Welding Design

Module 4
Module 4 – Welding Design

Module 4 – Welding Design

ƒ 4A – Heat Flow
ƒ 4B – Residual Stress and Distortion
ƒ 4C – Fracture and Fatigue
ƒ 4D – Joint Design
ƒ 4E – Welding Symbols
ƒ 4F – Mechanical
M h i lT Testing
ti

4-2
Module 4 – Welding Design

Module 4 Learning Objectives

ƒ Basic understanding of heat flow, heat flow with moving heat

sources, estimation of cooling rates and HAZ
ƒ Basic understanding of residual stress and distortion
principles and mitigation methods
ƒ Understanding of weld design, weld joints and welding
symbols
y
ƒ Basic understanding and purpose of different types of
destructive tests

4-3
Heat Flow

Module 4A
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow

ƒ Conduction
ƒ Radiation
ƒ Convection θ air
q& rad q& conv. θ1

q& cond .

θo

4-5
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conduction

Fourier’s Law of Conduction

Heat flow

⎛q⎞ dθ
q& x = ⎜ ⎟ = −λ Temp.
gradient
⎝ A ⎠x dx

Heat
flux Thermal
conductivity

4-6
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction

θo θ∞

x dx

Heat generation per unit

volume

Q&
q& x A q& x+ dx A
ρC p
Cross sectional Area
A
dx
4-7
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy

ƒ Internal energy = energy in – energy out

Specific heat
Density

∂θ &
ρC p Adx = QAdx + q& x A − q& x + dx A
∂t

Internal Energy change = Internal heat generation + heat in – heat out

4-8
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy

But using Taylor series expansion,

∂q& x
q& x + dx = q& x + dx
∂x

∂θ & ∂q& x
∴ ρC p Adx = QAdx + q& x A − q& x A − dxA
∂t ∂x

∂θ & ∂q& x
∴ ρC p = Q−
∂t ∂x

4-9
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy

Using Fourier’s law of conduction

∂qq& x ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞
= ⎜⎜ − λ ⎟⎟
∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

Thus,

∂θ & ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞
ρC p = Q + ⎜λ ⎟
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

4-10
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction

To make problem manageable, assume

no internal heat generation

∂θ ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞
ρC p = ⎜λ ⎟
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠
λ is constant, not dependent on x or temperature

∂θ ∂ 2θ
ρ Cp =λ
∂t ∂x 2

∂θ λ ⎛ ∂ 2θ ⎞ ∂ 2θ ⎛ m2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟=k 2 κ=thermal ⎜ ⎟
∂t ρ C p ⎝ ∂x 2 ⎠ ∂x diffusivity ⎝ sec ⎠
4-11
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy (Con’t)

L
t = 0, θ = θ1 θ = θ0
t = 0, θ = θ 0
x
θ1
t t = ∞ − steady state

θ2
0
x
L 4-12
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction
Steady State without Internal Heat Generation

0 0
∂ θ & 1 ∂θ
2
=Q+ General Solution
∂x 2
κ ∂t
∂θ
Giving, = c1
∂x
∂ 2θ
=0
2
∂x θ = c1 x + c2

4-13
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Concept of Thermal Resistance

θ1 q&
⎯⎯→ θ1 − θ 2
R thermal =
q&
θ2

V1 − V2
R electrical =
⎯
⎯→ i
i
V1 V2
4-14
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Concept of Thermal Resistance

∂θ θ 2 − θ1 θ 1 −θ2
but q& = −λ A = −λ A =λ A
∂x L L

θ1 − θ 2 L
R thermal = =
θ1 − θ 2 λA
λA
L

4-15
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Composite Walls

→ x
θ1

θ2
θ3

L1 L2

R1 R2
θ1 θ2 θ3
4-16
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

ƒ Consider an extrusion process

die
x
v

dx

ρCVθ x ρC ρCVθ x + dx
q& x q& x + dx
Q&

dx
x x+dx
4-17
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

Applying conservation of energy to the control volume

∂θ
ρC Adx = Q& Adx + q& x A − q& x + dx A + ρCVθ x A − ρCVθ x + dx A
∂t
Using Taylor series expansion and simplifying

∂θ & ∂q& x ∂θ
ρC =Q− − ρCV
∂t ∂x ∂x
Using Fourier’s Law of Conduction

∂θ & ∂ 2θ ∂θ
ρC = Q + λ 2 − ρCV
∂t ∂x ∂x

4-18
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

In this case if you look at some location x with respect

to time, the temperature at that location will remain
constant (assuming we are past the transients from
starting the process). Therefore, we can model this as
a Quasi-Steady problem.

