bench.
(b) Their marriages be arranged assuming no polygamy.
Solution
(a) Bachelors can be seated in 5! ways and ladies can be seated in 3! ways. To
satisfy the given conditions, they can be seated in 5! × 3! = 720 ways.
(b) Since there are more bachelors than ladies, we first choose 3 bachelors from
5! 5!
5 and they can be chosen in P(5,3) = (5−3)! = 2! = 60ways. Hence their
marriages can be arranged in P(5,3) × P(3,3) = 360 ways.
SUM OF PERMUTATIONS (MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE PERMUTATIONS)

The sets A and B discussed above are said to be mutually exclusive experiments
if the occurrence of one prevents the occurrence of the other. For the
independent permutation, the key word is “and”, however, when the key word is
“or ”, the permutations are mutually exclusive.
Suppose task A can be partitioned into 𝑛 mutually exclusive tasks, say

𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , … 𝐴𝑛 . If task 𝐴1 can be done in 𝑘1 ways and task 𝐴2 can be done is 𝑘2 ,
…, task 𝐴𝑛 in 𝑘𝑛 ways, then the number of ways of completing task A is𝑘1 + 𝑘2 +
𝑘3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 .
Instead of considering arrangement of items we may be interested in selection

of items without regard to order. That is combination, which we define below.
4.2.3 COMBINATION
Definition
A combination of 𝑛 objects taken 𝑟 at a time is a subset of the set of 𝑛 objects

where the subset has 𝑟 elements.
Unlike with the permutation which is more on arrangement, under combination

order is not important. For instance, 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 are two distinct permutations but
they are the same combination.

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Example
How many subsets of 2 elements can be formed from the set containing 𝐴, 𝐵 and
𝐶?
Solution
The element 𝐴 can be paired with 𝐵 or C. The element 𝐵 can be paired with 𝐶.
Therefore, the subsets are {𝐴, 𝐵}, {𝐴, 𝐶} and {𝐵, 𝐶}.
We now define the formula that is used to determine the number of subsets
without actually listing them. That is, we determine the number of ways of
forming the subsets of size 𝑟 taken from 𝑛 objects without listing the subsets.
Definition
For 𝑛 > 0 and 𝑟 > 0 with 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛, let 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) denote the number of combinations
of 𝑟 objects taken from 𝑛 objects. Then,
𝑛!
𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) =
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
𝑛
The other notations for combination are ( ) , 𝑛𝐶𝑟 and 𝑛𝐶𝑟
𝑟
Example
1. How many committees of 4 can be formed from a group of 7 people?
2. A quorum of 6 voting members is required at all meetings of Roma Boys

Association. If there is a total of 12 voting members in the group, find the number
of ways this quorum can be formed.
Solution
7! 7!
1. 𝐶(7,4) = 4!(7−4)! = 4!3! = 35 .Therefore the possible number of committees is
35.
12!
2. 𝐶(12,6) = 6!6! = 924. The quorum can be formed in 924 ways.
PRODUCT OF COMBINATIONS (INDEPENDENT COMBINATIONS)

Suppose set 𝐴 has 𝑛 objects and 𝐵 has 𝑚 objects, all distinct, such that there is
nothing common between them, i.e 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅ . Then, the total number of ways
of arranging 𝑘 from 𝐴 and 𝑟 from 𝐵 is 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑘) × 𝐶(𝑚, 𝑟).
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The word “and” suggests that the choosing (combinations) are done at the same
time to make one item, hence the two experiments need to be multiplied. They are
actually independent.
Example
Suppose the investor has decided to purchase shares in the stocks of 2 mine
companies, 2 energy development companies and 2 electronics companies. In how
many ways can the investor select the group of six companies for the investment
from the recommended list of 5 mine companies, 3 energy development companies
and 4 electronics companies?
Solution
The mine companies can be selected in 𝐶(5,2) ways, the energy development
companies in 𝐶(3,2) ways and the electronics companies in 𝐶(4,2) ways. Thus,
using the generalised counting principle, there are 𝐶(5,2) × 𝐶(3,2) × 𝐶(4,2) =
180 ways of selecting the group of 6 companies for investment.
SUM OF COMBINATIONS (MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE COMBINATIONS)

The sets A and B discussed above are said to be mutually exclusive experiments if
the occurrence of one prevents the occurrence of the other. For the independent
combination, the key word is “and”, however, when the key word is “or ”, the
combinations are mutually exclusive.
Suppose task A can be partitioned into 𝑛 mutually exclusive tasks, say

𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , … 𝐴𝑛 . If task 𝐴1 can be done in 𝑘1 ways and task 𝐴2 can be done is 𝑘2 , …,
task 𝐴𝑛 in 𝑘𝑛 ways, then the number of ways of completing task A is 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 +
⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 .
Furthermore, there may be other conditions that suggest the minimum or the
maximum of a task. In such cases, the most commonly used words are at least and
at most respectively.
Example
Find the number of ways in which a committee of 5 can be chosen from 5 men and
6 women if it must contain
(a) Any five without regard to gender.

(b) Exactly 3 men and 2 women
(c) At least 2 men and 3 women

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(d) At most 2 women and 3 men.
Solution
(a) There are 5 men and 6 women, making a total of 11 people. Then, a
committee of 5 regardless of gender can be selected in 𝐶(11,5) = 462
ways.
(b) If the committee is to have exactly 3 men and 2 women, then it will be
selected in 𝐶(5,3) × 𝐶(6,2) = 10 × 15 = 150 ways.
(c) At least 2 men means 2 men or more, so you can find the different
combinations by using the table as follows:
No. of men No. of Women
2 3
3 2
4 1
5 0
That means we can form the committee using the first combination
𝐶(5,2) × 𝐶(6,3) or the second combination 𝐶(5,3) × 𝐶(6,2) or third or
fourth. The number of ways is the sum of the 4 combinations, i.e
𝐶(5,2) × 𝐶(6,3) + 𝐶(5,3) × 𝐶(6,2) + 𝐶(5,4) × 𝐶(6,1) + 𝐶(5,5) ×
𝐶(6,0) .
(d) At most 2 women means 2 women or less, so the committee can be
selected in 𝐶(5,3) × 𝐶(6,2) + 𝐶(5,4) × 𝐶(6,1) + 𝐶(5,5) × 𝐶(6,0) ways.
SUMMARY
So far, you learnt the Progressions, followed by Counting strategies
1. There are only four formulae that you need to know and use in progressions. These
are:
- The 𝒏th term formula of an arithmetic progression

- The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of an arithmetic progression
- The 𝒏th term formula of a geometric progression and
- The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a geometric progression
2. Under counting strategies, you learnt that permutation involves choice with
arrangement whereas combination is just the selection regardless of order.

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Next you will learn how to find particular terms of the expansion using the expansion
of two terms, called binomial.
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. The Mathematics Department of the National University of Lesotho consists of 8

professors, 6 associate professors, 13 assistant professors. In how many of all
possible samples of size 4, chosen without replacement, will every type of
professor be represented?
2. From a group of 10 men and 8 women a committee of 7 people has to be
formed. How many different committees can be chosen which have
(a) at least 4 men?
(b) at most 4 men?
(c) exactly 4 men?
3. A team of five mangers is to be selected from a group of 10 managers (5 from

company A, 3 from company B and 2 from company C). In how many ways can
this be done if the team must contain at least one manager from each
company?
4. A team of 5 players is to be selected from a group 9. Two of the 9 players are

goalkeepers and the other 7 are in field players. In how many ways can a team
with one goalkeeper and 4 in field players be selected?
5. How many distinct permutations are there of the letters of the word
(a) anna (b) mmamathe (c) mississipi
(d) Maseru (e) possibilities (f) committee
6. In how many ways can 4 boys and 3 girls be seated in a row of seven seats if
a. they may sit in any order?
b. the boys and the girls must alternate?
7. In a premier league having 16 teams, how many football games are played if
each team plays each of the other teams twice?
8. In how many ways may the head of the department invite

(a) two, (b) three, (c) two or more
of his eight colleagues to his house for tea?
9. How many different sums of money can be formed from 5lisente, 10lisente,
20lisente, 50lisente, 1Loti, 2Maloti and 5Maloti if
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(a) two coins are used, (b) at least three coins are used?
4.3 BINOMIAL THEOREM

INTRODUCTION
An expression of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏 is called a binomial. Here we will deal with
expansion of binomial expression (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 . The coefficients of the terms of
expanded expression can be obtained by Pascal’s triangle, however, for large n,
the expansion gets complicated, thus the Binomial Theorem was introduced for
such.
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this lesson you will:
o Expand the binomial expansion using the Binomial Theorem.

o Obtained any term of the expansion without expanding the entire
expression.
BINOMIAL THEOREM
The theorem states that, for 𝑛 > 0 and 𝑟 > 0 with 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + ( ) 𝑏 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛!
The term ( ) is the binomial coefficient. Recall that ( ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑟 𝑟
𝑛
The 𝒌𝒕𝒉 term of the binomial expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑘+1 𝑏 𝑘−1 .
𝑘−1
The constant term is the term where the exponent or power of the variable in
the expansion is zero. If the binomial expression involves more than one
variable, there will be no constant term.
NB:
Before you use binomial theorem, make sure that the expansion is in the form
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 .
Examples
1. Expand the following using the Binomial Theorem

a) (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 b) (3𝑥 − 1)4 c) (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)5
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2. Find the first three terms of the expansion of (2𝑥 + 𝑦2)20.

3. Find the last three terms of the expansion of (3 + 𝑦)12
2
4. For the expansion of (3𝑥 + 𝑥)12,
a) Write down the fifth term.
b) Write down the constant term.
c) Find the term involving 𝑥 7 .
d) Expand is ascending powers of 𝑥 as far as 𝑥 6 .
Solutions
3 3 3 3
1. a)(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = ( ) 𝑎3 + ( ) 𝑎3−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎3−2 𝑏 2 + ( ) 𝑎3−3 𝑏 3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 +
0 1 2 3
3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
4 4
b)(3𝑥 − 1)4 = (3𝑥 + (−1))4 = ( ) (3𝑥)4 + ( ) (3𝑥)4−1 (−1) +
0 1
4 (3𝑥)4−2 (−1)2 4 (3𝑥)4−3 (−1)3 4 (3𝑥)4−4 (−1)4
( ) +( ) +( ) = (3𝑥)4 +
2 3 4
4(3𝑥)3 (−1) + 6(3𝑥)2 (−1)2 + 4(3𝑥)1 (−1)3 + (−1)4 = (3𝑥)4 − 4(3𝑥)3 +
54𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 1 = 81𝑥 4 − 108𝑥 3 + 54𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 1
c) (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)5 = ((𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧)5 or (𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧))5 then follow the above

procedure where terms in brackets are treated as one term.
20 20 𝑦 20 𝑦 2
2. (2𝑥 + 𝑦2)20 = ( ) (2𝑥)20 + ( ) (2𝑥)20−1 ( 2) + ( ) (2𝑥)20−2 ( 2) + ⋯ =
0 1 2
𝑦 𝑦 2 𝑦
(2𝑥)20 + 20(2𝑥)19 ( ) + 190(2𝑥)18 ( ) + ⋯ = 220 𝑥 20 + 20 × 219 𝑥19 ( ) +
2 2 2
𝑦 2
190 ∗ 218 𝑥18 ( 2) + ⋯ = 220 𝑥 20 + 20 × 219 𝑥18 𝑦 + 190 × 218 𝑥16 𝑦 2 + ⋯
12 12−10 10 12 12
3.(3 + 𝑦)12 = ⋯ + ( )3 𝑦 + ( ) 312−11 𝑦11 + ( ) 312−12 𝑦 12 = ⋯ +
10 11 12
66 × 32 𝑦10 + 12 × 3𝑦11 + 𝑦12 = ⋯ + 594𝑦 10 + 36𝑦 11 + 𝑦12
12
4. Using the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ term formula, the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ term is( ) (3𝑥)12−𝑘+1 (𝑥2)𝑘−1 =
𝑘−1
12 2𝑘−1 12 2𝑘−1 12
( ) (3𝑥)13−𝑘 𝑥 𝑘−1 = ( ) 313−𝑘 𝑥13−𝑘 𝑥 𝑘−1 = ( ) 313−𝑘 𝑥14−2𝑘 2𝑘−1 .
𝑘−1 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
a) In the fifth term, 𝑘 = 5, so using the term obtained above, we have
12 12
( ) 313−5 𝑥14−2∗5 25−1 = ( ) 38 𝑥 4 24 = 495 × 38 × 16𝑥 4 = 7920 × 38 𝑥 4 .
5−1 4
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b) For the constant term, we need to find it’s position in the expansion, that is, we
need to find the value of 𝑘. Recall that, in the constant term, the value of the
exponent is zero, so 14 − 2𝑘 = 0 ⟹ 𝑘 = 7. That means that the constant term is
12
the 7𝑡ℎ term. Therefore the constant term is ( ) 313−7 𝑥14−2∗7 27−1 =
7−1
12
( ) 36 𝑥 0 26 = 924 ∗ 36 ∗ 26 = 924 ∗ 729 ∗ 64.
6
7 7
c) For the term involving 𝑥 7 , 14 − 2𝑘 = 7 ⟹ 𝑘 = 2. There is no position such as 2,
2
hence in the expansion of (3𝑥 + 𝑥)12, there is no term that involves 𝑥 7 .
2
d) In (3𝑥 + )12 , the term that involves 𝑥 6 , is in the 4𝑡ℎ position, so we are going to
𝑥
2 12 12 2
write 1st term to 4th term. That is, (3𝑥 + )12 = ( ) (3𝑥)12 + ( ) (3𝑥)12−1 ( ) +
𝑥 0 1 𝑥
12 2 2 12 2 3 2
( ) (3𝑥)12−2 (𝑥) + ( ) (3𝑥)12−3 (𝑥) + ⋯ = (3𝑥)12 + 12 ∗ (3𝑥)11 (𝑥) + 66 ∗
2 3
2 2 2 3
(3𝑥)10 ( ) + 220 ∗ (3𝑥)9 ( ) + ⋯ = 312 𝑥12 + 24 ∗ 311 𝑥10 + 264 ∗ 310 𝑥 8 +
𝑥 𝑥
1760 ∗ 39 ∗ 𝑥 6 + ⋯
Important Features of the Expansion
1. There are 𝑛 + 1 terms in each expansion.

2. The first term is 𝑎𝑛 and the last term is 𝑏 𝑛 .
3. The exponent of 𝑎 decreases by one from term to term and the exponent of 𝑏
increases by one from term to term.
4. The sum of the exponents of 𝑎 and 𝑏 in any term is 𝑛.
5. There are no fractional or decimal positions. That is, 𝑘 𝑡ℎ term exists only if 𝑘 is a
natural number.
𝑛
6. The term ( ) determines the binomial coefficient of the binomial expansion.
𝑟
UNIT FOUR SUMMARY
o The Binomial Expansion
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + ( ) 𝑏 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛−1 𝑛
Is used to expand binomial expansion of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏.
o A single term of the binomial expansion can be obtained using the 𝒌𝒕𝒉 term
𝑛
formula( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑘+1 𝑏 𝑘−1
𝑘−1

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o Permutation of 𝑛 taken 𝑟 at a time is the arrangement of 𝑟 objects taken from 𝑛

𝑛!
objects and it is written as 𝑃(𝑛, 𝑟) = (𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑛!
o Combination of 𝑛 taken 𝑟 at a time is expressed as 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑛!
o nth term formula for an A.P is 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, for G.P is 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑎1 (1−𝑟 𝑛 )
o Partial sum for an A.P is 𝑆𝑛 = 2 (2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) , for G.P is 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
We will next apply counting strategies concepts in statistics and in determining the
probability of an event.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. Expand;
a. (𝑥 2 − 1)4
b. (𝑥 3 − 1/𝑥 2 )3
2. Find the coefficients of x, 𝑥 2 and 𝑥 3 in (𝑥 + 2)5
3. Find the coefficients of x, 𝑥 2 and 𝑥 4 in (𝑥 − 2)7
4. Find the exact value of (1 − 0.1)3 without the use of a calculator. Verify your answer
with a calculator.
6
5. For the expansion of the expression given in  x  22 
 x 
a. Write down the constant term.
6
b. Find the term involving x .
c. Write down the fifth term.