0
∂θ & ∂ 2θ ∂θ
ρC = Q + λ 2 − ρCV
∂t ∂x ∂x

& ∂ 2
θ ∂θ
0 = Q + λ 2 − ρCV
∂x ∂x

4-19
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

If the cross section of the rod is small, we can assume

that the temperature is constant at every cross section.
In that case we can consider the heat loss due to
convection as a negative internal heat generation rate.

Consider some cross section of area A and perimeter P

P
A

hP
QAdx = − hPdx(θ − θ ∞ ) ⇒ Q = −
& & (θ − θ ∞ )
A

4-20
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

∂ 2θ ∂θ hP
Therefore,
λ 2 − ρCV − (θ − θ ∞ ) = 0
∂x ∂x A
∂θ ' ∂θ ∂ 2θ ' ∂ 2θ
Let
θ ' = (θ − θ ∞ ), = , and 2
= 2
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Giving, ∂ 2θ ' V ∂θ ' hP
− − θ '= 0
∂x 2
κ ∂x λA
Solving,

⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ hP ⎞⎟ ⎟
2 2
⎜ ⎜ V ⎛ ⎞
V hP ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ V V
θ ' ( x) = C1 exp⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + x ⎟ + C2 exp⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ + x⎟
⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎝⎝ ⎠

4-21
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

Applying the boundary conditions.

As x→∞ then θ '= 0

0 ∞
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎛⎛ ⎞
⎛ V ⎞ hP ⎞⎟ ⎟ ⎛ V ⎞ hP ⎟⎞ ⎟
2 2
⎜ ⎜ V ⎜ ⎜ V
θ ' ( x = ∞) = C1 exp⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + ∞ ⎟ + C2 exp⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ + ∞⎟
⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎝⎝ ⎠

Since the second term goes to infinity than C2 = 0

4-22
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

At x=0 then θ ' = (θ die − θ ∞ ) = θ 'die

1
⎛⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞
V ⎛ ⎞
V hP
θ ' ( x = 0) = θ 'die = C1 exp⎜⎜ ⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎟0 ⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2κ ⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
Therefore, C1 = θ 'die giving,

⎛⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞
V ⎛ ⎞
V hP
θ ' ( x) = θ 'die exp⎜⎜ ⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎟x ⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2κ ⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
4-23
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

„ Consider a very large and very thin plate – thickness (h)

dy
y y d
dw
x w V
1 2 3 4

4-24
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

θ −θo quasi - steady

3 4 5 6 7

final
ttransient
i t
2
1

time
Moving with the welding arc in quasi-steady region, the temperature is
constant with respect to time. Form a new moving coordinate system:

w = x − Vt
4-25
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

q& y + dy

( ρC Vθ )
p w
dy h ( ρC Vθ )
p w + dw
dy h

q& w dy ρ C p Q&
q& w+ dw

dw

q& y
4-26
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Balance heat flow in y direction,

∂q&
( q& y − q& y +dy ) dw h = − ∂y dy dw h
Balance heat flow in w direction,

( q&w − q&w+ dw ) dy h + ⎡⎣( ρ C pV θ )w+ dw − ( ρ C pV θ )w ⎤⎦ dy h =

∂q& ∂
−
∂w
dw dy h +
∂w
( ρ C pV θ ) dw dy h

4-27
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Conservation of energy for control volume

∂θ ∂q& ∂q& ∂
ρC p
∂t
&
dydwh = Q − dydwh −
∂y ∂w
dwdyh +
∂w
( ρ C pV θ ) dwdyh

Using Fourier’s Law of Conduction

∂θ & ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞ ∂
ρC p
∂t
=Q+ ⎜λ ⎟ + ⎜λ
∂w ⎝ ∂w ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y
⎟+ ( ρ C p vθ w )
⎠ ∂w

Conduction Convection

4-28
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Assuming constant properties and constant heat source

velocity.

∂θ & ∂ 2
θ ∂ 2
θ ∂θ
ρC p =Q+λ 2
+λ 2
+ ρ C pV
∂t ∂w ∂y ∂w
For quasi-steady,

∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ V ∂θ
2
+ 2 =−
∂w ∂y k ∂w

4-29
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

Assuming constant properties and constant heat source

velocity.

∂θ & ∂ 2
θ ∂ 2
θ ∂ 2
θ ∂θ
ρC p =Q+λ 2
+λ 2
+λ 2
+ ρ C pV
∂t ∂w ∂y ∂z ∂w
For quasi-steady,

∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ V ∂θ
2
+ 2 + 2 =−
∂w ∂y ∂z k ∂w

4-30
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

4-31
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

4-32
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

4-33
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

2-D Solution for Thin Plate

4-34
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

2-D Solution for Thin Plate

4-35
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Cooling Rate Equation

4-36
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Cooling Rate Equation

4-37
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Cooling Rate Equation

4-38
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Peak Temperature Equations

At the peak temperature the slope of the temperature

time curve must be zero.

θ −θo
∂θ
at peak =0
∂t

t
4-39
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Peak Temperature Equations

We previously derived ∂θ
∂t
∂θ P V
− ( w+ r ) ⎡ w V ⎛ w ⎞⎤
= −V e 2κ ⎢ − r 2 − 2κ ⎜ 1 + r ⎟ ⎥ = 0
∂t 2π λ r ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
w V ⎛ w⎞
Therefore, − 2− ⎜1 + ⎟ = 0
r 2κ ⎝ r⎠
Find relationship between w and r when the point
of interest reaches the peak temperature and then
use thick plate solution to find peak temp.

V
P − ( w+ r )
θ peak − θ o = e 2κ
2π λ r
4-40
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Peak Temperature Equations

ƒ We force the eq. to fit experimental results by specifying a

known temperature θr at known location rr . Then,
e⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜℘c pπ ⎛⎜ r − rr ⎞⎟ ⎟
2
1 2⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ 1
= +
θ p −θo η a EI θr −θo
V

ƒ For example, at fusion boundary θm is the known peak

temperature and r=d/2 where (d) is the weld bead with is
known location. Then,
⎛ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞
e⎜ ⎜ y2 − d ⎟⎟
℘c pπ
2 ⎜⎜ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟⎟
1 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ 1
= +
θ p −θo η a EI θm −θo
V

4-41
Residual Stress and Distortion

Module 4B
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Linear Elastic Material

6 stress strain Equations

σ 1
[
ε x = σ x −ν ⋅ (σ y + σ z )
E
]
E - modulus
1
[
ε y = σ y −ν ⋅ (σ x + σ z )
E
]
1
[
ε z = σ z −ν ⋅ (σ x + σ y )
E
]
τ xy
σ xy =
ε G
σx τ yz
Hook’s Law Uniaxial Loadingε x = σ yz =
E G
τ zx
σx σx σ zx =
Poisson’s ratioε y = −ν ε z = −ν G
E E

4-43
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Typical Material (Metal)

σ yield stress

Use linear elastic

perfectly plastic model

ε
4-44
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Thermal Strains

ε θx = ε θy = ε θz = α Δθ = α (θ − θ o )
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
θ θ θ
γ xy = γ yz = γ zx = 0

total strain=elastic strain + thermal strain

εt = ε e +εθ

4-45
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Linear Elastic Perfectly Plastic Material

θ
ε = ε +ε +ε
t e p

elastic plastic thermal

4-46
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Example

ƒ Steel Bar between two rigid walls

y
E = 20 × 106 psi
x Fy = 50 × 103 psi
−6 1
α = 3.8 × 10 o
Heating - Elastic Range F
σx
ε =0=
t
x + α Δθ
E
psi
∴ σ x = −α E Δθ = −114 o Δθ
F
4-47
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Simple Distortion Example (Transverse Shrinkage)

ƒ Restraint and Temp. Distribution

heating Δθ Heating
k Δl σ x
εx = = + α Δθ + ε p
l E
l σx
σ x A = −k Δl → Δl = − A
k
at heating (thermal stress)
σx ⎛σx p⎞
∴ − A=⎜ + α Δθ + ε ⎟
kl ⎝ E ⎠

∴ σx = −
(
E k l α Δθ + ε p )
Δl E A+ k l

4-48
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Small Δθ

No plastic strain
ε =0
p

Then,

EKl (α ⋅ Δθ )
σx = −
EA + Kl
At the end of cooling there will be no
residual stress and no distortion.