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UNIT FOUR- REFERENCES
 Introduction to School Algebra

https://www.epcc.edu/CollegeReadiness/Documents/Quadratic_Review_20-50.pdf
 http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-introfns-2009-1.pdf
 Counting Principles
http://www.uplifteducation.org/cms/lib01/TX01001293/Centricity/Domain/273/Counti
ng%20principles.pdf
 Permutations, Combinations and the Binomial Theorem
https://www.towson.edu/aac/resources/documents/mathematics-
resources/permutations-combinations-binomial-theorem.pdf
 Theory and Problems of College Algebra, chapter 24
 Finite Mathematics and Applied Calculus,3rd Ed, Chapter 6.3-6.4

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UNIT FIVE – INTRODUCTORY STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
INTRODUCTION
We begin the unit with some basic data analysis. Since Statistics involves the collection
and interpretation of data, we must first know how to understand, display and
summarise large amounts of quantitative information, before undertaking a more
sophisticated analysis.
Statistical analysis of quantitative data is important throughout the pure and social
sciences. Probability is the language we use to model uncertainty. The data and
examples we looked at in statistics are the outcomes of scientific experiments. However,
those outcomes could be different—many different kinds of uncertainty and
randomness are part of the mechanism which leads to the actual data we see. If we are
to develop a proper understanding of such experimental results, we need to be able to
understand the randomness underlying them. In this unit, we will look at the
fundamentals of probability theory, which we can then use in the later chapters for
modelling the outcomes of experiments, such as those to be discussed in the statistics
section.
OBJECTIVES
1. Summarize, represent and interpret data on a single count or measurement variable

2. Understand and evaluate random processes underlying statistical experiments
3. Make inferences and justify conclusions from sample surveys, experiments and
observational studies
4. Use probability to evaluate outcomes of decisions
READINGS
 Introductory statistics, 7th Edition,

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5.1 STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
A set of data on its own is very hard to interpret. There are lots of information
contained in the data, but it is hard to see. We need ways of understanding
important features of the data, and to summarise it in meaningful ways.
The use of graphs and summary statistics for understanding data is an important
first step in the undertaking of any statistical analysis. For example, it is useful for
understanding the main features of the data, for detecting outliers, and data which
has been recorded incorrectly. Outliers are extreme observations which do not
appear to be consistent with the rest of the data. The presence of outliers can
seriously distort some of the more formal statistical techniques, and so preliminary
detection and correction or accommodation of such observations is crucial, before
further analysis takes place.
5.1.1 FREQUENCY TABLES AND CHARTS

It is important to investigate the shape of the distribution of a random variable. This
is most easily examined using frequency tables and diagrams. A frequency table
shows a tally of the number of data observations in different categories.
For qualitative and discrete quantitative data, we often use all of the observed
values as our categories. However, if there are a large number of different
observations, consecutive observations may be grouped together to form combined
categories.
Statistical data usually consists of a set of measurements of a class of objects. The

quantity that is being measured is called the variable.
Discrete variable: If a variable can assume only specific values (e.g. integers), it is
called a discrete variable. E.g Number of children in a family.
Continuous variable: If a variable can assume any values between a given limits, it
called a continuous variable. Example: Season rainfall, measurement of height or
weight.
For large sets of data, it is usefully to represent the data in summarized form. This
can be done by grouping data into smaller sets, whose measurements fall within
certain limits. This data that falls between given limits is called a class. The limits are
called class limits.

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Example: The table below shows rainfall in one rainy month.
Date 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Rain 10.1 11.3 7.5 9.5 11.5 12.7 8.3 7.2 11.6 12.1 11.2 10.8
Date 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Rain 10.9 10.6 12.8 7.5 13.2 9.5 8.4 9.2 9.5
This information can be represented as
Class Boundaries Frequency

7.5-10.5 9
10.5-13.5 12
The numbers 7.5, 10.5, and 13.5 are class limits. The number of measurements that
fall in each class are indicated. These are called the frequency.
The number that is half way between the class limits is called the class midpoint. In
the above example 9 is the class midpoint for 7.5-10.5 and 12 is the class midpoint
for 10.5-13.5. To find the class midpoint we add the class limits and then divide by
2.
7.5 10 .5  18  9
E.g. The class midpoint for 7.5-10.5 is
2 2
The class midpoint is also called the class mark and the class limit is called the class
boundary.
The data above can be arranged starting with the smallest measurement as shown
below
7.2 7.5 7.5 8.3 8.4 9.2 9.5
9.5 9.5 9.5 10.6 10.8 10.9 11.2
11.3 11.5 11.6 12.1 12.7 12.8 13.2

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The number 9.5 appears more times than the other numbers and is called the
mode. There are 21 measurements, thus the 11th measurement is half way of the
list. The 11th measurement is 10.6. It is called the median.
Histograms
Once the frequency table has been constructed, pictorial representation can be
considered. For most continuous data sets, the best diagram to use is a histogram.
In this the classification intervals are represented to scale on the abscissa (𝑥 −axis)
of a graph and rectangles are drawn on this base with their areas proportional to
the frequencies. Hence the ordinate (𝑦 −axis) is frequency per unit class interval (or
more commonly, relative frequency — see below). Note that the heights of the
rectangles will be proportional to the frequencies if and only if class intervals of
equal width are used.
The 𝑦 −axis values are chosen so that the area of each rectangle is the proportion
of observations falling in that bin. Consider the first bin (0–39). The proportion of
observations falling into this bin is 11/20 (from the frequency table). The area of our
rectangle should, therefore, be 11/20. Since the rectangle has a base of 40, the
height of the rectangle must be 11=(20_40)=0:014. In general therefore, we
calculate the bin height as follows:
Height = Frequency/(𝑛 x band width)
Bar charts and frequency polygons
When the data are discrete and the frequencies refer to individual values, we
display them graphically using a bar chart with heights of bars representing
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frequencies, or a frequency polygon in which only the tops of the bars are marked,
and then these points are joined by straight lines. Bar charts are drawn with a gap
between neighbouring bars so that they are easily distinguished from histograms.
Frequency polygons are particularly useful for comparing two or more sets of data.
Example
From the following data collected, the following bar chart and subsequent
frequency polygon may be plotted.
Frequency 3 1 5 2 3 6 11 4 4 1
Number of seeds 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94

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A third method which is sometimes used for qualitative data is called a pie chart.
Here, a circle is divided into sectors whose areas, and hence angles are proportional
to the frequencies in the different categories. Pie charts should generally not be
used for quantitative data – a bar chart or frequency polygon is almost always to be
preferred.
Whatever the form of the graph, it should be clearly labelled on each axis and a fully
descriptive title should be given, together with the number of observations on
which the graph is based.
5.1.2 MEASURES OF AVERAGES

Mean
It is the most used measure of central tendency. Easy to compute, takes all
measurements into consideration. It is reliable. This is the location measure often
used when talking about the average of a set of observations.
However, the term “average” should be avoided, as all measures of location are
different kinds of averages of the data.

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Consider the following set of integers:
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
The mean, 𝑥̅ , of the set S is
𝑥̅ = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9)/9 = 5
Median
It is easy to calculate. It is not influenced by the extreme values, this could be an

advantage or a disadvantage.
The sample median is the middle observation when the data are ranked in
increasing order. We will denote the ranked observations x(1);x(2); : : : ;x(n). If there
are an even number of observations, there is no middle number, and so the median
is defined to be the sample mean of the middle two observations.
The sample median is sometimes used in preference to the sample mean,

particularly when the data is asymmetric, or contains outliers. However, its
mathematical properties are less easy to determine than those of the sample mean,
making the sample mean preferable for formal statistical analysis.
Example 1
S = {1, 6, 3, 8, 2, 4, 9}
If we want to find the median, we need to find the value, 𝑥, where half the values
are above 𝑥 and half the values are below 𝑥. Begin by ordering the list:
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9}
Notice that the value 4 has three scores below it and three scores above it.
Therefore, the median, in this example, is 4. In some instances, it is quite possible
that the value of the median will not be one of your observed values.

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Example 2
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12}
Since the set is already ordered, we can skip that step, but if you notice, we don’t
have just one value in the middle of the list. Instead, we have two values, namely 4
and 6. Therefore, the median can be any number between 4 and 6. In most cases,
the average of the two numbers is reported. So, the median for this set of integers
is
(4+6)/2 = 5
Mode
The mode is the value which occurs with the greatest frequency. Consequently, it
only really makes sense to calculate or use it with discrete data, or for continuous
data with small grouping intervals and large sample sizes. For discrete data with
possible outcomes y1; : : : ;yk occurring with frequencies f1; : : : ; fk, we may define
the sample mode to be
Less important and ambiguous. There is possibility that different classes can have
the same highest frequency, and hence yield modal values.
Example
Consider the following rolls of a ten-sided die:
R = {2, 8, 1, 9, 5, 2, 7, 2, 7, 9, 4, 7, 1, 5, 2}
The number that appears the most is the number 2. It appears four times.
Therefore, the mode for the set R is the number 2. Note that if the number 7 had
appeared one more time, it would have been present four times as well. In this
case, we would have had a bimodal distribution, with 2 and 7 as the modes.
Assumed Mean (any class midpoint)
Any class midpoint can be used to work out the mean as follows
sum of (d i f i )
mean  Assumed mean  C 
N
Where C is the difference between two consecutive class midpoints.

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X i  Assumed mean
di 
C
5.1.3 MEASURES OF SPREAD

Knowing the “typical value” of the data alone is not enough. We also need to know
how “concentrated” or “spread out” it is. That is, we need to know something about
the “variability” of the data. Measures of spread are a way of quantifying this idea
numerically.
Range
This is the difference between the largest and smallest observation. So, for our
ranked data, we have;
This measure can sometimes be useful for comparing the variability of samples of
the same size, but it is not very robust, and is affected by sample size (the larger the
sample, the bigger the range), so it is not a fixed characteristic of the population,
and cannot be used to compare variability of different sized samples.
Mean absolute deviation (M.A.D)
This is the average absolute deviation from the sample mean.
Sample variance and standard deviation
The sample variance is given by;
It is the average squared distance of the observations from their mean value. The
second formula is easier to calculate with. The divisor is 𝑛 − 1 rather than 𝑛 in order

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to correct for the bias which occurs because we are measuring deviations from the
sample mean rather than the “true” mean of the population we are sampling from
Example
Find the variance and standard deviation for the following set of test scores:
T = {75, 80, 82, 87, 96}
Since we are measuring dispersion about the mean, we will need to find the mean
for this data set.
75+80+82+87+96
𝜇= = 84
5
Using the mean, we can now find the variance.
[(75−84)2 +(80−84)2 +(82−84)2 +(87−84)2 +(96−84)2 ]

𝜎2 = = 50.8
5
Therefore, the variance for this set of test scores is 50.8. To get the standard
deviation, denoted by σ, simply take the square root of the variance.
𝜎 = √𝜎 2 = √50.8 = 7.1274118
The variance and standard deviation are generally the most used quantities to
report the measure of dispersion. However, there are other quantities that can also
be reported.
SUMMARY
As we have already remarked, the sample mean is by far the most important
measure of location, primarily due to its attractive mathematical properties (for
example, the sample mean of the sum of two equal length columns of data is just
the sum of the sample means of the two columns). When the distribution of the
data is roughly symmetric, the three measures will be very close to each other
anyway. However, if the distribution is much skewed, there may be a considerable
difference, and all three measures could be useful in understanding the data.

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Using the plots described in this section, we can gain an empirical understanding
of the important features of the distribution of the data.
 Is the distribution symmetric or asymmetric about its central value?

 Are there any unusual or outlying observations, which are much larger or
smaller than the main body of observations?

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5.2 – PROBABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Probability is the language we use to model uncertainty. The data and examples we
looked at in the last chapter were the outcomes of scientific experiments. However,
those outcomes could have been different—many different kinds of uncertainty and
randomness were part of the mechanism which led to the actual data we saw. If we
are to develop a proper understanding of such experimental results, we need to be
able to understand the randomness underlying them. In this chapter, we will look at
the fundamentals of probability theory, which we can then use in the later chapters
for modelling the outcomes of experiments, such as those discussed in the previous
unit.
OBJECTIVES
1. Find the probability of an event.

2. Understand the terms that are used in probability and use them correctly.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
An experiment is a process that, when performed, results in one and only one
outcome of many observations.
e.g 1. Tossing a coin results in a head or tail. Tossing a coin is an experiment, the
outcomes are head or tail.
2. Other experiments are rolling a die, taking a test, selecting a worker.
Sample Space
A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes when an experiment (activity) is
carried out. It is denoted by 𝑆.
Examples
1. When a coin is being tossed the possible outcomes are Head (H) and Tail (T).
The sample space is therefore the set S  H , T .
2. When we throw a six-sided die the possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Thus S  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
5.2.1 AN EVENT
An event is a set of outcomes in an experiment. It is a subset of the sample space.

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Examples:
1. Write the events of tossing a coin.

2. When we throw a six-sided die the possible outcomes are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Thus
the sample space S  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. How many events are possible in this case?
Solution:
1. When tossing a coin, the events are getting a Head (H), Getting a Tail (T) or
getting both a head and a tail. We write A  H  , B  T  and C  H , T  as
events.
2. The possible events are 26 = 64. Five of those possible events are 𝐴 = {1}, 𝐵 =
{1,3,5}, 𝐶 = {2,4,6}, 𝐷 = {1,2,3}, 𝐸 = {4,5,6}.
Outcomes of an experiment can be obtained by use of a tree or Venn diagrams.

From the experiment of tossing a coin, we noted that the possible outcomes are
head or tail. If the coin is tossed twice, the outcomes are now a head and a head or
a head and a tail. The other possible outcomes can be obtained from a tree diagram
as follows:
Second toss Outcomes
First toss HEAD HH
HEAD HT
COIN (H/T) TAIL
HEAD
TAIL TH
TAIL TT
So the sample space is 𝑆 = {𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝑇}
Notation:
o A ≡ event A
o B ≡ event B
o P(A) ≡ the probability of event A
o Ā ≡ the complement of event A ≡ not A (i.e., anything other than A)
o ⋃ ≡ union of events. For example, A ⋃ B means that either A or B occur.
o ∩ ≡ intersection of events. For example, A ∩ B means that both A and B
occur.

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5.2.2 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND EVENTS

An event is said to be a simple event if it includes one and only one of the final
outcomes of an experiment.
Example
In the example of tossing a coin twice, an event that two heads occurred,
𝐸 = {𝐻𝐻}, is a simple event.
A compound event is a collection of more than one outcome of an experiment.
Example
In the experiment of tossing a coin twice, the event that at least a head occurred
{𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝑇} , is a compound event.
Definition
The Probability of an event is the number of chances that the event could occur out
of all the possible chances in the sample space.
𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑟

𝑃(𝐴) = =
𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
Examples
1. When a coin is being tossed: The sample space is 𝑆 = {𝐻, 𝑇}, if A  H  and
𝐵 = {𝑇}, then
a) Probability of A is 1 out of 2 and we write P ( A)  or P H   .
1 1
2 2
b) P T   .
1
2
2. When we roll a six-sided die:
1
a. 𝑃({4}) = 6
b. P 1, 3  
2 1
6 3
c. P1,3, 5   .
3 1
6 2
N.B. 0  PEvent  1 . PS   1

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Example
When we roll a six-sided die:

a. P4, 3,1, 6, 2, 5  1
b. PT   0

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5.2.3 PRINCIPLES OF PROBABILITY

Rule1: Probabilities can be no less than 0% and no more than 100%. An event
with probability 0 can never occur. An event with probability 1 is certain or
always occurs.
0 ≤ P(𝐴) ≤ 1
Rule 2: All possible outcomes taken together have probability exactly equal to 1.
P(all possible outcomes) = 1
Rule 3: When two events are disjoint (cannot occur together), the probability of
their union is the sum of their individual probabilities.
P(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = P(𝐴) + P(𝐵) , if A and B are disjoint
Rule 4: The probability of a complement is equal to 1 minus the probability of

the event.
P(𝐴̅) = 1 − P(𝐴)

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Let us recap on some of the counting strategies studied in unit 4.
Addition Principle
If there are 𝑛1 outcomes in event 𝐴1
𝑛2 outcomes in event 𝐴2
𝑛𝑘 outcomes in event 𝐴𝑘
And the events 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 … … … 𝐴𝑘 are mutually distinct (share no outcomes in

common) then the total number of outcomes in 𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ … … … ∪ 𝐴𝑘 is 𝑛1 +
𝑛2 … … … . . 𝑛𝑘
Multiplication Principle
The multiplication principle: If a composite outcome can be described by a

procedure that can be broken into k successive (ordered) stages such that there
are
𝑛1 outcomes in stage 1
𝑛2 outcomes in stage 2
𝑛𝑘 outcomes in stage k
and if the number of outcomes in each stage is independent of the choices in

previous stages and if the composite outcomes are all distinct then the number
of possible composite outcomes is 𝑛1 . 𝑛2 x.................. . 𝑛𝑘
Example
The number of distinct outcomes obtained from throwing two identical six-sided
dice cannot be obtained by considering this as a two stage process (the result
from the first die and then the result from the second – since the outcomes from
the two stages are not distinct. There are not 36 possible outcomes from
throwing two identical six-sided dice; there are only 21 distinct outcomes.
e.g. The number of distinct outcomes obtained from throwing a red six-sided
dice and a green six-sided dice can be determined by the multiplication principle.
There are 36 possible outcomes in this case.