4-49
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Large Δθ – at end of heating

Assume εp =0
EKl (α ⋅ Δθ )
Calculate σx = −
EA + Kl
If σ x > Fy then, εp ≠0 and σ x = − Fy
⎛ A 1⎞
ε = Fy ⎜ + ⎟ − α ⋅ Δθ
p

⎝ Kl E ⎠

4-50
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Large Δθ – at end of Cooling

Assume no additional plastic deformation

occurs during cooling.

Calculate σx =
( )
EKl ε p
EA + Kl
If σ x < Fy then, no plastic deformation occurred

during cooling, and σ xres =

( )
EKl ε p
EA + Kl
If σ x > Fy then, plastic deformation occurred

⎛ A 1⎞
during cooling, and σ x = Fy ε = − Fy ⎜ + ⎟
p

⎝ Kl E ⎠ 4-51
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Three Bar Analogy

ƒ Suppose we have 3-bar which have the same cross section

area A and same material properties.

heating
σm
σs σs

s m s

4-52
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Three Bar Analogy

ƒ Jig or fixture used (restraint) during heating

z Small heating

σm
s m s ∴ ε tm = + α Δθ + ε mp , ε mp = 0
E
∴ σ m = −α Δθ ⋅ E comp. spring case

εp =0
ε tx = 0
4-53
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Significance of Residual Stress and Distortion

ƒ Residual Stress
z Degraded Structural Performance
z Reduced Service Life
z Dimensional Instability

ƒ Distortion
z Dimensional Tolerance and Fit-up Problems
z Reduced Strength
z Reduced Structural Stability
z Inadequate Appearance

4-54
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Welding Processes and Their Consequences

ƒ During Welding
z Localized Heat Source (heating, melting solidification, and cooling)
z Non-uniform Temperature Distribution (thermal/mechanical mismatch)
z Fast Cooling Rate (phases with volume expansion)
z Weld Shrinkage (shrinkage strains created in weld & surrounding
metal)
z R t i t (internal
Restraints (i t l rigidity
i idit and/or
d/ external
t l constraints
t i t preventing
ti
shrinkage)
z Initial Stress Condition (influence thermal strain and residual stress)
z Properties of Parent Material (temperature dependent yield stress and
Modulus of elasticity)
After Welding
• Residual Stresses
• Distortion

4-55
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Residual Stresses & Distortion Flowchart

4-56
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Factors Influencing Residual Stresses & Distortion

ƒ Physical Material Properties

z Coefficient of thermal expansion, [α (1/°K)]
Š As α increases distortion increases
z Thermal conductivity, λ (W/(m·°K))
Š As λ increases distortion decreases
ƒ Mechanical Material Properties
z Yield stress, Fy (ksi), modulus of elasticity, E(ksi)
ƒ Welding Process Variables
z Heat input, travel speed, welding sequence
ƒ Jigs and Fixtures or other Clamping Devices
ƒ Geometrical Properties
z Moment of inertia, weld cross sectional area, weight of weld metal,
plate thickness, joint geometries, weld length

4-57
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Comparison of Material Properties

Mechanical Properties Thermal Properties

Properties
Fult Fy e E CTE 20 °C rCp l Tm Tliq
[MPa] [MPa] [%] [GPa] [mm/m°C] [J/m3/°C]x1 [W/m-K] [°C] [°C]
Materials 06

NICKEL BASE
INCONEL 718 1375 1100 25 207 13 3.56 11.4 1298 1336

TITANIUM
TI-6AL-4V 1170 1100 10 114 8.6 2.33 6.7 1660 1660

ALUMINUM
2014 185 95 18 72.4 23 2.46 192 507 638

STAINLESS
STEEL 304 505 215 70 197 17.3 4.00 16.2 1427 1455

4-58
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Non-Linear Distribution of Temperature and

Resulting Residual Stress

DT = 0 Stress = 0
x

A A 1. Section A-A
B O B
Y Tension
g
Melted region
C C
Plastic deformation Compression
occurs 2. Section B-B

D D
3. Section C-C
DT = 0 Residual stresses

4. Section D-D
Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991
4-59
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Residual Stresses in Butt Joint

Y (A) Distribution of σx Along YY
Compression

Tension
X
σx

σy
curve 2
Reaction Tension
stress
curve 1
Compression

Reference: Welding
Handbook, Volume 1,
AWS, 1991

(B) Distribution of σy Along XX

4-60
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Fundamental Types of Weld Distortion

(a) Transverse Shrinkage (d) Longitudinal Shrinkage

(b) Angular Change (e) Longitudinal Bending

(c) Rotation Distortion (f) Buckling Distortion

Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-61
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Compatibility

4-62
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Compatibility

2-D Elastic Compatibility

∂ εx 2
∂ 2ε y ∂ 2γ xy
R= 2
+ 2 − =0
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

2-D Inelastic Compatibility

⎡ ∂ 2ε ′x ∂ 2ε ′y ∂ 2γ ′xy ⎤ ⎡ ∂ 2ε ′x′ ∂ 2ε ′y′ ∂ 2γ ′xy′ ⎤

R′ + R′′ = ⎢ 2 + 2 − ⎥+⎢ 2 + 2 − ⎥=0
⎢⎣ ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ⎥⎦

Elastic Inelastic
(thermal & plastic)
4-63
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Rotational Distortion in Butt Joints

Unwelded Portion of
the Joint Closes

Back Weld to Maintain Joint Opening

Unwelded Portion of
the Joint Opens

In-Plane Distortion Due to Cutting

Reference: Masubuchi, K. Analytical Investigation of Residual Stresses and
Distortions Due to Welding. Welding Journal 39 (12): 525s-537s (1960) 4-64
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Longitudinal and Transverse Weld Shrinkage

in Butt Joints

4-65
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Effect of Groove Detail and Joint Thickness

on Transverse Shrinkage

0.15
Transverse Shrrinkage (in.)

0.10

0.05

0
1/4 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2

Area of Weld (in.2) Plate Thickness (in.)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-66
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Effect of Weight of Weld Metal on Transverse

Shrinkage

Increases of Transverse Shrinkage During Multipass Welding of A Butt Joint

Reference: K. Masubuchi, Analysis of Welded Structure, Pergamon Press

4-67
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Transverse Shrinkage Causing Angular Distortion

Non-uniform Transverse Weld Shrinkage in

Butt Joints

Transverse Weld Shrinkage in Fillet Welded Tee-Joints

4-68
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Moment of Inertia Effect on Angular

Distortion in Butt Joint

Balancingg the Multi-pass

p
Weld Decreases Angular
Distortion of Butt Joints

4-69
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Moment of Inertia Effect on Angular Distortion in

Tee-Joint

Throat CG of welds
Moment arm

Neutral
axis (a) Fillet Weld T
T- Joint

Throat
CG of welds
Moment arm

Neutral axis (b) Deeper Penetration Weld

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-70
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Angular Change in Fillet Welds – Unrestrained

Angular Change of Unrestrained Fillet Weld

(A) Steel (B) Aluminum

Determination of the Angular Change of Unrestrained Steel and Aluminum Fillet

Welds by Plate Thickness and Fillet Weight per Unit Length of Weld
Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991
4-71
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Angular Distortion in Fillet Welded Framing

Structures

φo

(A) Free Joint (Unrestrained)

φ δ

L
x

(B) Restrained Joint

Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-72
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Angular Distortion

L
Angular Pipe Bending

Longitudinal Bending

4-73
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Effect of Fillet Weld Size on Longitudinal

Deflection

Effect of Fillet Weld Size on

Longitudinal Deflection in T-
Section Beams

Reference: Welding Handbook Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-74
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Distortion Comparison Between Steel and

Aluminum Weldments

Transverse Shrinkage of Butt Joint

Aluminum > Steel

Longitudinal Bending Distortion

Aluminum < Steel

4-75
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Distortion Comparison Between Steel and

Aluminum Weldments

Angular Change of a Fillet Weld Al < St

Reference: Welding Handbook,Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-76
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Reduce the Amount of Welding Decrease Weld

Deposit

Reduce bevel 30 °
angle and use larger
root opening

1/32” to 1/16”

U preparation
Double-V preparation

Example: Edge Preparation and Fitup

4-77
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Reduce the Amount of Welding

Using Intermittent Welding Technique

Decreasing Length of Weld by Using

Intermittent Welding Technique

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-78
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Reduce the Amount of Welding Decrease Leg Size

Decrease Leg Size of Weld Decrease Shrinkage Force

and the Tendency to Distortion

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-79
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Minimize Welding Time