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5.2.4 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

The probability that event A occurs once B has occurred is defined as
P A  B 
P A / B   .
P B 
This is the conditional probability of A given B.
For any two events A and B
P A  B   P A  PB  P A  B
Examples
1. In a certain class, 25% of the students failed Mathematics, 15% of

the students failed Accounting, and 10% failed both Mathematics
and Accounting. A student is selected at random
a. What is the probability that he failed Mathematics
or Accounting?
b. If he failed Accounting, what is the probability that
he also failed Mathematics?
c. If he failed Mathematics, what is the probability that
he failed Accounting?
2. Let A and B be events with P  A  , P B   and
1 1
2 3
P  A  B   1 . Find
4
a. P A / B 
b. PB / A
Solutions
1.
a) The probability that he failed Mathematics (M) or Accounting (A) is

𝑃(𝑀 ∪ 𝐴) = 𝑃(𝑀) + 𝑃(𝐴) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝑀) = 3⁄20 + 1⁄4 − 1⁄10 = 3/10
b) The probability that he failed Mathematics given that he failed

𝑃(𝑀∩𝐴) 1 1
Accounting is 𝑃(𝑀⁄𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐴)
= 10 ÷ 4 = 2/5

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c) The probability that he failed Accounting given that he failed

𝑃(𝑀∩𝐴) 1 3
Mathematics is 𝑃(𝐴⁄𝑀) = = 10 ÷ 20 = 2/3
𝑃(𝑀)
𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵) 1 1
2. a) 𝑃(𝐴⁄𝐵 ) = = 4 ÷ 3 = 3/4
𝑃(𝐵)
𝐵 𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵) 1 1
b) 𝑃 (𝐴) = = 4 ÷ 2 = 1/2
𝑃(𝐴)
UNIT FIVE – SUMMARY

Generally, this unit has exposed you to the following statistical concepts:
1. The arithmetic mean used in estimating the average of a given set of

observations. It is the most accurate measure of an average, and of major concern
in the present discussion are three levels of estimates:
• Arithmetic Mean of observations of equal weights or levels of importance.
• Arithmetic Mean of weighted set of observations (weighted Arithmetic Mean)
• Arithmetic Mean for a grouped data (or set of observations)
2. The median, a measure of central tendency which appears in the “middle” of an

ordered sequence of values or observations. That is, half of the observations in a set
of data are lower than the median value and half are greater than it. 3. The mode
which is a quick measure of central tendency or average. The mode is the most
typical or most frequently observed value in a given set of data. It is the observation
with the highest frequency in a given set.
3. The mode which is a quick measure of central tendency or average. The mode is
the most typical or most frequently observed value in a given set of data. It is the
observation with the highest frequency in a given set.
4. The standard deviation is the most useful measure of variation. It can be defined
as the square root of the variance for a given set of data.
5. The issues discussed in this unit can be summarised in the following way: there
are basically two separate ways of calculating probability which are as stated below:
i. theoretical probability: this is calculated without an experiment, that is, using

only information that is known about the physical situation.

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ii. calculation based on empirical probability. This is probability calculated using the
results of an experiment that has been performed a number of times. Empirical
probability is often referred to as Relative frequency or Subjective probability.
There are four basic laws of probability: 1. addition law for mutually exclusive
events 2. addition law for events that are not mutually exclusive 3. multiplication
law for independent events 4. multiplication law for dependent events.
Assuming two events, A and B, the probability of event A, given that event B has
occurred is referred to as the conditional probability of event A.
ACTIVITY 5
1. If we randomly pick two television sets in succession from a shipment of 240
television sets of which 15 are defective, what is the probability that they will
both be defective?
2. Two students are randomly selected from a statistics class and it is observed
whether or not they suffer from a maths anxiety.
a) How many outcomes are possible?
b) Write a sample space by use of a tree diagram.
c) Write the following events:
(i) Both students are males
(ii) Both students are females
3. A pair of dice consisting of a six-sided die and a four-sided die is rolled and the
sum is determined. Let A be the event that a sum of 5 is rolled and let B be the
event that a sum of 5 or a sum of 9 is rolled. Find
a) P(A),
b) P(B)
c) P(A \ B).
4. A sample of the variable x assumes the following values:
57 51 58 52 50 59 57 51 59 56
50 53 54 50 57 51 53 55 52 54
Generate a frequency distribution indicating 𝑥, frequency of 𝑥,

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5. For the frequency distribution in problem 4, compute:
(a) n
(b) x
(c) x
(d) 𝜎
2
(e) s
(f) median
(g) mode
(h) range
6. Generate a histogram for the data in problem 4.
7. Generate a frequency polygon for the data in problem 4.
8. A poll of 500 people determines that 382 like ice cream and 362 like cake. How
many people like both if each of them likes at least one of the two?
UNIT FIVE- BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Step-by-Step BusinessMath and Statistics http://www.cognella.com/pdf/Step-by-

Step-Business-Math-and-Statistics_sneak_preview.pdf
 Schaum’s easy outlines probability and statistics
http://brahms.emu.edu.tr/kamil/math211/documents/ProbAndStat.pdf
 A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics
https://cis.temple.edu/~latecki/Courses/CIS2033-
Spring13/Modern_intro_probability_statistics_Dekking05.pdf
 Statistics made easy http://users.sussex.ac.uk/~khs20/mtcs/mtcs/statistics.pdf

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UNIT SIX – EQUATIONS, GRAPHS AND FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
In the real world, it's very common that one quantity depends on another quantity.
For example, if you work in a fast food outlet, your pay packet depends on the number
of hours you work. Or, the amount of concrete you need to order when constructing a
building will depend on the height of the building. This chapter is
about functions (expression of relationships between quantities) and their graphs.
The graph of a function is really useful if we are trying to model a real-world problem.
("Modelling" is the process of finding the relationship between quantities.)
Sometimes we may not know an expression for a function but we do know some values
(maybe from an experiment). The graph can give us a good idea of what function may
be applied to the situation to solve the problem.
OBJECTIVES
1. Explain what mathematical equations are all about and how to formulate
them
2. State the business applications of linear and quadratic equations
3. Recognise the linear equations that are applicable to business decisions
4. Formulate equations for the solution of simple decision problems.
5. Explain what simultaneous equation systems are all about
6. Describe how simultaneous equation systems are formulated and solved.
7. Sketch the graphs of linear and quadratic functions
8. Formulate cost, revenue and profit functions from the worded problems.
UNIT READINGS
 A survey of Mathematics with Applications, 5th Edition, chapter 6 and 7

 Precalculus Mathematics for Calculus, 6th Edition, chapters 2 and 10

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We will firstly study the equations, linear and quadratic, secondly formulate
functions on cost, revenue and profit and lastly sketch their graphs.
6.1 EQUATIONS
An Equation is a mathematical model expressing the relationship between variables.
Although there are several types of equations, depending on the degree of relationship,
our major concern here is on Linear and Quadratic Equations.
6.1.1 AN ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION

Letters are used to represent unknown quantities and these letters are called variables. A
combination of arithmetic operations (+,×,÷, −), letters and numbers is an algebraic or
mathematical expression. We can simplify an algebraic expression by combining the like
terms.
Examples
Simplify the following expressions.
𝑎) 5𝑥 + 7𝑥 𝑏) − 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 2 + 5
𝑐) 12𝑥 + 34𝑥 + 5 𝑑) 5(𝑤 + 5) − 2(𝑤 − 12) − 1
Solutions
𝑎) 5𝑥 + 7𝑥 = (5 + 7)𝑥 = 12𝑥
𝑏) − 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 2 + 5 = (−3 + 4)𝑥 + (5 − 2) = 1𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 + 3
1
𝑐) 2
𝑥 + 34𝑥 + 5 = (12 + 34)𝑥 + 5 = 54𝑥 + 5
𝑑) 5(𝑤 + 5) − 2(𝑤 − 12) − 1 = 5𝑤 + 25 − 2𝑤 + 24 − 1 = 5𝑤 − 2𝑤 + 25 + 24 − 1

= 3𝑤 + 48
An expression with one equal sign is called an equation. We will deal with linear and
quadratic equations. Linear equations are composed of variables of power one and
quadratic equations have the highest exponent of the variable as two. For example,
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3 and 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 7𝑥 − 10 are linear equations. The equation 5𝑥 2 − 7 =

𝑦 is not linear. Note that products and quotients of variables are not linear.

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6.1.2 LINEAR EQUATIONS
A linear equation in the variable, 𝑥, for example, can be written in the form: 𝒂𝑥 + 𝒃 =
0, Where 𝒂 and 𝒃 are constants and 𝒂 ≠ 0. Linear equations are classified as first-degree
equations. Unknown variables in a linear equation can be solved for, using simple
algebraic operations.
SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS

We can solve for the unknown variables in different ways. If the equation involves one
unknown variable, we can solve for that variable by adding or subtracting an appropriate
term on both sides of an equation.
Examples
Solve for the unknowns in the following linear equations:
(i) 5𝑥 – 6 = 3𝑥 (iv) 2(𝑝 + 4) = 7𝑝 + 2

1 1 1 𝑥+3 𝑥+7
(ii) 𝑦+3=4 (v) =
2 3 5
𝑥 2𝑥
(iii) +4= −6
3 5
Solutions
i) 5𝑥 – 3𝑥 = 6 ⟹ (5 − 3)𝑥 = 6 ⟹ 2𝑥 = 6 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3
ii) 2𝑝 + 8 = 7𝑝 + 2 ⟹ 2𝑝 − 7𝑝 = 2 − 8 ⟹ (2 − 7)𝑝 = −6 ⟹ −5𝑝 ⟹ 𝑝 = 6/5

1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 −2 −1
iii) 𝑦+ = ⟹ 𝑦= − = ⟹𝑦= =
2 3 4 2 4 3 12 12 6
𝑥+3 𝑥+7 𝑥+3 𝑥+7

iv) = ⟹( ) × 15 = ( ) × 15 ⟹ 5(𝑥 + 3) = 3(𝑥 + 7) ⟹
3 5 3 5
5𝑥 + 15 = 3𝑥 + 21 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥 −𝑥
v) +4= −6⟹ − = −6 − 4 ⟹ = −10 ⟹ 𝑥 = 150
3 5 3 5 15
TRANSLATING SENTENCES INTO EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS WITH ONE VARIABLE

We will look at the two cases of translating sentences for a single variable.
1. For the phrase that involves a variable, write the mathematical expression accordingly.
Examples
Write a phrase as a mathematical expression.
a) 4 times 𝑥 increased by 9.
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b) 4 decreased by 3 times 𝑦.
c) 6 less than the product of 5 times 𝑦, increased by 3.
Solution
a) 4𝑥 + 9
b) 4 − 3𝑦
c) 6 − 5𝑦 + 3
2. If the phrase does not involve a given variable, state what the variable of your
choice represents and then formulate the required expression or equation.
Examples
Write an equation for each phrase below and solve them.
a) Thirteen decreased by 3 times a number is 40.

b) The product of a number and 3 is the number decreased by 12.
c) Three more than a number is 5 times the sum of the number and 7.
d) LPC Company produces product A for which cost (including labour and
material) is M6/unit. Fixed cost is M80, 000. Each unit is sold for M10.
Determine the number of units which must be sold for the company to earn a
profit of M60, 000.
e) A store owner sells a toy for R3.00, including a 7% sales tax. Determine the cost
of the toy before tax.
Solution
a) Let 𝑥 be the unknown number, then the equation becomes 13 − 3𝑥 = 40. The
solution becomes 13 − 3𝑥 = 40 ⟹ −3𝑥 = 27 ⟹ 𝑥 = −9. That is, the
unknown number is −9.
b) Let the unknown number be 𝑦. Then the equation becomes 3𝑦 = 𝑦 − 12. The
number is
3𝑦 − 𝑦 = −12 ⟹ 2𝑦 = −12 ⟹ 𝑦 = −6.
c) Let 𝑡 be the unknown number. The equation becomes 3 + 𝑥 = 5(𝑥 + 7). The
solution is
3 + 𝑥 = 5(𝑥 + 7) ⟹ 3 + 𝑥 = 5𝑥 + 35 ⟹ 𝑥 = −8.
d) The equation becomes 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ⟹ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 10𝑥 −
(6𝑥 + 80000) = 10𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 80000 = 4𝑥 − 80000. Since profit is M60 000,
you must find 𝑥 that makes this profit. That is, 60000 = 4𝑥 − 80000 ⟹ 4𝑥 =
60000 + 80000 ⟹ 4𝑥 = 140000 ⟹ 𝑥 = 35000.

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e) Let 𝑐 be the cost price before tax. Since it is sold for 𝑅3.00, the required
equation becomes
3.00 = 𝑐 + 7%𝑐 = 1.07𝑐 ⟹ 𝑐 = 2.80.
Hence, before tax, the cost of the toy is 𝑅2.80.
SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

Sometimes, instead of working with a single linear equation with one unknown, we may
deal with a set of more than one equation, with two or more unknowns. This is called a
3𝑥 – 4𝑦 = 13
system. E.g
3𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 3
The above equations form a system of equations in two unknowns (𝑥 and 𝑦). The system
of linear equations can be solved by Substitution method, Elimination method or
Graphical method. Before we look at the details of these methods, note that the system
of equations can either have exactly one solution (consistent system) or many solutions
(dependent system) or no solution (inconsistent system). These types of solutions will be
demonstrated along with the methods used to solve the systems.
Substitution Method
Guidelines:
a) Solve for one variable.
b) Substitute the expression of the variable in (a) above into the other equation
(different from the one used in (a)). Then you get an equation in one variable.
Solve for that variable.
c) Back substitute the value obtained in (b) into the expression found in (a) to
obtain its value.
Examples
Find the solutions of the following systems.
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1
a)
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 14
𝑥 − 1⁄2 𝑦 = 2
b)
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4
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Solutions
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 … . (1)
a)
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 14 … (2)
From (1), 𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑥 … (3). Now, substituting (3) into (2) gives
3𝑥 + 4(1 − 2𝑥) = 14 ⟹ 3𝑥 + 4 − 8𝑥 = 14 ⟹ −5𝑥 = 10 ⟹ 𝑥 = −2
Substituting 𝑥 = −2 into (3) gives 𝑦 = 1 − 2 × (−2) = 1 − (−4) = 5.
Therefore the solution to the system is 𝑥 = −2, 𝑦 = 5.
𝑥 − 1⁄2 𝑦 = 2 … . (1)
b)
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 4 … … (2)
In this case, step (a) of the guidelines is not necessary since equation (2) has already
solved for 𝑦. Therefore, substituting (2) into (1) yields
1
𝑥 − 2 (2𝑥 − 4) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2 = 2 ⟹ 2 = 2.
The statement 2 = 2 is true, so the system has infinitely many solutions. If the
obtained statement was false (such as 2 = 0), then the system would not have a
solution. Note that instead of substituting (2) into (1) we could have made 𝑥 in (1) the
1
subject of the formula, 𝑥 = 2 + 2 𝑦 and substituted it into (2) to get
1
𝑦 = 2 (2 + 2 𝑦) − 4 = 4 + 𝑦 − 4 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ⟹ 0 = 0 which is a true statement.
Elimination Method
Guidelines
1. Adjust the coefficients by multiplying one or both equations by appropriate

numbers so that the coefficient of one variable in one equation is the negative
of the coefficient of the same variable in the other equation.
2. Add the equations to obtain a single equation in one variable and solve for that
variable.
3. Substitute the value obtained in (2) above into either of the original equations
and solve for the remaining variable.
Example
Solve the following equations for 𝑥 and 𝑦.
3𝑥 – 4𝑦 = 13 … . . (1)
3𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 3 … … . (2)

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Solution:
Rearranging equation (1) and (2), we get:
3𝑥 – 4𝑦 = 13 … . (1) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3 … (2)
Multiplying equation (1) by 2 and equation (2) by 3, we get:
6𝑥 – 8𝑦 = 26 … (3) 6𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 9 … (4)
Subtract equation (4) from equation (3) to get:
(6𝑥 – 8𝑦 = 26) − (6𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 9) ⟹ −17𝑦 = 17 − 17𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦 = −1

Substituting the value of 𝑦 = −1 to equation (1), we get:
3𝑥 − 4(−1) = 13 ⟹ 3𝑥 + 4 = 13 ⟹ 3𝑥 = 13 − 4 ⟹ 3𝑥 = 9 ⟹ 𝑥 =
3.
The solution is therefore 𝑥 = 3; 𝑦 = −1 . Note that this substitution will yield the
same result if equation (2) is used in the substitution.
Graphical Method
In this method, we will be required to use the graph and sketch graphs in pencils.
You will use this method in topic 3 of this unit. Here we will state the guidelines
only.
Guidelines
1. Graph each equation on the same coordinates.