Variance of Welding
(a) 170 amp 25 volt 3 in/min Thick Plate
Technique. In Each Case,
Surface Isotherm of 300°F is
Shown Surrounding Welding
Source
(b) 170 amp 25 volt 6 in/min Thick Plate

(c) 340 amp 30 volt 6 in/min Thick Plate Solid Curve

310 amp 35 volt 8 in/min Thick Plate Dashed Curve (Same size weld)

(d) 170 amp 25 volt 22 in/min Sheet (t=0.1345 in) Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976
4-80
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Presetting the Joints

Before After
Welding Welding

The net effect of weld shrinkage pulls the member or

connection back into proper alignment.
Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976
4-81
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Examples of Presetting the Joints

(d)
(a) (b)

(c)

(a) (b) Girder, (c) Plate, (d) Fixing of Groove Gap by Wedge
in Single Pass Gas Welding
Pre-welding Position Traced in Solid Lines
Post-welding Position in Broken Lines
Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992
4-82
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Preheat the Joint

Effect of Preheat and

Welding Variables on
Angular Change of Steel
Fillet Welded T-Joints

Reference: Kihara, H., Watanabe, M., Masubuchi, K., and Satoh, K., “Researches on Welding
stress and shrinkage distortion in Japan”, 60th Anniversary Series of the Society of Naval
Architects of Japan, Vol. 4, 1959
4-83
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Prestrain the Joint

(a) Elastic Prestraining

(b) Plastic Prebending

Reference: Kumose, T., Yoshida, T., and Onoue, H, Prediction of angular distortion
caused by one-pass fillet welding, The Welding Journal, 33, 945-956 (1954)
4-84
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Example of Elastic Prestraining

Apparatus for Welding T-Joints Submitted to

Elastic Prestrain by Bolting Down Both Free Ends

Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-85
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Examples of Plastic Prestraining

(b)

(a)
( )
(c)

(d) (e)

(a) Roof Shaping of Girder Chords

(b) Plane End Section of Cylindrical Shell
(c) Outward Bulging of Spherical Shell with Block Flange
(d) Outward Bulging of Pipe with Circumferential Weld
(e) Inward Drawing of Pipe at Plane End

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992

4-86
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Use as Few Weld Passes as Possible

Figure (a)
Poor

Good Figure (b)

Minimum Number of Passes

4-87
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Place Welds Near the Neutral Axis

4-88
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence

Welds are Symmetrical about Neutral Axis
y y
No. 4 No. 1 No.1 No.1

3/16” to 3/8”
mild steel
channel x x x

No. 2 No. 3 No.2

y y
(a) (b) (c)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-89
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence

Welds are Symmetrical about Neutral Axis

No.4 No.1 No.4 No.1 No.1

No.2 No.3 No.3

(d) (e) (f)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-90
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence

Long and Thin Box Sections

(a) During Welding, Top Expands

- Center Bows Up
Temperature
Distribution - Cross (Turn the Members
Section Quickly to Protect the
Weld from Cooling)

(b) Shortly after Welding -

Still Bowed up Slightly

(c) After Cooled - End Very

Slightly Bowed up due to
Contraction of Top

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-91
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Place Welds Near the Neutral Axis –

Three -Member Column

9”
1-3/4”

Neutral 0 682”
0.682 Neutral 0 556”
0.556
2-1/2”
2-1/2
axis axis

5/8” CG of welds CG of welds

(a) (b)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-92
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Multi-Layer Welding

4
1
2
3

An Example of a Double V-Groove Butt Joint. Suitable Welding

Sequence in Multi-layer Welding can Reduce Angular Distortion

4-93
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Multi-Layer Welding

(a) (b) (c)

Reduction of Angular Distortion by Alternating Weld Pass

Deposition in Double-V Groove

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992 4-94

Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Backstep Welding

Direction of D
each bead B
segment
3 D
2
1
C

A Direction
of Welding
C

4-95
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Backstep Welding

Reduction of Transverse Shrinkage as well as Groove Gap

Distortion by Back-Step Welding: Tack Weld Sequence (a), Back-
Step Welding Sequence in First Layer (b) and Cover Pass (c)

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992

4-96
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Distortion Control by Welding Sequence –