2. Find the intersection points. The solutions are the 𝑥 − and 𝑦 − coordinates of
the points of intersection.
We can identify the type of solution from the graph as follows:
a) The system is inconsistent if the two lines are parallel.

b) The system has one solution at the point of intersection of the two lines.
c) The system is dependent if the two lines overlap.
No Solution One Solution Many Solutions

6
4
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TRANSLATING SENTENCES INTO EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS WITH TWO VARIABLES

The system of equations can be formulated from worded problems and solved using the
methods discussed above.
Translating sentences into a system of equations: Guidelines
1) Identify the variable or quantities that the problem seeks to find, assign them to
letters, say 𝑥.
2) Express all unknown quantities in terms of the variables.
3) Set up a system of equations that expresses the relationships between the
expressions obtained in (2) above,
4) Solve the system and interpret the results. State your final answer as a sentence
that answers the question posed in the problem.
Example
Suppose a factory manager is setting up a production schedule for two models, A

and B, of a new product. Model A requires 4 units of labour input and 9 units of
capital input. Model B requires 5 units of labour input and 14 units of capital input.
The total available labour input for the production of the product is 335 man-hours
per day, and that of capital is 850 units per day. How many of each model should
the manager plan to make each day so that all the available labour hours and capital
inputs are used.
Solution
Let 𝑥 = number produced of model A per day, 𝑦 = number produced of model B per
day. These require a total of: 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 335 (labour) and 9𝑥 + 14𝑦 = 850
(capital). We now have the simultaneous equations:
4𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 335. . . (1)
9𝑥 + 14𝑦 = 850 … . (2)

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Solving for 𝑥 and 𝑦 simultaneously by: Multiplying eq. (1) by 9 and eq. (2) by 4 we
get
36𝑥 + 45𝑦 = 3015 … (3)
36𝑥 + 56𝑦 = 3400 … (4)
Then (1) – (2) yields
(36𝑥 + 45𝑦 = 3015) − (36𝑥 + 56𝑦 = 3400) ⟹ 0 – 11𝑦 = −385 ⟹

−11𝑦 = −385 ⟹ 𝑦 = −385/−11 = 35
Substituting for 𝑦 in eq. (1) yields
4𝑥 + 5(35) = 335 ⟹ 4𝑥 + 175 = 335 ⟹ 4𝑥 = 335 – 175
⟹ 4𝑥 = 160 ⟹ 𝑥 = 40
The solution values, 𝑦 = 35 and 𝑥 = 40 indicate that, according to the specified

constraints, the manager should plan to make 40 units of model A and 35 units of
model B.
6.1.3 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

A Quadratic Equation is an equation of the second degree. It is of the form:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
where 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are constant numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 0. There are two basic methods of
solving quadratic equations:
(1) By Factorisation
(2) By the use of Quadratic formula.
FACTORIZATION
The zero-product property learnt in Unit 1 will be useful when we solve quadratic
equations by factoring.
Recall the zero-product property: If 𝑎 . 𝑏 = 0 then 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏 = 0.
Guidelines of Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring

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1. Make one side of the equation equal to zero using the additive inverse.
2. Factor the side of the equation not equal to zero.
3. Use the zero- product property to solve the equation.
Examples
Solve the following equations
i) 𝑥 2 − 15 = 2𝑥
ii) 𝑥 2 − 64 = 0
iii) 𝑥 2 = 4𝑥 − 3
Solutions
i) 𝑥 2 − 15 = 2𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3) = 0
⟹ 𝑥 − 5 = 0 or 𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 5 or 𝑥 = −3
ii) 𝑥 2 − 64 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 8)(𝑥 + 8) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 − 8 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 8 = 0
⟹ 𝑥 = 8 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −8
iii) 𝑥 2 = 4𝑥 − 3 ⟹ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
⟹ 𝑥 − 3 = 0 or 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = 1
QUADRATIC FORMULA
Some quadratic equations may be difficult to factorize, then the quadratic formula
becomes handy.
Recall:
For a quadratic equation in standard form, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 with a  0 , the value of 𝑥 is
 b  b 2  4ac
x .
2a
For you to be able to use the quadratic formula, you need to write the quadratic equation
in standard form and then identify the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and then substitute them
accordingly.
Examples
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Solve the following equations:
i) x 2  5x  4  0 ii) 2 x 2  7 x  5  0
Solutions
i) x 2  5 x  4  0  a  1, b  5, c  4 now, substituting this values in

the quadratic formula we obtain
 (5)  (5) 2  4  1  (4) 5  41 5  41 5  41
x   .or
2 1 2 2 2
ii) 2 x 2  7 x  5  0  a  3, b  7, c  5 , then substituting in the formula

 7  72  4 25  7  9  7  3  7  3
x   .or so
2 2 4 4 4
−10
𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4
Application example
Suppose that the weekly profit (in thousands of Maloti) of the PC Company is given by
𝑝 = 𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 − 24, where 𝑥 is the number of refrigerators produced and sold. How
many refrigerators must be produced and sold to have a weekly profit of M40, 000?
Solution
Here we are to find the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑝 = 40,000. Since the equation is in
thousands of Maloti, we solve the equation for 𝑝 = 40. i
 16  16 2
40  x 2  16x  24  x 2  16x  24  40  0  x 2  16x  64  0  x   8  8 2
2
⟹ 𝑥 = −8 − 8√2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −8 + 8√2 ⟹ 𝑥 = −30.63 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≅ 3.31371. Since we cannot
have a negative refrigerators, our only solution is 3.31371. Therefore, to have a weekly
profit of M40,000, about 3314 refrigerators need to be produced and sold.
You will sketch the quadratic equations and solve problems that require maximum or
minimum quantities in the next topic on Graphs.
We have noted this far that,
1. Linear equations are classified as first-degree equations. Unknown variables in a linear

equation can be solved for, using simple algebraic operations.
2. A quadratic equation is an equation of the second degree. It is of the form
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𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are constant numbers and 𝒂 ≠ 𝑜. These can be

solved by factorisation or by quadratic formula if the equation is difficult to factorize.
When solving the system of equations with more than one variable, using the method
of substitution one variable was made the subject of the formula. If that variable was
𝑦, then the equation 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 can be written to indicate that 𝑦 depends on 𝑥 as
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. This equation is now called a function, which is our next topic.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Write the following phrases as mathematical expressions
a) 4 times 𝑥 increased by 9 d) 8 decreased by 5 times 𝑟
b) 7 more than 3 times 𝑝 e) The sum of 7 and 𝑥 divided by 9
c) 6 less than the product of 5 times 𝑦, increased by 3
2. Solve the following equations:

(a) 5x 2 17 (b) 6x 2 4x 8 (c) 9 (x 2) 14
(d) 5(7 2x) 65 (e) 4x 2x 25x 1
(f) 2x 442 x5x 4x 1
𝑥 2 1 7 5𝑥−3 𝑥+7
(g) 2 + 3 = 7 (h) 3 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥 + 6 (i) 2 + 3 = 15
3. Solve the following problems by setting up and solving an algebraic equation.
(a) If four is subtracted from twice a number, the result is ten less than the number. Find
the number.
(b) Find a number such that one-half of the number is three less than two-thirds of the
number.
(c) One-half of a number plus three-fourths of the number is two more than four-thirds
of the number. Find the number.
(d) Thato is paid twice his normal hourly rate for each hour he works over 60 hours per
week. Last week he worked for 66 hours and earned M720.00. What is his normal
hourly rate?
(e) The weekly wages of a man and woman engaged on the same kind of work were
M48 and M37 respectively. It was agreed to increase the two wages by the same
amount so that the man’s wages was 5/6 of women’s wage. How much increase was
given?
4. Solve the equations by factoring and by quadratic formula.
(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12 = 0 (b) 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 12 = 0 (c) 3𝑦 2 − 27 = 0

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5. A cell phone company charges a monthly fee of $10 for the first 1000 text messages
and 10 cents for each additional text message. MIriam’s bill for text messages for the
month of June is $38.50. How many text messages did she send that month?
6. A rental company charges $65 a day and 20 cents a mile for renting a truck. Michael
rented a truck for 3 days, and his bill came to $275. How many miles did he drive?
7. A woman earns 15% more than her husband. Together they make $69, 875 per year.
What is the husband’s annual salary?
8. Lipolelo wants to buy a house, so she has decided to save one quarter of her salary.
Lipolelo earns M47.00 per hour and receives an extra M28.00 a week because she
declined company benefits. She wants to save at least M550.00 each week. How many
hours must she work each week to achieve this?
9. Solve the following by substitution method.
y = 6x – 11 −7𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −13
(a) (b)
− 2x − 3y = −7 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 11
10. Solve the following using elimination method.
(a) −4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −12, 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 = −24
(b) 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 20, − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −30
(c) 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 11, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 19
(d) −6𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 1, 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 = −10

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6.2 FUNCTIONS
In this unit, you will be introduced to the concept of functions and mappings. You will also
be given instructive and application examples of functions in economics.
1. Identify functions from statements or diagrams.

2. Evaluate the function at the given values.
3. Formulate functions from the worded problems.
4. Analyse business conditions using linear functions
Definition of a function
A function is a rule which maps a number to another unique number.
Given sets A and B, a rule that maps the elements of set A to exactly one element of set B
is a function, otherwise that rule is a relation. Set A, which is the set of inputs is called the
domain while set B is called the codomain (set of possible outputs). The range is the set
of all outputs. The codomain and range are not the same and they are not always equal.
A relation is a function if for every 𝒙 in the domain there is exactly one 𝒚 in the
codomain. From the diagram below, if 𝑓 is a rule that maps A to B, then 𝑓 is a function
where there are mappings of one to one or one to many.
The relation is not a function if the element of A is mapped to more than one element in set B.
In other words, if we start off with an input, and we apply the function or rule, we get an
output. For example, we might have a function that added 3 to any number. So if we
apply this function to the number 2, we get the number 5. If we apply this function to the
number 8, we get the number 11. If we apply this function to the number 𝑥, we get the
number 𝑥 + 3.

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We can show this mathematically by writing

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3
The number 𝑥 that we use for the input of the function is called the argument of the
function.
So if we choose an argument of 2, we get

𝑓(2) = 2 + 3 = 5
If we choose an argument of 𝑥 2 , we get

𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 3
At first sight, it seems that we can pick any number we choose for the argument.
However, that is not the case, as we shall see later. But because we do have some choice
in the number we can pick, we call the argument the independent variable. The output of
the function, e.g. 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(5), 𝑒𝑡𝑐. depends upon the argument, and so this is called the
dependent variable.
6.2.1 DOMAIN AND RANGE

In this course we will usually not be careful about specifying the domain of the function.
When this happens the domain is understood to be the set of all 𝑥 for which the rule
which tells you how to compute 𝑓(𝑥) is meaningful. For instance, if we say that f is the
function
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
then the domain of 𝑓 is understood to be the set of all nonnegative real numbers
domain of 𝑓 = [0, ∞]
since √𝑥 is well-defined for 𝑥 ≥ 0 and undefined for 𝑥 < 0.
A systematic way of finding the domain and range of a function for which you are only
given a formula is as follows:
 The domain of 𝑓 consists of all 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) is well-defined (“makes sense”)
 The range of 𝑓 consists of all 𝑦 for which you can solve the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
Example
Find the domain and range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 2 .

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Solution
The expression 1/𝑥 2 can be computed for all real numbers 𝑥 except 𝑥 = 0 since
this leads to division by zero. Hence the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 2 is
all real numbers except 0 , that is Domain= {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ≠ 0} = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
To find the range we ask “for which 𝑦 can we solve the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥,"
i.e. we ask, for which 𝑦 can you solve 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 for 𝑥?
If 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 then we must have 𝑥 2 = 1/𝑦, so first of all, since we have to divide by
𝑦, 𝑦 can't be zero. 𝑥 2 = 1/𝑦 says 𝑦 must be positive. On the other hand if 𝑦 > 0
then 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 has a solution. This shows that the range of f is all positive real
numbers, i.e range = {𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 > 0} = (0, ∞)
6.2.2 INVERSE FUNCTIONS AND IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS

For many functions the rule which tells you how to compute it is not an explicit formula,
but instead an equation which you still must solve. A function which is defined in this way
is called an “implicit function.”
Example. One can define a function 𝑓 by saying that for each 𝑥 the value of 𝑓(𝑥) is
the solution 𝑦 of the equation
𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 − 3 = 0
In this example you can solve the equation for 𝑦,
3 − 𝑥2
𝑦=
2
3−𝑥 2
Thus we see that the function we have defined is 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
Here we have two definitions of the same function, namely
i. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is defined by 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 − 3 = 0 and

3−𝑥 2
ii. f is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
The first definition is the implicit definition, the second is explicit. You see that with
an “implicit function” it isn't the function itself, but rather the way it was defined
that's implicit.

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6.2.3 EVALUATION OF FUNCTIONS

As it was discussed earlier, when you are required to find the value of the function
given a certain value of 𝑥, then you are evaluating the function at that given value.
Example
1
Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = , find
√𝑥−5
(i) the domain of 𝑓

(ii) 𝑓(6)
(iii) 𝑓(5)
(iv) 𝑓(4)
Solution
i) the function is defined if 𝑥 − 5 > 0, so the domain= {𝑥: 𝑥 > 5}
1 1
ii) 𝑓(6) = =1=1
√6−5
1 1
iii) 𝑓(5) = = 0 , undefined, since division by zero is not allowed.
√5−5
1 1
iv) 𝑓(4) = , undefined because in the real world, there is no square
√4−5 √−1
root of a negative.
The evaluation of functions is useful under the topic of graphs and in the following
subtopics.
6.2.4 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Equations of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 are linear functions. Equations of the form
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎 ≠ 0 are quadratic functions. For example,
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3, 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 2 + 5, 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 9, 𝑝(𝑥) = √8𝑥 2 + 7, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
3
are quadratic functions but ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4 and 𝑘(𝑦) = 𝑦 3 − 27 are not quadratic
functions.
𝑏
The maximum or minimum value of a quadratic functions occurs at 𝑥 = − 2𝑎. Where the
value of 𝑥 gives the maximum or minimum depends on the coefficient of 𝑎. That is, if 𝑎 >
𝑏 𝑏
0, then the minimum value is 𝑓 (− 2𝑎). If 𝑎 < 0, then the maximum value is 𝑓 (− 2𝑎).
Examples
In each of the following, state whether 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum or a minimum value and find
that value.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 100𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 25 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 13
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 50 − 0.1𝑥 2 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 + 3) − 12

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Solutions
a) Here 𝑎 = 100, 𝑏 = −20, 𝑐 = 25. Since 𝑎 > 0, 𝑓 has minimum value, which is
(−20) 1 1
𝑓 (− 2×100) = 𝑓 (10) = 100 × (1/10)2 − 20 × (10) + 25 = 24.
b) Here 𝑎 = −0.1, 𝑏 = 4, 𝑐 = −50. Since 𝑎 < 0, 𝑓 has a maximum value. The
4 4
maximum value is 𝑓 (− 2×(−0.1)) = 𝑓 (0.2) = 𝑓(20) = −10.
c) and d) left as exercises.
The application of quadratic functions will be done in subtopic 6.2.6 and graphing of
these functions is done under the graphs topic. Next we will look at the basics of some
functions applicable in economics.
6.2.5 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 is called a natural exponential function. The general
exponential function is 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , where 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑎 > 0. For example,
1 −𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 and 𝑝 = (2) are exponential functions. The function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is not an
exponential function but an exponent.
The properties of exponential functions are the same as the laws of exponents.
The inverse of the exponential function is called the logarithmic function. The
function 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 is the logarithmic function where 𝑏 is the base and 𝑥 is the
argument. If the base is 10, then the logarithmic function is called the common
logarithm written as 𝑦 = log 𝑥 (omitting the base). If the base is 𝑒, then the
logarithm is called the natural logarithm written as 𝑦 = log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥. The domain
of the logarithmic functions is the set of positive real numbers.
The properties of logarithmic functions are many but we will name only those that
will be useful when solving some equations.
Properties of Logarithm Functions
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑏 ≠ 1 and 𝑏 > 0 ;
1. log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑎 log 𝑏 𝑥
2. log 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦
3. log 𝑏 𝑏 = 1
4. log 𝑏 𝑥/𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦

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The common use of property 1 and property 3 is when we solve natural logarithm
question.
Example
The projected population of Maseru city is given by 𝑃 = 125,000(1.11)𝑡/20 , where

𝑡 is the number of years after 1995.
a) What is the projected population in 2015?

b) How long will it take before the population doubles?
Solution
a) 𝑡 = 0 ≡ 1998, 𝑡 = 2018 ≡ 20 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠, so 𝑃(20) = 125,000(1.11)20/20 =

138,750. Therefore, in 2018, the population will be 138,750.
b) Here we need to solve for 𝑡. That is 𝑃(0) = 125,000(1.11)0/20 = 125,000.
𝑡
Then 2𝑃 = 2 × 125,000 = 250,000 = 125,000(1.11)𝑡/20 ⟹ 2 = (1.11)20 ⟹
𝑡
𝑡 ln 2
ln 2 = ln(1.11)20 ⟹ ln 2 = 20 ln(1.11) ⟹ 𝑡 = 20 ln(1.11) ≅ 132.8 ≅ 133
Therefore, the population will double approximately after 133 years.
6.2.6 APPLICATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

The idea of functions is applicable in economics where production is related to cost,
revenue and profit. Generally, the total cost, revenue and profit functions
associated with a company are not linear, but the linear functions do arise so we
will firstly go through the linear functions and the quadratic functions later.
Definition
Suppose a firm has a fixed cost of 𝐹 Maloti, a production cost of 𝑐 Maloti per unit
and a selling price of 𝑠 Maloti per unit. Let 𝑥 denote the number of units of a
product manufactured or sold. Then, the cost function 𝐶(𝑥), the revenue function
𝑅(𝑥) and the profit function 𝑃(𝑥), assuming that they are linear, are given as
𝐶(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑥 + 𝐹
𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑥
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑅(𝑥) − 𝐶(𝑥) = (𝑠 − 𝑐)𝑥 − 𝐹

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Example
The management of a certain company finds that the monthly fixed costs
attributable to the production of their 100-watt light bulbs is $12,100. If the cos t of
producing each twin-pack of light bulbs is $0.60 and each twin-pack sells for $1.15,
find the company’s cost function, revenue function and profit function.
Solution
Here 𝐹 = 12,100, 𝑐 = 0.60, 𝑠 = 1.15, so
𝐶(𝑥) = 0.60𝑥 + 12,100
𝑅(𝑥) = 1.15𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) = (1.15 − 0.6)𝑥 − 12,100 = 0.55𝑥 − 12,100
As studied in economic, the demand and supply curves may be linear or nonlinear.
As a reminder, we recall what they are below.
Linear Demand and Supply curves and their Applications
A demand equation expresses a relationship between the unit price and the
quantity demanded for a particular commodity. The function 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a
decreasing function of 𝑥, where 𝑝 measures the unit price and 𝑥 the number of
units of the commodity. This is so because the quantity demanded is inversely
proportional to its unit price.
Similarly, the supply equation expresses the relationship between the unit price and
the quantity supplied by the manufacturer. This relationship is directly proportional
so the supply function 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑥) is an increasing function.
The application of these curves is the market equilibrium. The market is in

equilibrium if the quantity produced is equal to the quantity demanded. The
breakeven point is the point where revenue equals cost. That is, the quantity 𝑥0 is
the quantity that gives the breakeven revenue 𝑅(𝑥). The break-even point and the
market equilibrium can be obtained by solving simultaneous equations involved
using any of the methods discussed in topic 6.1.
Maxima and Minima
We apply the concept of quadratic functions in determining the maximum value

(Maxima) or minimum value (minima) of a function.

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Examples
a) The demand function for a manufacturer’s product is 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞) = 1200 − 3𝑞,

where 𝑝 is the price (in dollars) per unit when 𝑞 units are demanded (per week).
Find the level of production that maximizes the manufacturer’s total revenue and
determine this revenue.
b) A marketing firm estimates that 𝑛 months after the introduction of a client’s new
product, 𝑓(𝑛) thousands households will use it, where
10
𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛(12 − 𝑛), 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 12
9
Estimate the maximum number of households that will use the product.
Solutions
a) Total revenue 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑝𝑞 = 𝑞(1200 − 3𝑞) = 1200𝑞 − 3𝑞 2 . The revenue

function is quadratic with 𝑎 = −3, 𝑏 = 1200, 𝑐 = 0. Since 𝑎 < 0, the maximum
1200
revenue can be obtained and that revenue is 𝑅 (− 2×(−3)) = 𝑅(200) = 120,000.
Thus, the level of production that maximizes revenue is 200 units per week and the
total revenue is $120,000.00.
10 40 10
b) The household function 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛(12 − 𝑛) = 𝑛− 𝑛2 is quadratic with
9 3 9
10 40
𝑎=− , 𝑏= , 𝑐 = 0. Since 𝑎 < 0, the maximum number of household that
9 3
40/3
will use the product will be 𝑓 (− 2×(−10/9)) = 𝑓(6) = 40. Thus, 40 thousand
households will use the new product 6 months after the introduction of the new
product. The maxima and minima can be obtained from the graph of a quadratic
function, but we will have to sketch it first.
Next we will look at how we can sketch all the functions studied above.

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6.3 GRAPHS
A vertical line through any element of the domain should intersect the graph of the
function exactly once. If the vertical line does not cut the graph once, then that graph is
not a function. This is known as the vertical line test of a function.
A coordinate system is in the plane of 𝑥 and 𝑦 as the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦). In graphing the
functions, we use the pairs of 𝑥 and 𝑦. The pair (𝑥, 𝑦) represent a point in the 𝑥𝑦- plane.
6.3.1 GRAPHS OF BASIC FUNCTIONS

There are six basic functions that we are going to explore in this section. We will graph
the function and state the domain and range of each function. The six basic functions are
the following:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = I𝑥I
1
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
Solution
1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙
We can choose any five values of 𝑥 and evaluate them to find the values of 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) . The table gives you ordered pairs such as (-2,-2), (0,0) which are then
plotted as shown.
𝑥 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝑦 -2 -1 0 1 2

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2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝑥 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝑦 4 1 0 1 4

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3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
𝑥 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝑦 -8 -1 0 1 8
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
𝑥 -2 -1 0 1 4
𝑦 Undefined undefined 0 1 2

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5. 𝑓(𝑥) = I𝑥I
𝑥 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝑦 2 1 0 1 2
1
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑥 -2 -1 0 1 4
𝑦 -1/2 -1 Undefined 1 1/2

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Example
1. The distance that Giselle can run is a function of the amount of time she
spends running. Giselle runs 𝟑miles in 𝟐𝟏minutes. Assume she runs at a
constant rate.
a. Write an equation in two variables that represents her distance run, 𝒚, as a
function of the time, 𝒙, she spends running.
3 𝑦
=
21 𝑥
1
𝑦 = ( )𝑥
7
b. Use the equation you wrote in part (a) to determine how many miles
Giselle can run in 𝟏𝟒 minutes
1 1
𝑦 = ( ) 𝑥 = ( ) 14 = 2
7 7
c. Use the equation you wrote in part (a) to determine how many miles
Giselle can run in 𝟐𝟖 minutes
1 1
𝑦 = ( ) 𝑥 = ( ) 28 = 4
7 7
d. Use the equation you wrote in part (a) to determine how many miles
Giselle can run in 𝟕 minutes.
1 1
𝑦 = ( )𝑥 = ( )7 = 1
7 7
e. The input of the function, 𝒙, is time, and the output of the function, 𝒚, is
the distance Giselle ran. Write the inputs and outputs from parts (b)–(d) as
ordered pairs, and plot them as points on a coordinate plane.
(𝟏𝟒, 𝟐), (𝟐𝟖, 𝟒), (𝟕, 𝟏)

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f. What shape does the graph of the points appear to take?
The points appear to be in a line.
g. Use the equation you wrote in part (a) to determine how many miles
Giselle can run in 𝟑𝟔 minutes. Write your answer as an ordered pair, as you
did in part (e), and include the point on the graph. Is the point in a place
where you expected it to be? Explain.
The function is continuous because we can find the distance Giselle runs
for any given amount of time she spends running.
h. Assume you used the rule that describes the function to determine how
many miles Giselle can run for any given time and wrote each answer as an
ordered pair. Where do you think these points would appear on the graph?
1 1 1
𝑦 = ( ) 𝑥 = ( ) 36 = 5
7 7 7
1
(𝟑𝟔, 5 7) The point is where I expected it to be because it is in line with the other
points.

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Equation of a straight line
There are many other functions that we may be required to graph and each type
of function will be graphed differently. The first basic graph that we explored is
the equation of a straight line. This type of a line can be formulated in various
forms and in each straight line, there may be a slope and there may be an
intercept.
Recall:
 𝑥-intercept is the value of 𝑥 when 𝑦 = 0.

 𝑦-intercept is the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 0.
𝑦 −𝑦
 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) are two such
2 1
points on that straight line.
 The slope of any vertical line does not exist.
 The slope of a horizontal line is zero.
 The slope of two parallel line is the same.
 If two lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 with slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively, are
perpendicular, then 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1.
The equation of a straight line has the following forms which are helpful in graphing
the linear graphs:
−𝐴
1. General form: 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 where 𝑚 = .
𝐵
𝑦−𝑦
2. The slope and point form: 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ≡ 𝑚 = 𝑥−𝑥1
1
3. Two-point form: Given the two points (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) on the same line,
𝑦−𝑦1 𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
then the equation of the line is = 2 1 or 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2 1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑥2 −𝑥1
𝑐
4. Intercept form: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. This line crosses the 𝑥 −axis at (− 𝑚 , 0) and the
𝑥 𝑦
𝑦 −axis at (0, 𝑐) or + 𝑏 = 1 means that the line crosses the 𝑥 −axis at (𝑎, 0)
𝑎
and the 𝑦 −axis at (0, 𝑏).
Examples
a) Find the equation of the line with intercepts (3, 0) and (0, 2).
b) Find the equation of the line through (2, 3) whose 𝑦-intercept is twice the
𝑥-intercept.
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c) Find the equation of the line with slope 3 and passing through the point
(−2, −4).
d) Find the equation of the line passing through (−2,3) and perpendicular to the
line 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6 = 0
Solutions
𝑥 𝑦
a) + 2 = 1 ⟹ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6 = 0
3
b) Let the 𝑥-intercept be at 𝑥 = 𝑎. Then, 𝑦-intercept will be at 𝑦 = 2𝑎. Therefore
𝑥 𝑦
the equation of the straight line will be 𝑎 + 2𝑎 = 1 ⟹ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2𝑎 since the
line passes through (2, 3), we have 2(2) + 3 = 2𝑎 ⟹ 𝑎 = 7/2. Hence the
equation of the line is 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 7 = 0.
c) Here 𝑚 = 3, so the equation becomes 𝑦 − (−4) = 3(𝑥 − (−2)) ⟹ 𝑦 + 4 =
3(𝑥 + 2) ⟹ 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2
2
d) Re-arranging the given equation to the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, we get 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 + 2.
From this we note that the slope of the given line, say 𝐿1 𝑖𝑠 𝑚1 = 2/3. The
product of the slopes of this line and the unknown or required line say 𝐿2 , is -1.
1 3
That is 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1 ⟹ 𝑚2 = − 𝑚 = − 2. Hence, the equation of 𝐿2 is 𝑦 − 3 =
2
3 3
− 2 (𝑥 − (−2)) ⟹ 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥
6.3.2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC GRAPHS

The equation of a straight line is the linear equation, therefore, the graph of that line is
the linear graph.
We sketch the linear graphs by using at least two points on the graph paper, which are
the 𝑥 − intercept and the 𝑦 − intercept.
Examples
Graph the following functions
a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5,
b) 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 6
c) 5𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 15
d) 𝑦+𝑥+2 =0
Solutions
a) We can make a simple table for ordered pairs for the intercepts
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𝑥 0 5
𝑦 = 5−𝑥 5 0
Then from this we get the ordered pairs (0,5) and (5,0) which we plot on the graph
paper y-axis
𝑦+𝑥 =5
=5
-2 0 2 4 x-axis6
b) The intercepts table becomes

𝑥 0 2
𝑦 −3 0
From the ordered pairs (0, -3) and (2, 0), the graph becomes
2
y-axis
0
-1 0 1 2 x-axis 3
-1
-2 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 6
= 66
-3
-4
c) And d) are exercises.

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6.3.3 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS

We use the same procedure to graph the simultaneous equations and read the
solution as discussed earlier.
6. 3.4 GRAPHING QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

The graph of every quadratic function is called a parabola. A parabola may open
upward or downward. The parabola opens upward if the coefficient of the squared
term, 𝑎 is greater than zero. If 𝑎 < 0, then the parabola opens downward.
a>0 a<0
5 2
y
y
4 1
0
3 -4 -2 0 2 x 4
-1
2
-2
1 -3
0 -4
-4 -2 0 2 4
-5
x
In each parabola, there is a point called a vertex which is the lowest point on a parabola
that opens upward or the highest point on a parabola that opens downward. Every
parabola is symmetric with respect to the axis of symmetry through its vertex. The
𝑥 −coordinate of the vertex is the equation of the axis of symmetry. That is, the equation
−𝑏
𝑥=
2𝑎
Is the axis of symmetry of a parabola. The coordinates of the vertex are
−𝑏 −𝑏
𝑥= , 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 ( )
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 −𝑏
That is, the vertex is at ( 2𝑎 , 𝑓 ( 2𝑎 ) )
Examples
In the following functions, determine
a) Whether the parabola opens upward or downward

b) The equation of the axis of symmetry
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c) The vertex
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
(ii) 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 49
(iii) ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 9
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 9
Solutions
(i) Here 𝑎 = −2, 𝑏 = 4, 𝑐 = −5 .Since 𝑎 = −2 < 0, 𝑓(𝑥) opens downward.

−4
The equation of the axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = 2(−2) = 1, 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 = 1
𝑓(1) = −3, therefore the vertex is at (1, 3)
(ii) Here 𝑎 = 5, 𝑏 = −30, 𝑐 = 49. Since 𝑎 > 0, 𝑔(𝑥) opens upwards.
−(−30)
The equation of the axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = = 3, 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 = 3
2(5)
𝑔(3) = 5(32 ) − 30(3) + 49 = 4, then the vertex is at (3, 4).
(iii) Here 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = −9. Since 𝑎 > 0, ℎ(𝑥) opens upward.
−0
The equation of the axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = 2(1) = 0, 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 = 0
𝑓(0) = −9, therefore, the vertex is at (0, −9)
Guidelines for graphing Quadratic functions
1. Determine whether the parabola opens upward or downward.

2. Determine the equation of the axis of symmetry.
3. Determine the vertex of the parabola.
4. Determine the 𝑦 − intercept.
5. Determine the 𝑥 −intercept(s).
6. Draw the graph using the information from 1 to 5.
Examples
Sketch the following graphs
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 49
c) ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 9
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 9
Solutions
a) From the above examples, we noted that

(1) 𝑓(𝑥) opens downwards,
(2) the equation of the axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = 1
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(3) the vertex is at (1, −3) now

(4) For the 𝑦-intercept, whe 𝑥 = 0, 𝑓(0) = −5, so 𝑦 −intercept is at (0, −5).
−4±√42 −4(−2)(−5) −4±√−24
(5) When 𝑦 = 0, 0 = −2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 ⟹ 𝑥 = = , there is no
2(−2) −4
𝑥 −intercept(s) since we cannot obtain the square root of a negative number.
Then, the graph becomes
2
X=1, Axis of symmetry
y
x
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2
1; -3 vertex
-4
0; -5 2; -5
-6
-8
f(x)
-10
-1; -11 3; -11
-12
b) From the above examples, we noted that

1. 𝑔(𝑥) opens upwards,
2. the equation of the axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = 3
3. the vertex is at (3, 4) now
4. For the 𝑦-intercept, whe 𝑥 = 0, 𝑔(0) = 49, so 𝑦 −intercept is at (0,49).
5. When 𝑦 = 0, 0 = 5𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 49. From the quadratic formula, we can
check whether the graph has 𝑥 intercepts or not by checking whether 𝑏 2 −
4𝑎𝑐 > 0. Here, 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 302 − 4(5)(49) = −80, so, there are no
𝑥 −intercepts.
The graph becomes

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98
y
88
-1; 84 7; 84
78
68
g(x)
Axis of symmetry
58
48 0; 49 6; 49
38
28
18
8
3; 4 x
-2
-2 0 2 4 6 8
c) From the above examples, we noted that

1. ℎ(𝑥) opens upwards,
2. the equation of the axis of symmetry is 𝑥 = 0
3. the vertex is at (3, 4) now
4. For the 𝑦-intercept, whe 𝑥 = 0, ℎ(0) = −9, so 𝑦 −intercept is at (0, −9).
5. When 𝑦 = 0, 0 = 𝑥 2 − 9. From the quadratic formula,
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 02 − 4(1)(−9) = 36, so, there are 𝑥 −intercepts. That is
𝑥 2 − 9 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3.
Thus the 𝑥 −intercepts are (3, 0) and (-3, 0).
The graph becomes

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8
-4; 7 4; 7
y
6
4 h(x)
2
x
-3; 0 0 3; 0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-2
-4
-6
-8
0; -9
-10
d) Left as an exercise.
SUMMARY
In this last topic of unit six we studied how to graph a linear function on the graph
paper. If there is a system of equations that is to be solved using graphical method,
we graph the two equations on the same axis and the point of intersection is the
solution to the system if the system has a unique solution. If the system has no
solution the graph yields two parallel lines or the lines coincide if the system has
infinitely many solutions. You also learnt that the vertex gives the information on
maximum or minimum value of a function. This is observed when we sketch the
quadratic graph.
UNIT SIX – SUMMARY

In unit six we have studied linear and quadratic equations. We observed that the system
of linear equations can be solved by Elimination method, Substitution method or
Graphical method. The quadratic function can be solved by quadratic formula or by
factorization. We have also studied concepts such as mappings and functions. Functions
can be evaluated at the given point. This concept is useful in economics functions such as
cost function, revenue function and profit function as you get to find the quantities that
are required either to minimise cost or maximize profit. The quadratic functions concept
of vertex is used to find these maximum and minimum values. Both linear and quadratic
functions can be sketched on a graph paper. We have also examined the concepts of one-
to-one and onto functions. This concept has allowed us to explain equality between two
sets. We also established in the unit that the inverse of 𝑓, 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴 usually denoted
𝑓 −1 , exist, if 𝑓 is a one-to-one and onto function.