Welding Sequences

Unwelded Spaces Filled After

Deposition of Intermittent Blocks

(A) Backstep Sequence (B) Block Sequence

(C) Built-up Sequence (D) Cascade Sequence

Reference: K. Masubuchi, Analysis of Welded Structure, Pergamon Press

4-97
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening
ƒ Line heating
ƒ Pine-needle heating
ƒ Heating in cross section
ƒ Spot heating
ƒ Triangular heating
ƒ Red-hot
R dh th heating
ti

Reference: Analysis of Welded Structures, Koichi Masubuchi

4-98
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

Line Heating Pine-needle Heating Heating in Cross

Directions

Reference: Analysis of Welded Structures, Koichi Masubuchi

4-99
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

.........
.........
.........
Spot Heating Triangular Heating Red-hot Heating

Reference: Analysis of Welded Structures, Koichi Masubuchi

4-100
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

(a) Spot Shape (b) Strip Shaped (c) Wedge Shaped

Application of Flame Straightening

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992

4-101
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Flame Straightening by Means of Heat Strips and Heat Wedges in

Different Arrangement on Bending-Distorted Girders

Reference: Vinokurov, V. A., Welding stresses and distortion, Wetherby:British Library 1977
4-102
Fracture and Fatigue

Module 4C
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

For a perfect solid, the tensile strength

σ T can be related to Young' s modulus
for the material E.

E E
σT = to
10 20

For glass, this would be σ T = 10 6 psi

while actually it is 5 ×103 to 105 psi
4-104
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Brittle Fracture

ƒ Griffith – glassy materials contain crack like defects which act

as stress raisers.

2 Eγ s
σc =
πc

2c γ s = surface energy
of fracture

σc
4-105
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Brittle Fracture

For long sharp cracks

c c
SCF ≅ 1 + 2 ≅2
a a
E
For σ T = , one gets
10
E a
σc ≅ → gives similar results to Griffith' s Criterion
20 c
Back calculating crack lengths in glasses,
one gets lengths of order 25 to 2500
atomic distances or 100 - 10,000 A o

4-106
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

ƒ Mode I

σ 22 ∞

x2
θ
r
x1
plastic
zone R p 2c

σ 22 ∞ 4-107
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

σ∞

y
KI = σ ∞ π c x

2c

For r=0 stresses are infinite!

Is this realistic?
σ∞
4-108
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

y
x

y z
x

Mode II Mode III

4-109
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Stress Intensity Factors

Stress intensity factor is used to find the stress distribution

and magnitude near the crack tip. It is a function of:

σ = applied stress

c = half crack length (full crack length for edge cracks)

w= characteristic dimension for the part

⎛c⎞
K (σ , c, w) = f ⎜ ⎟σ π c
⎝ w⎠
Determined analytically or experimentally as well as by
finite element analysis.

4-110
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fracture Toughness (Kc)

ƒ Kc is a material property which indicates the stress intensity

factor above which crack extension will occur
ƒ KIC (the plane strain value of Kc) is a linear elastic facture
mechanics parameter which can be used for brittle fracture
z For real materials, some plastic deformation will occur near the crack
tip.

σ
Linear elastic

Fy
Real material

rp x
4-111
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fracture Toughness

For plane stress, the size of the plastic zone is found from

KI ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎡⎛ θ ⎞⎛ θ ⎞⎤
Fy = cos⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜1 + sin ⎟⎜ sin ⎟⎥
( 2π rp )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
where for θ=00
2
Fy =
KI 1 ⎛⎜ K I ⎞⎟
( 2π rp ) rp =
2π ⎜ F y ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
For plane strain, 1 ⎛⎜ K I ⎞⎟
rp =
6π ⎜ F y ⎟
⎝ ⎠

For LEFM the size of the plastic zone must be small

4-112
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue

ƒ Fatigue failure resulting from cyclic deformation with large

plastic strain amplitude is called low cycle fatigue
z Failure usually occurs in ten to several hundred cycles

ƒ Fracture resulting from many thousands of stress cycles

below the elastic limit are called high
g cycle
y fatigue
g

ƒ Phases for Fatigue Failure

z Crack initiation – stress concentrations at grain boundaries or flaws
z Crack propagation – The crack propagates on every cycle of loading
z Fracture – crack long enough for fracture to occur when maximum
stress is reached