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It is instructive to note that Inverse function is not studied in isolation but more
importantly as a useful and powerful tool in understanding calculus which you will study
in the next unit.
UNIT SIX ACTIVITIES

1. The number of devices a particular manufacturing company can produce is a
function of the number of hours spent making the devices. On average, 𝟒
devices are produced each hour. Assume that devices are produced at a
constant rate.
(i) Write an equation in two variables that represents the number of
devices, 𝒚, as a function of the time the company spends making
the devices, 𝒙.
(ii) Use the equation you wrote in part (i) to determine how many
devices are produced in 𝟖 hours.
(iii) Use the equation you wrote in part (i) to determine how many
devices are produced in 𝟔 hours.
(iv) Use the equation you wrote in part (i) to determine how many
devices are produced in 𝟒 hours.
(v) The input of the function, 𝒙, is time, and the output of the function,
𝒚, is the number of devices produced. Write the inputs and outputs
from parts (ii)–(iv) as ordered pairs, and plot them as points on a
coordinate plane.
(vi) What shape does the graph of the points appear to take?
(vii) Is the function continuous or discrete?
(viii) Use the equation you wrote in part (i) to determine how many
devices are produced in 𝟏.𝟓 hours. Write your answer as an ordered
pair, as you did in part (v), and include the point on the graph. Is the
point in a place where you expected it to be? Explain.
(ix) Assume you used the rule that describes the function to determine
how many devices are produced for any given time and wrote each
answer as an ordered pair. Where do you think these points would
appear on the graph?
(x) What do you think the graph of this function will look like? Explain.
(xi) Connect the points you have graphed to make a line. Select a point
on the graph that has integer coordinates. Verify that this point has
an output that the function would assign to the input.

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NUL-IEMS
(xii) Sketch the graph of the equation 𝑦 = 4𝑥 using the same coordinate
plane in part (e). What do you notice about the graph of the function
that describes the company’s constant rate of producing devices and
the graph of the equation 𝑦 = 4𝑥?
UNIT SIX- REFERENCES
 Introduction to functions http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-

introfns-2009-1.pdf
 Types of functions
http://www.projectmaths.ie/workshops/workshop7/TypesOfFunctions.pdf
 Business Math for Dummies
http://www.boostem.org/pdf/BUSINESS/Business_Math_For_Dummies.pdf
 Finite Mathematics and Applied Calculus, 3rd Edition, Waner Costenoble

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UNIT SEVEN – INTRODUCTORY CALCULUS
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will study how to develop necessary tools of calculus to compute rate of
change of cost, revenue and profit functions. The rate of change is known as the
derivative. You will use differentiation techniques to obtain derivatives for different
functions. You will also compute areas under curve as a mere routine exercise. The area
under a curve gave birth to the second branch of calculus known as integration. Recall
that the word to integrate connotes ―whole of‖ which could be interpreted to mean
―find the whole area of‖. This concept is what will be introduced in this unit and be fully
developed.
OBJECTIVES
1. Differentiate linear and composite functions

2. Integrate simple functions using basic rules of integration
READINGS
 Finite Mathematics and Applied Calculus, 3rd Edition, Waner Costenoble, chapt 11-13

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7.1 DIFFERENTIATION
Given the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the rate of change ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) is the exact
∆𝑦
change in 𝑦. Then the average rate of change is said to be a derivative of 𝑦 with
∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
respect to 𝑥 when ∆𝑥 becomes very small, close to zero. That is, lim = 𝑑𝑥 . The
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
𝑑
symbol 𝑑𝑥 is the operator on the function 𝑓 to yield a rate of change of 𝑓 with respect to
𝑥. The derivative can also be denoted by 𝑓’(𝑥) or 𝑦’. This rate can be evaluated at a
𝑑𝑓
particular value of 𝑥 and the derivative at that value is denoted by | or 𝑓 ′ (𝑎).
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑎
Before we go any further, we look at the differentiation formulas which we are going to
use and not prove.
DIFFERENTIATION F ORMULAS OR RULES

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable1 functions of 𝑥 and 𝑐 is a constant, then
𝑑
1) The constant derivative Rule: (𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
2) The constant Multiple Rule: [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
3) The Power Rule: [𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , for any real number 𝑛.
𝑑𝑥
4) The Sum and/ Difference Rule:

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥) ± 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
5) The Product Rule: [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔𝑓 ′ −𝑓𝑔′
6) The Quotient Rule: [ ⁄𝑔(𝑥)] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔2
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑢
7) The Chain Rule: = 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 , if 𝑓 is a differentiable function of 𝑢 and 𝑢 a
𝑑𝑥
differentiable function of 𝑥.
Besides the above rules, we will use as rules, special derivatives, the derivatives of the natural
exponential and logarithmic functions.
1
A differentiable function is a function whose derivative can be obtained.
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SPECIAL DERIVATIVES
𝑑
a) [𝑒 𝑥 ] = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
b) [𝑒 𝑢 ] = 𝑒 𝑢 (𝑢), where 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
c) [ln 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑
d) [ln 𝑢] = (𝑢), where 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Examples
Differentiate the following
√𝑥−𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 780 e) 𝑦 = 𝑥2
12
b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 3 f) 𝑢 = − 𝑡 6
c) ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥(𝑥 − 2) g) 𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑥 −2 )3
d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 −2⁄3
Solutions:
𝑑𝑓 𝑑
a) = 𝑑𝑥 (780) = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
b) 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 3) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥) − 𝑑𝑥 (3) = 3𝑥 2 + 4
𝑑 𝑑 1 3 1
c) ℎ′ (𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥 (√𝑥) = √𝑥 + (𝑥 − 2) ∗ 2 𝑥 −1⁄2 = 2 √𝑥 −
√𝑥
𝑑 −2
d) 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −2⁄3 = 𝑥 −5⁄3
3
𝑑 𝑑 1
𝑑 √𝑥−𝑥 𝑥2 (√𝑥−𝑥)−(√𝑥−𝑥) (𝑥 2 ) 𝑥 2 ( 𝑥 −1⁄2 −1)−(√𝑥−𝑥)(2𝑥)
e) 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 ( ) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2
𝑥2 (𝑥 2 )2 𝑥4
𝑥 3⁄2
= + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥√𝑥
2
𝑑 12 𝑑
f) 𝑢′ (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 (− 𝑡 6 ) = −12 𝑑𝑡 (𝑡 −6 ) = −12 ∗ −6𝑡 −7 = 72⁄𝑡 7
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑
g) Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 −2 , then 𝑣 = 𝑢3 , = 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 (𝑢3 ) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑥 −2 )
𝑑𝑥

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= 3𝑢2 × (1 − 2𝑥 −3 )=3(𝑥 + 𝑥 −2 )2 (1 − 2𝑥 −3 ).
APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
We use derivatives to find rates of change in cost, profit and revenue functions. Suppose
that 𝑥 is the number of units sold in some time interval at a price 𝑝 Maloti and that 𝐶(𝑥)
is the total cost and 𝑅(𝑥) is the total revenue. Then, 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑅(𝑥) − 𝐶(𝑥) is the total
profit and 𝑝(𝑥) is the price (or demand) function. The derivatives of these functions
results in the marginal analysis.
Marginal Cost
It is the rate of change in cost per unit change in production at a given output level.
Marginal cost is denoted by 𝐶 ′ (𝑥). This derivative approximates the extra cost of
producing one additional unit.
Marginal Revenue
It is the rate of change in revenue, denoted by 𝑅’(𝑥), per unit change in production at a
given output level. This derivative approximates the extra revenue for selling one
additional unit.
Marginal Profit
It is the rate of change in profit, denoted by 𝑃’(𝑥), per unit change in production at a
given output level. This derivative approximates the extra profit for selling one additional
unit.
N.B:
With the interpretations above, it can be noted that 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) ≈ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), where
the function 𝑓 can be any of the above functions. This is interpreted as the value of 𝑓 per
1 additional unit increase in 𝑥. For instance, if 𝑥 = 10, 𝑓(11) = 𝑓(10) + 𝑓′(10) is the
value of 11 items which can be obtained with the knowledge of the value of 10 items plus
the rate of change of 𝑓 when 𝑥 = 10.
Examples
1. Find the marginal cost and interpret the results if
a) 𝐶(𝑥) = 18,500 + 8.45𝑥
b) 𝐶(𝑥) = 500 + 0.045𝑥 2

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2. As the operator of WF Health club, you calculate your demand equation to be

𝑞 = −0.06𝑝 + 46, for 200 ≤ 𝑝 ≤ 700, where 𝑞 is the number of members in the
club and 𝑝 is the annual membership fee you charge. Annual operating costs
amount to only M5000 per year and each member costs the club M100 per year for
medical evaluation and personal training.
a) Find the revenue and profit functions.
b) Compute the marginal revenue and marginal profit functions.
c) Calculate the marginal profit for 𝑞 = 15, 𝑞 = 20 and 𝑞 = 25 and interpret the
results.
Solutions
1. a) 𝐶’(𝑥) = 8.45. This means that it costs an additional M8.45 to produce one
more item at all levels of production.
b) 𝐶’(𝑥) = 0.09𝑥. This means that the marginal cost depends on the production
level of 𝑥 units because 𝐶’(𝑥) is the function of 𝑥. That is, if the current production
is 1000 units, then the cost of producing one additional unit, of the 1000 already
produced, is 𝐶′(𝑥)|𝑥=1000 = 0.09𝑥|𝑥=1000 = 90. In other words, the cost of
producing the 1001st unit is M90.00 not the cost of producing 1001 units.
4600−100𝑞
2. 𝑞 = −0.06𝑝 + 46 ⟹ 𝑝 = , the cost function is 𝐶(𝑞) = 5000 + 100𝑞
6
4600−100𝑞 4600𝑞−100𝑞 2
a) Revenue function is 𝑅(𝑞) = 𝑝𝑞 = 𝑞 ( )=
6 6
4000𝑞−100𝑞 2
Profit function is 𝑃(𝑞) = 𝑅(𝑞) − 𝐶(𝑞) = − 5000.
6
b) Marginal revenue is 𝑅 ′ (𝑞) = 16[4600−200𝑞]
Marginal profit is 𝑃′ (𝑞) = 16 [4000−200𝑞]]
c) 𝑃′ (15) = 16[4000−200×15]=166.67, this means that for the 16th new club member, profit
increases by M166.67.
𝑃′ (20) = 0. This means that the maximum profit is obtained when the club has 20
members. That is, the 21st member will not increase the profit.
𝑃′ (25) = −166.67 means that the 26th club member causes the club to have a loss of
M166.67.

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FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES: MAXIMA AND MINIMA

The point where the derivative is zero is called the critical point. This point is the vertex
point which we studied under quadratic functions. The point helps us to determine the
maximum (maxima) or minimum (minima) value of the function. Instead of using the
vertex of the parabola to determine the maxima or minima, you can now use the critical
point. The maximum revenue and profit are obtained where 𝑅’(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑃’(𝑥) = 0
equal to zero, respectively. However, the minimum cost is obtained where 𝐶’(𝑥) = 0.
Examples
1. A manufacturer find that the revenue generated by selling 𝑥 units of a certain

commodity is given by the function 𝑅(𝑥) = 80𝑥 − 0.4𝑥 2 , where 𝑅(𝑥) is
measured in dollars.
i. How many units should be manufactured to obtain this maximum?
ii. What is the maximum revenue?
2. A soft drink vendor at a popular beach analyzes his sales record and finds that is
he sells 𝑥 cans of soda pop in one day, his profit (in dollars) is given by 𝑃(𝑥) =
−0.001𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1800.
a) How many cans must he sell for maximum profit?
b) What is his maximum profit per day?
3. A marketing firm estimates that 𝑛 months after the introduction of a client’s
new product, 𝑓(𝑛) thousands households will use it, where
10
𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛(12 − 𝑛), 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 12
9
a) Estimate the maximum number of households that will use the product.
b) It is noted that 𝑓(12) = 0, what does it mean?
Solutions
1. 𝑅 ′ (𝑥) = 80 − 0.8𝑥
i. Maximum revenue is obtained where 𝑅’(𝑥) = 0, that is, 80 − 0.8𝑥 =
0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 100. Therefore, 100 units should be manufactured to obtain
maximum revenue.

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ii. The maximum revenue is obtained at 𝑥 = 100, therefore, 𝑅(100) =

80(100) − 0.4(100)2 = 4,000.
That is, maximum revenue is $4,000.00.
2. 𝑃′ (𝑥) = −0.002𝑥 + 3,
a) 𝑃′ (𝑥) = 0 ⟹ 0 = −0.002𝑥 + 3 ⟹ 𝑥 = 1,500. That is, 1,500 cans must

be sold to obtain maximum profit.
b) 𝑃(1500) = 450. Thus, his maximum profit per day is $450.00
3. This question was done under quadratic function:

10 120 10 120 20
a) 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛(12 − 𝑛) = 𝑛− 𝑛2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑛) = − 𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑓 ′ (𝑛) = 0 ⟹
9 9 9 9 9
120 20
− 𝑛 = 0 ⟹ 𝑛 = 6. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(6) = 40. Thus, the maximum number of
9 9
households that will use the product is 40, 000.
b) 𝑓(12) = 0 means that after 12 months none of the households will use a new
product.
The derivative of a function may not exist for some values of 𝑥. If the derivative of 𝑓 exists
at 𝑎, then the function 𝑓 is said to be differentiable at 𝑎. For example, for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥,
1 −1⁄
𝑓(0) = 0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 𝑥 2 yet 𝑓 ′ (0) is undefined. Therefore, 𝑓 is not differentiable
at 𝑥 = 0.
N.B
In determining the extremas (maxima and minima), two or more values may be
obtained when the derivative is equated to zero. To obtain the required extrema,
substitute the obtained values to the original function and choose appropriately.
TOPIC SUMMARY
You learnt that:
 Rules of differentiation can be used to find rates of changes in cost, revenue and
profit.
 Marginal cost 𝐶’(𝑥) approximates the extra cost of producing one additional unit.
 Marginal revenue 𝑅′(𝑥) approximates the extra revenue of selling one additional
unit.
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 Marginal profit 𝑃′(𝑥) approximates the extra profit of selling one additional unit.
You learnt that the derivative is the rate of change. The anti-derivative gives the original
function that was differentiated. This and more is in the next topic.

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7.2 INTEGRATION
INTRODUCTION
Calculus involves the study of two basic operations:
i. Finding the derivative of a function often referred to as DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

ii. Using the “inverse operation” , i.e. reversing the process of differentiation called
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
We are now going to study much related concepts
i. The anti-derivative and

ii. The definite integral.
OBJECTIVES
1. Integrate basic functions using basic integration formulae.

2. Use integration to obtain the cost, revenue and profit function given
information on their marginal functions.
3. Define the definite integral of a function within an interval [a, b].
4. Define the definite integral as area under a curve.
7.2.1 ANTI-DERIVATIVE
We have solved problems of the type:
“Given a function 𝑓(𝑥), find the derivative 𝑓′. ”
We now consider the reverse process:
Given a function 𝑓(𝑥), find a function 𝐺(𝑥) such that
𝐺 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Definition
A function 𝐺(𝑥) is an ANTIDERIVATIVE of the function 𝑓 on an interval 𝐼 if
𝐺 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 in 𝐼.
The process of finding 𝐺(𝑥) is called ANTIDIFFERENTIATION.

𝑑
e.g. if 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 then 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 because (𝑥 4 ) = 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
NOTE: There are many other anti-derivatives of 4𝑥 3
e.g. 𝑥 4 + 2, 𝑥 4 − 100, 𝑥 4 + 𝐶 where C is any constant.

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Therefore, the anti-derivative is a “FAMILY” of functions which is NOT unique.
Thus, the anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is generally 𝐺(𝑥) + 𝐶.
7.2.2 THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

We call ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 the indefinite integral of 𝑓(𝑥), where ∫ is called the integral sign, the
function 𝑓 the integrand, 𝑥 the variable of integration and 𝑑𝑥 the symbol that indicates the
independent variable. Therefore,
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺(𝑥) + 𝐶
is the integral of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥, where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐺 ′ (𝑥) and 𝐶 is an arbitrary constant. The
process of finding 𝐺(𝑥) + 𝐶 when given 𝑓(𝑥) is called INDEFINITE INTEGRATION, or
evaluating the integral or integrating 𝑓(𝑥).
IN GENERAL
𝑑 𝑑
∫ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶 and 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Rules for Indefinite Integrals
Many of the properties (rules) that applied to differentiation have similar properties in
integration.
1. Power Rule
𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+𝐶 𝑛 ≠ −1
SPECIAL CASE: If 𝑛 = 0 then ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶
2. Constant Multiple Rule
If 𝑘 is any constant, then ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
SPECIAL CASE: Rule for Negatives; ∫ −𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
3. Sum Rule
∫[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
4. Difference Rule
∫[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
5. Integral Formulas for Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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𝑑
i. Recall that (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 , similarly, ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 . From this we have
𝑑𝑥
1
∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
Thus, in general
𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑎 + 𝐶 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1
1
ii. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −1 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝐶.
Examples
1. Find the anti-derivative in each case:
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 ii. 𝑔(𝑥) = −7𝑥 iii. ℎ(𝑡) = √𝑡

𝑦 2 +1
iv. ℎ(𝑦) = 𝑦
2. Find the indefinite integrals:

3 2 √𝑥 2
i. ∫ [ 𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ] 𝑑𝑡 ii . ∫ (𝑥 3⁄2 + − 2) 𝑑𝑥
5
Solutions
1. We are to find functions whose derivatives are given.

i) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥2 7
ii) ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ −7𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −7 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −7 + 𝐶 = − 2 𝑥2 + 𝐶
2
𝑡 1+1/2 2𝑡 3/2
iii) ∫ ℎ(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ √𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡1/2 𝑑𝑡 = +𝐶 = +𝐶
3/2 3
𝑦 2 +1 1 𝑦2
iv) ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ (𝑦 + 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + ∫(𝑦 −1 )𝑑𝑦 = + ln 𝑦 + 𝐶
𝑦 2
2.
3 2 3 2 2(−1) 2
i. ∫ ( 𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 3 ln 𝑡 − + 𝐶 = 3 ln 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑡
5 3
3 3
√𝑥 √𝑥 2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
ii. ∫ (𝑥 + 2 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 5 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = + +𝑥+𝐶
5 5 15
1
Some functions such as ∫ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 are not obvious that they are functions of the form
1 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 which can be evaluated as ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝐶. Therefore, we will consider two
integration techniques to solve some of the problems whose solutions cannot be
obtained by the above rules.
7.2.3 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES

We will study the following Techniques
1. Integration by Substitution
2. Integration by Parts
1. Integration By Substitution
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We have used the chain rule in order to differentiate functions
REMINDER
If 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑢) is a differentiable function of 𝑢, then

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑔(𝑢)) = 𝑔(𝑢) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
Hence
𝑑𝑢
∫ [𝑔′ (𝑢) ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔′ (𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
Integration by Substitution - Procedure:
1. Write 𝑢 as a function of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑢
2. Take the derivative 𝑑𝑥 .
3. Solve for 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑑𝑢.
4. Substitute for 𝑢 and 𝑑𝑥 in the integral.
5. Before integrating make sure that the variable 𝑥 is eliminated from the integral.
6. After Integrating substitute back to write the answer in terms of 𝑥.
Examples
Determine the following Integrals:

1
1. ∫(𝑥 + 1)9 𝑑𝑥 4. ∫ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥
2. ∫(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5)4 (𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ 𝑥(3𝑥 − 5)3 𝑑𝑥 5. ∫ 3𝑥√1 − 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solutions
1. ∫(𝑥 + 1)9 𝑑𝑥 This is a composite function where the inner function is 𝑥 + 1. Now, let
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, then 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. Then the integral becomes
𝑢10 (𝑥+1)10
∫(𝑢)9 𝑑𝑢 = 10 + 𝐶. Thus, ∫(𝑥 + 1)9 𝑑𝑥 = 10 + 𝐶.
2. ∫(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5)4 (𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥, in this integral, there is the inner function 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5, so
let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5, integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥 we get
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢) = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5) ⟹ = 2𝑥 + 2 = 2(𝑥 + 1) ⟹ = 𝑑𝑥,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2(𝑥+1)
now substituting 𝑢 and 𝑑𝑥 in the integral we get
𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑢5
∫(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5)4 (𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢4 (𝑥 + 1) 2(𝑥+1) = 2 ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑢 = 2 ( 5 ) + 𝐶
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5)5
= +𝐶
10
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𝑑𝑢
3. ∫ 𝑥(3𝑥 − 5)3 𝑑𝑥: Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 5, then integrating both sides we get 𝑑𝑥 = .
3
𝑥𝑢3 𝑑𝑢
Substituting for 𝑢 and 𝑑𝑥 gives ∫ 𝑥(3𝑥 − 5)3 = ∫ . We cannot integrate because
3
𝑢+5
we have both 𝑥 and 𝑢, so we remove 𝑥 by solving for 𝑥 in 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 5 to get 𝑥 = .
3
𝑥𝑢3 𝑑𝑢 (𝑢+5) 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑢5 5𝑢4
Then ∫ =∫ = ∫(𝑢4 + 5𝑢3 )𝑑𝑢 = 9 [ 5 + ] + 𝐶.
3 3 3 9 4
(3𝑥−5)5 5(3𝑥−5)4
Hence ∫ 𝑥(3𝑥 − 5)3 𝑑𝑥 = + + 𝐶.
45 36
1
4. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 + 1)−1 𝑑𝑥, let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢. Substituting gives ∫(𝑥 +
𝑥+1
1)−1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢−1 𝑑𝑢 = ln 𝑢 + 𝐶 = ln |𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶.
5. Exercise
Integration by Parts
This is one of the main methods of integration which is used often. It is derived from the product rule of
the rules of derivatives.
Recall:
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are two differentiable functions then
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
which we can simply write as
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢
Integrate on both sides to obtain
∫ 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
⟹ 𝑢𝑣 = ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
⟹ ∫ 𝒖𝒅𝒗 = 𝒖𝒗 − ∫ 𝒗𝒅𝒖 This is the integration by parts formula.

REMARKS
1. Use integration by parts when the integrand consists of a product of two unrelated functions.
2. There are special cases for which we use integration by parts: If the integrand includes the
following functions, we always choose 𝑢 to be one of these functions, ln(𝑥) , 𝑥 𝑛
3. The choice of 𝑢 and 𝑣 is very important.
(i) Make sure that 𝑑𝑣 can actually be integrated easily.
(ii) If possible, choose 𝑢 in such a way that it becomes simpler. e.g if you have a power of 𝑥,
choose the power of 𝑥 to be 𝑢 so that the power decreases.
(iii) Exclusions occur where the integrand includes powers of 𝑥 and one of the functions
named above for which we know their derivatives not their integrals.
Examples
a) ∫ 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
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b) ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solutions
a) Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥, then 𝑑𝑣 = √1 + 𝑥𝑑𝑥, then integrating both sides gives 𝑣 =
3
(1+𝑥)3/2 (1+𝑥)3/2 (1+𝑥)2
∫ √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3/2
, Therefore ∫ 𝑥√1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3/2
−∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 =
2
5 3 5
3
2𝑥 2 (1+𝑥)2 2𝑥(1+𝑥)2 4(1+𝑥)2
(1 + 𝑥) −
2
5 +𝐶 = − +𝐶
3 3 3 15
2
𝑑𝑥
b) Let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥
, then 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥, then integrating both sides gives 𝑣 = 𝑥, then
𝑑𝑥
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
Note that, under the integration by parts, when determining the value of 𝑣, we integrate both
sides of the equation. This is similar to solving differential equations that are variable separable.
Instead of having the constant of integration 𝐶 as unknown, the initial conditions can be given to
help us find the value of 𝐶. That is, given the marginal cost function, we can determine the cost
function using integration if say the value of fixed cost is given. This is referred to as definite
integral.
7.2.4 DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Definite integration can be viewed as solving variable separable differential equation. Given the
derivative
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 2 … … … … . . . (1)
𝑑𝑥
We can solve for 𝑦 like we solved for 𝑣 in the integration by parts technique as follows:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Integrating both sides yields
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 … … … … (2)
Using indefinite integrals, (2) yields

𝑥3
𝑦=
+ 𝐶 … … … … … . (3)
3
As we have said earlier, 𝐶 can be any value. However, if we use the proportionality concept
from 2.4 of unit 2, and say we should find 𝑦 if 𝑦 = 10 when 𝑥 = 3, 𝑖. 𝑒 (𝑦(3) = 10) , then from
(3) we get
𝑥3 33 𝑥3
𝑦= + 𝐶 ⟹ 10 = +𝐶 ⟹𝐶 =1 ∴𝑦 = + 1 … … . (4)
3 3 3
11
From (4), we may be required to find 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 2. That is, 𝑦(2) = .
3
Note that:
19
- From (4), 𝑦(3) − 𝑦(2) = 3
.
3
3 𝑥3
- From (2), if we are to find 𝑦 between 2 and 3, we can write it as 𝑦 = ∫2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3 2
|

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27 8 19
= − = .
3 3 3
𝑏
The integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is the definite integral which, by the fundamental of theorem of calculus
states that:
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function for all 𝑥𝜖 [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝐺(𝑥) is an anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥),
𝑏
then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺(𝑏) – 𝐺(𝑎). The numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are called the limits of
integration.
Examples
a) Evaluate the following integrals
𝑏 1
(i) ∫𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (ii) ∫0 (6𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 + 7)𝑑𝑥
b) Find the cost function given that the marginal cost of a certain firm is
𝐶 ′ (𝑥) = 0.009𝑥 2 − 0.04𝑥 + 32 and that the cost of producing 100 units is M11400.
Solutions
a) We will use power rule to integrate the given functions and evaluate them using the limits
of integration.
𝑏
𝑏 𝑥2 1
(i) ∫𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑎
| = 2 [𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 ]
1
1 6𝑥 6 2𝑥 4 1 1
(ii) ∫0 (6𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 + 7)𝑑𝑥 = ( − + 7𝑥)| = 1 − + 7 = 7
6 4 0 2 2
b) This is an indefinite integral question with given initial conditions. That is, we firstly need to
find the cost function and then evaluate it at the given conditions. Now,
0.009𝑥 3 0.04𝑥 2
𝐶(𝑥) = ∫(0.009𝑥 2 − 0.04𝑥 + 32) 𝑑𝑥 = ( − + 32𝑥 + 𝐶)
3 2
= 0.003𝑥 3 − 0.02𝑥 2 + 32𝑥 + 𝐶
Now, it is given that
𝐶(100) = 11400 ⟹ 𝐶(100) = 0.003(1003 ) − 0.02(1002 ) + 32(100) + 𝐶 ⟹
11400 = 6000 + 𝐶 ⟹ 𝐶 = 5400.
Therefore, the required cost function is 𝐶(𝑥) = 0.003𝑥 3 − 0.02𝑥 2 + 32𝑥 + 5,400.
The definite integral is sometimes viewed as the area enclosed by the curve 𝑓(𝑥) and the lines
𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. We check the validity of this view in the next topic.
7.2.5 AREA UNDER A CURVE
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a continuous function of 𝑥 on a closed interval [a, b]. In this case for
better understanding, you assume that 𝑓(𝑥) is positive in the closed interval i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) >
0 for all 𝑥𝜖[𝑎, 𝑏]. Then the problem to be considered is to calculate the area bounded by
the graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 and below by the 𝑥 – axis as
shown in the Figure below.

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Area under a curve
30
25
20
15
A B C
10
0
1 2 3 4
You can start by dividing the area into 𝑛 thin strips of uniform width 𝛥𝑥 = (𝑏 − 𝑎)/𝑛 by
lines perpendicular to the 𝑥 – axis at the end points 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. These will form
many intermediate points which can be numbered as 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . 𝑥𝑛−1 .
The sum of the areas of these 𝑛 rectangular strips gives an approximate value for the area
under the curve. That is, if 1 unit is 1 strip, then 𝑛 = 3. Recall that the area of a rectangle
is length x width, so then the total area of the above diagram is
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶 = 1 × 25 + 1 × 25 + 1 × 25 = 75.
The diagram is a rectangle, so its area without cutting into strips is 25 × 3 = 75.
Using integration, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 25, the area under the curve 𝑓(𝑥), the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 4
4 4 4 𝑥 4
is ∫1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 25 𝑑𝑥 = 25 ∫1 𝑑𝑥 = 25 1| = 25(4 − 1) = 75, which is the enclosed
1
area above.
𝑏
Thus, the area under a curve can be obtained by the defined integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
Example
Find the area enclosed by the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , the lines 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3.
Solution

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3
3 𝑥3 27 8 19
By integration, the area is ∫2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = | = −3= .
3 2 3 3
If the area is enclosed by two curves, say 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), then the enclosed area becomes
𝑏
∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are the 𝑥 values of the points of intersection of the
two curves. This is will not be covered in this module.
SUMMARY
This Unit introduced you to Differentiation and integration. You will have learnt
practical application of these concepts and how the topic of calculus can be linked
to previous units such as ratios, rates and proportion and calculating area .
ACTIVITY 7
1. What is the slope of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1 ?
𝑥
2. Compute the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2 by a) using the quotient rule b) using the
limit definition of the derivative
𝑓(1+𝑥)−𝑓(1)
3. If 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + ln𝑥 is the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥), find lim . Hint: find
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥).
4. Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 10 after answering the following
questions2:
b. Where is the graph increasing, and where is decreasing?
c. Where is the graph concave upward, and where is it concave downward?
d. Where are the local minima and local maxima? Establish conclusively that
they are local minima and maxima
e. Where are the inﬂection points?
f. What happens to 𝑓(𝑥) as x →∞ and as x →−∞.
6 𝑥3
5. Compute ∫5 𝑑𝑥. Your answer should be in the form of an integer
𝑒 𝑥 +9
10
6. Evaluate ∫2 3√𝑧 − 1𝑑𝑧
7. Given the demand equation 𝑥 3/2 + 50𝑝 = 1000 and the cost function
𝐶(𝑥) = 50 + 𝑥 3/2, find
(i) the marginal cost.
(ii) the marginal revenue.
(iii) the marginal profit when 𝑥 = 25.
2
Refer to curve sketching guidelines in the Appendix
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8. Find the cost function given that the marginal cost of a certain firm is
𝐶 ′ (𝑥) = 24 − 0.03𝑥 + 0.006𝑥 2 and that the cost of producing 200 units is M22,
700.00
UNIT SEVEN- REFERENCES

 Basic
Integrationhttp://faculty.swosu.edu/michael.dougherty/book/chapter06.pdf
 Calculus Introduction
http://mapmf.pmfst.unist.hr/~skresic/Matematika4/Calculus.pdf
 The Meaning of Integrationhttp://math.iisc.ernet.in/~nands/2004-Int_April-AKN-
Resonance.pdf
 Introduction to integration
https://web.math.rochester.edu/people/faculty/edummit/docs/calc1_4_introdu
ction_to_integration.pdf
 Calculus Org http://www.calculus.org/

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COURSE SUMMARY
LESSONS LEARNED
You are encouraged to reflect upon the lessons learned from this course. You should create
your own list of lessons learned. You should note areas or topics that you would like to
explore further. Just because the course has ended you should continue to gain additional
expertise by reading Communications and Business journals, articles and books. You may
even want to participate in workshops and conference in Business Communications.
It is hoped that you will take the knowledge and skill you have learned during completion of
this course to help improve your personal and business communications skills. This course
should support the entrepreneur who is just starting out and individuals working in more
mature organizations.
Good luck in the future.
COURSE JOURNAL SUBMISSION

By now your course journal should be very full. You should submit it to your instructor for
review, feedback and grading. He or she will ensure that you get your original journal back
so that you can continue to record your communications discoveries as you move forward
with your business.
COURSE EVALUATION
As a final step you are asked to complete a course evaluation. Your institution will provide
you with the form and instructions on how to complete it and submit it.

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COURSE APPENDICES
Here find
1. Curve sketching guidelines

2. Extra exercises for each unit

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APPENDIX ONE – CURVE SKETCHING GUIDELINES

CURVE SKETCHING
GUIDELINES FOR CURVE-SKETCHING
The following serve as a guide to sketching a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Not every item is relevant
to every function, e.g, a function may not have an asymptote but the guidelines provide
all the information you need to make a sketch that displays the important aspects of the
function.
A. DOMAIN
It is often useful to start by determining the domain of 𝑓(𝑥), i.e. the set of values of
𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) is defined.
B. INTERCEPTS
i) The y - intercepts, i.e. 𝑓(0) tells us where the curve crosses the y - axis.
ii) The x - intercepts, i.e. set 𝑦 = 0 and solve for 𝑥. This step can be omitted if
the equation is difficult to solve.
C. ASYMPTOTES
i) Vertical Asymptotes
𝑝(𝑥)
For a rational function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥) , we get the vertical asymptotes by
equating 𝑞(𝑥) to zero and solving for 𝑥. The value of 𝑥 gives a vertical line
which is an asymptote of the curve. In general, the line 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of the function 𝑓 if either:
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞ or
𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
𝑥→𝑐 −
To find 𝑐 we solve 𝑞(𝑥) = 0.

ii) Horizontal Asymptotes
a. Given that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or
𝑥→∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, where 𝐿 is a constant, then the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a
𝑥→−∞
Horizontal asymptote of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑝(𝑥)
b. For a rational function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥) , we can use long or synthetic division
𝑟(𝑥)
to write the function in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 + 𝑞(𝑥) , where 𝑟(𝑥) is the
remainder, then the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal asymptote.
iii) Oblique/Slant Asymptote

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For rational functions, oblique/slant asymptotes occur when the degree of

the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. In such a
case, long/synthetic division can be used to find the asymptote. i.e. if 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
= 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑞(𝑥) then the line
𝑞(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 is the oblique asymptote.
NOTE:
While the graph of a function does not normally touch or cross an asymptote,
there are some situations when this behavior is not obeyed in a graph. i.e the
graph may cross the asymptotes. We observe this at the point where the
remainder 𝑟(𝑥) = 0. Thus, if 𝑟(𝑥) is an equation then solving 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 for x
gives the point at which the graph cuts or crosses the asymptote.
D. CRITICAL POINTS
If 𝑐 is in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑐 is a critical number if 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
0 or 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) does not exist. So, find the critical points, i.e. find the points at which the
derivative of the function equals zero or does not exist.
E. INTERVALS OF INCREASE OR DECREASE
Compute 𝑓’(𝑥), use the critical numbers to find the intervals for which
i) 𝑓’(𝑥) is +ve . i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing
ii) 𝑓’(𝑥) is –ve,.i.e 𝑓(𝑥) is decreasing
F. LOCAL MAXIMUM/LOCAL MINIMUM POINTS
Use the first derivative test to determine points of local maximum/minimum. The
test states that,
i) If 𝑓’(𝑥) changes from +ve to –ve at a critical point 𝑐, then 𝑐 gives a local
maximum.
ii) If 𝑓’(𝑥) changes from –ve to +ve at a critical point 𝑐, then 𝑐 gives a local
minimum.
iii) If 𝑓’(𝑥) does not change sign at 𝑐, then f has no local extreme value at 𝑐.
G. CONCAVITY AND POINTS OF INFLECTION
Compute 𝑓’’(𝑥) and use the concavity test which states that,
i) The curve is concave upward where 𝑓’’(𝑥) > 0 and
ii) The curve is concave downward where 𝑓”(𝑥) < 0.
iii) Inflection points occur where concavity changes (from +ve to –ve, vice versa).
i.e. find the points where 𝑓”(𝑥) equals zero or doesn’t exist then test concavity.
H. SKETCH THE CURVE USING THE ABOVE INFORMATION.
Exercises:

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Sketch the following graphs.
𝑥 2 −4𝑥+4 𝑥 2 −32𝑥 𝑥 3 −1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2. 𝑦 = 3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
𝑥2 2𝑥+1
SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR EXTREME VALUES (MAXIMA AND MINIMA)
For 𝑐 in the domain of f and 𝑓(𝑥) a continuous function,
a) If 𝑓’(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓”(𝑐) > 0 then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑐.

b) If 𝑓’(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓”(𝑐) < 0, then 𝑓 has a local maximum at 𝑐.
The second derivative test can be used to classify the critical points i.e. it can
determine whether the point gives the maximum or the minimum value just like the
first derivative test. The test can also be used in Applied Maxima or Minima
(Optimization) problems to determine the required dimensions that minimize or
maximize certain items or quantities.
APPENDIX TWO – DECIMALS AND ESTIMATIONS
1. Write each of the following decimal fractions in decimal notation:

5 4 58
a. b. c.
10 100 10000
15 56 125
d. e. f.
10 1000 1000000
2. Indicate the place value of each non-zero digit in the following decimals:
a. 5.6 b. 45.3 c. 176.5
d. 6.05 e. 50.61023 f. 6.00008
3. Round off each of the following decimals to the nearest hundred, the nearest ten, the
nearest whole number, the nearest tenth, the nearest hundredth, and the nearest
thousandth:
(a) 60846.2785 (b) 340.0058 (c) 529.5060 (d) 499.8299
4. Copy and complete the following table bye estimating the given numbers to the specified
accuracy.

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2 significant figure 2 decimal points To the nearest

tenth
45.605
39.996
5. Estimate each of the following sums and differences. Then determine the exact
answers:
a) 58.93+129.67+70.14
b) 3,797.5-412.6
6. Perform the indicated operation on each of the following decimals::
(a) 0.007 0.3 (b) 0.5  0.06 (c) 18.09  6.2 (d) 0.0071 0.038
(d) 32.6  2.6 (e) 186 0.87 (f) 74.362  3.26
7. Find the fraction represented by the following:

a) 0.08 b) 0.64 c) 2.5 d) 1.234
8. Round off the following to the specified number of significant figures.
a) 7856 to 3 sf b) 59056 to 2 sf
c) 134 to 1 sf d) 547324 to 4 sf
e) 503 to 1 sf f) 8964 to 2 sf
g) 521 to 2 sf h) 94532 to 3 sf
i) 32 to 1 sf j) 4572974 to 5 sf
k) 1.457 to 2 sf l) 5.08 to 2 sf
m) 3.56 to 1 sf n) 12.57 to 1 sf
o) 7.3425 to 3 sf p) 0.074 to 1 sf
q) 367.4 to 2 sf r) 45.924 to 4 sf
s) 0.675 to 2 sf t) 168.305 to 4 sf
9. The number 49.613 can be written in another form as follows:

 1  1   1 
49.613  4  10  9  1   6    1    3 
 10   100   1000  .
This form of representation is known as the expanded notation. Write each of
the numbers in the above question (b) in expanded notation.
10. Convert the following to decimals:
3 4 2 4
a) b) c) d)
5 13 9 11

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APPENDIX THREE- PERCENTAGES
Exercises A
1. What percentage of
(a) 25 is 5 (b) 200 is 60 (c) 90 is 18
(d) 100 is 20 (e) 55 is 11 (f) 160 is 4 ?
2. Find the number N given that
a) 20% N  15 (b) 14% N  63 (c) 8%  N  50
(d) 55% of N  121 (e) 32% of N  12 (f) 20% N  M 45.00
3. Find the unknown whole number given that
(a) 25% of x  75 (b) 110% of N  77 (c) 300% of y  75
4. Express the first number as a percentage of the second.
(a) 56, 200 (b) 785, 1000 (c) 45, 300
5. Tsepang has 36 marbles in his pocket. This is 60% of the total. How many marbles does
he have altogether?
6. Thabo saves M 50.00 out her wages every week. This is 25 % of her total weekly wage.
How much does she earn per week?
7. Big Apple Computer Center employs 120 computer programmers. This company has
400 employees. What percentage of the employees are programmers?
8. A bottle contains 2 liters of orange juice. Susan drinks 400 milliliters. What percentage
is left?
9. A company made 450 machines. If 8% were found to be faulty, how many were in
good condition?
10. Bokang spent M 50.00 on a T-Shirt. This was 20% of the money she had saved. How
much money did she save?
Exercises B
3. Copy and complete the following table.
Cost Price Selling Price Profit Loss
(a) M 130.00 M 150.00

(b) M 45.00 M 30.00
When the profit is
(c) M 95.00 M 20.00
(d) M 160.00 M 40.00 equal to ZERO, the
(e) M 300.00 M 30.00 loss is also ZERO.
(f) M 450.00 M 30.00 We say that we
(g) M 725.00 M 725.00 have ‘Break Even”
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4. For each of these calculate the profit or the loss
a) cost price  M 75.00 selling price  M 85.00

b) cost price  M125.00 selling price  M100.00
c) cost price  M 250.00 selling price  M 275.00
d) cost price  M 48.00 selling price  M 42.00
e) cost price  M 52.00 selling price  M 65.00
f) cost price  M 90.00 selling price  M108.00
g) cost price  M125.00 selling price  M 90.00
h) cost price  M 40.00 selling price  M 37.50
5. Copy and complete the following table. Where necessary, work answers nearest to 2
decimal places.
Cost Price Selling Price Percentage Percentage

Profit Loss
(a) M 100.00 M 150.00
(b) M 45.00 M 30.00
(c) M 95.00 M131.00
(d) M 160.00 M 200.00
(e) M 1,500.00 M 1,250.00
(f) M 400.00 M 450.00
(g) M 725.00 M 725.00
6. For each of these calculate the selling price
a) cost price  M 80.00 profit  M16.00
b) cost price  M120.00 loss  M 24.00
c) cost price  M 80.00 profit  5 %
d) cost price  M 240.00 loss  25 %
e) cost price  M 800.00 profit  12.5 %
f) cost price  M 85.00 profit  14 %
g) cost price  M170.00 loss  7.5 %
7. Lebohang bought some shirts from a wholesaler for M 75.00 each. He sold them in his
shop and made 30 % profit. What is the selling price of each shirt?
8. Nthabiseng bought a Hi-fi for M 1,750.00 and later sold it at a loss of 8.4 % . How much
did she sell the Hi-fi for?
9. John bought a car for M 64,000.00 and sold it to his cousin for M 48,320.00 . Calculate
his percentage loss.
10. A shop bought a fridge for  M 2,100.00 and sold it to a customer or M 2,800.00 . Find
the percentage profit made by the shop. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.

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11. Limpho bought a bicycle for M 2790.00 . She later sold it to her friend for M1900.00 .
Calculate her percentage loss, correct to 1 decimal place.
12. How much did a table cost a dealer if he used a 35 % markup on the cost and sold the
table for M 1080.00 .
13. Find the selling price of each of the following articles
a) A dress, costing M 800.00 , with a 25 % markup.
b) A camera, costing M 240.00 , with a 15 % markup.
14. A refrigerator was purchased by a store for M 5,500.00. It was marked to sell at a profit
of 28 % of the cost. It was sold at a discount of 10 % on the marked price. Find the
selling price, and the profit made from the sale. This profit is called the gross profit.
15. Tehoho bought a bicycle for M 2,100.00 and marked up the price of the bicycle by 30 %
. He sold it to his friend at a discount of 10 % .
a) What was Teboho’s gross profit?
b) What was his gross percentage profit?
Exercises C
1) Find the total cost of buying on credit and the interest for the following.
a) The cash price of a television is M 7,000.00 . It can be bought with a deposit of 20% and
12 monthly payments of M 500.00 .
b) A cassette player costs M 2,500.00 . The credit requires a deposit of 15% and 12
monthly installments of M 210.00 .
c) A bicycle that costs M 3,500.00 can be on credit with a deposit of 25% followed by 24
monthly installments of M150.00 .
2) Mrs. Boliba buys a M 6,750.00 fridge. She arranges to pay a deposit of M 2,000.00 and
 M 475.00 per month for 12 months. How much does she pay for the fridge?
3) Lisebo buys a car. She pays a deposit of M 35,000.00 and M 1,250.00 per months for 36
months. What is the total cost of the car?
4) Mr. Ralintja buys bedroom furniture on hire purchase. The cash price is M 7,499.00 . The
deposit is M 2,099.00 and the balance plus a 15% interest on the balance must be paid in
six equal monthly installments. Calculate
i) the outstanding balance after payment of the deposit.
ii) the interest on the outstanding balance.
iii) the total amount to be paid
iv) the monthly installments

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NUL-IEMS
Exercises D
1) The VAT has just been raised from 10% to 14% by filling the table below find the increase
in tax.
Price of an item VAT at 14% VAT at 10% The increase
(a) M 100.00
(b) M 320.00
(c) M 200.00
(d) M 55.00
(e) M 6,500.00
2) Work out the VAT at the rate of 14% for the following prices
(a) M 75.00 (b) M 40.00 (c) M 250.00

(d) M 52.00 (e) M108.00 (f) M 90,000.00
3) Add 10% VAT (to the nearest Sente) to the following prices:
(a) M 5.60 (b) M 44.45 (c) M 259.99
(d) M 52.40 (e) M108.00 (f) M 90,000.00
4) Calculate 14% VAT on a M 30.00 bill for a meal for two people.
5) The price of a computer is M 8,500.00 plus VAT at 14% . Find the full cost, inclusive of VAT.
Fridge! Fridge!
6) Two stores advertise the same fridge
as shown on the displays.
a) Which is the cheaper price, M5,550.00 M6,299.00

including VAT?
b) What is the difference in the prices, inclusive
including VAT?
+ VAT (14%) of VAT
Best Price LTD
T.Q. Furn. Store
7) Lineo’s monthly salary is M 5,660.00 . Calculate her net salary if the monthly PAYE is 25%
with M 1,500.00 tax free.
8) Limpho works at same company as Lineo, above, but her net monthly income is M 4,500.00
. How much is her gross monthly income.

Page | 172
NUL-IEMS
Exercises E
1. A man has a salary of M450 per month. His salary is increased by 15%. What is his new
salary?
2. The selling price of a table is M32. The price is reduced by 20% at a sale. What is the
new selling price?
3. Chocolate bars normally cost 80 cents, but are on sale for 40 cents each. Calculate the
percentage discount.
4. 8% of the contents of a barrel of paraffin is removed. The barrel now contains 138 litres.
How much paraffin was removed?
5. A school buys boxes of pencils. Each box contains 144 pencils and costs M18 per box.
The school sells the pencils at 15 Lisente each. Does the school make a profit or a loss?
What is the profit or loss as a percentage?
6. A shopkeeper bought 4 radios each costing M45. He sold three of them at a 20% profit
and the other one at a loss of 40%.
(a) What was his total selling price for the four radios?
(b) What was his total loss or gain?
(c) What was his percentage loss or gain?
7. Calculate the simple interest and the accumulated value on the following.
(a) M1200 for 7 years at 5% per year.
(b) M1500 for 1 year at 4% per annum.
8. Mr. Chabane invested a sum of money for three years at 5% per annum simple interest.
The amount of interest received was M150.
(a) How much interest did Mr. Chabane get per year?
(b) How much money did he invest?
9. A business man borrowed M500 at 5% simple interest per annum.
(a) How much money did he owe after one year?
(b) He paid interest of M75. For how long did he borrow the money?
10. (a) Teboho puts M700 into a bank account and receives interest of M42 after one year.
What is the rate of interest?
(b) Khomotso puts M1200 into a bank and receives M384 in simple interest after four years.
What is the annual rate of interest?
11. A bank charges 4% compound interest on a M1000 loan, which is to be paid back in
three years. Find the total amount of interest to be paid by the borrower of this loan
after three years.
12. (a) You borrow M10, 000 for 3 years at 5% annual interest compounded annually. How
much will you have to pay after 3 years?
(b) Thato borrowed a loan of M600 for two years at the bank. A bank charges 8% compound
interest on this loan. Find how much interest will Thato have to pay the bank after two years.
Page | 173
NUL-IEMS

Page | 174

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BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS –

Business Calculations Methods

National University of Lesotho © 2017

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LESOTHO

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

1.2.1 Fractions ..................................................................................................................................... 23

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

3.2.2 Discount, Profit and Loss............................................................................................................ 57

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

6.1 Equations ........................................................................................................................................ 109

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

7.1 Differentiation................................................................................................................................. 146

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

1. Formulate equations and functions relating quantities

ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

Assessments will take the form of responding to activities, as well as coursework

FEEDBACK ON MARKED TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

80 + A Proceed with distinction

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

 Working on tutor-marked common tests

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

On registration/orientation, all learners are issued with this Business Calculations

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

HOW TO SUBMIT ASSIGNMENTS

Submission of assignments must be followed up with notification to ensure that

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

UNIT ONE – REAL NUMBER SYSTEMS AND THEIR OPERATIONS

1. Represent the set of numbers on the real line.

 A survey of Mathematics with Applications, 5th Edition, chapter 3

Q2. Arrange the given fractions in descending/ ascending order.

Q3. Perform the arithmetic operations on fractions and decimals.

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

1.1 – SETS OF REAL NUMBERS

SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

 All fractions are rational numbers. E.g;

 The decimal form of a rational number terminates or repeats endlessly. E.g

Note that the square root of each prime number is irrational.

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

BUSINESS CALCULATIONS METHODS

PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

Property Under Addition Under Multiplication

Closure 𝒂 + 𝒃 is a real number 𝒂. 𝒃 is a real number

Associative (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄 (𝒂. 𝒃). 𝒄 = 𝒂. (𝒃. 𝒄)

Inverse 𝒂 + (−𝒂) = (−𝒂) + 𝒂 = 1 1

Zero Product If𝒂𝒃 = 𝟎, then either𝒂 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒃 = 𝟎.

Multiplication by zero For any 𝒂 different from𝟎, 𝒂. 𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝒂 = 𝟎.

1. Name the property (ies) of real numbers being illustrated

a) 3x + (2y + z) = (2y + 3x) + z

2. Is the set of real numbers associative with respect to division?

3. Is the set of Natural numbers closed with respect to subtraction?

1. a) Commutative property because the order of 3𝑥 and 2𝑦 has been changed,