4-113
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

S-N Curve

Ferrous σ am N = C
Stress amplitude

Non-ferrous Fatigue Limit

Log N

4-114
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Nonzero Mean Stress

σ
Stress ratio R = min Tension-compression R = −1
σ
max
Stress
σ max
σa
σ mean
σa
σ min
Time
4-115
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Goodman Diagram

σa σa σm
10 3 cycles + =1
σ a σ ult
o

10 4 cycles
constant life lines

10 5 cycles

10 6 cycles

Mean
Stress
σ ult σm
4-116
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Goodman Diagram

σ max constant life lines

10 3 cycles σ uultt
10 4 cycles
10 5 cycles
10 6 cycles

σ min
4-117
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue With Varying Stress Amplitude –

Miner’s Rule

Miner’s Rule – each cycle uses a fraction of the fatigue life.

k
ni
∑
i =1 N i
=1
For fully reversible tension-compression loading from S-N curve one gets,

k
ni m
∑
i =1 C
σi =1

4-118
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue of Welded Joints

ƒ The presence of welded member usually results in drastic

reduction in fatigue life or stress
ƒ Causes: Stress Concentrations – generally a weld introduces
stress concentrations

Steel

R=0

10 5 10 6 10 7 108
4-119
Joint Design

Module 4D
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Common Design Requirements

ƒ Proper Weld Design to Meet Following Requirements

z Strength against rupture (excessive yielding)
z Toughness against fracture, especially under dynamic or impact
loading (brittle fracture)
z Ductility (ability to stretch) to prevent welding-induced cracking or
cracks due to excessive deformation
z Fatigue resistance against cyclic loading

4-121
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Essential and Related Design Factors

ƒ Proper Weld Design to Meet Following Requirements

z Materials
Š Base Metal (e.g. ASTM A36)
Š Filler Metal (e.g. AWS A5.1)
z Joints/Welds
z Welding Process(es)/Procedure Qualification
Š Joint Thickness
Š Pipe Outside Diameter
Š Welding Position
z Welder Qualification (per qualified procedure)
z Workmanship (including distortion control, heat treatment)
z Inspection

4-122
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Aspects of Weld Design

ƒ Structural Connection Design Elements

ƒ Types of Joints and Welds (AWS A3.0 - Standard Terms and
Definitions)
ƒ Welding/NDE Symbols (AWS A2.4 – Standard Symbols for
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination)
ƒ Design for Strength
ƒ Design for Fracture Resistance
ƒ Design for Fatigue Resistance
ƒ Effect of Residual Stress and Distortion

4-123
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Structural Connection Design Elements

ƒ Connection Types ƒ Basic Weld Types

z Nontubular (i.e., plate) z Groove (CJP, PJP)
z Tubular Š Further classifications see AWS
A2.4 and A3.0
ƒ Basic Joint Types
z Fillet
z Butt Joint
z Plug and Slot
z Tee Joint (including skewed-T)
z Continuous vs
vs. Intermittent
z Lap Joint
z Others for Thin Joints: Spot,
z Corner Joint Seam
z Edge Joint
ƒ Welding Positions
z Flat (1-G or 1-F)
z Horizontal (2-G or 2-F)
z Vertical (3-G or 3-F)
z Overhead (4-G or 4-F)
z Combination (5-G, 6-G, 6-GR)

4-124
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Joint Types

ƒ Butt joint
z Continuity of section
ƒ Tee joint
z Flanges or stiffeners
ƒ Lap joint
z No jjoint p
preparation
p
ƒ Corner joint
ƒ Edge joint
z Two or more parallel, or nearly
parallel members

4-125
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Joint Type Examples

Weld Face
Reinforcement

Butt Lap

Edge
Tee

Corner

4-126
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Joint Type Extension – Flanged Joints

Flange T-Joint

Flange Butt Joints

Flange Edge Joints

Flange Corner Joint

Flange Lap Joints

4-127
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Butt Joint Extension – Spliced Joints

Single-Spliced Butt Joint Splice Member

Joint Member

Double-Spliced Butt Joint

Joint Member

Splice
Member
Joint Filler
4-128
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Edge Shapes of Members

Square
Double-J

Single-Bevel Flanged Edge

Double-Bevel Round Edge

Round
Single-J
Edge

4-129
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Joint Design Variables

ƒ Root Opening
ƒ Groove Radius
ƒ Included Angle
ƒ Root Face (Land)
ƒ Dihedral Angle

4-130
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Types of Weld

Double-U
Fillet Groove

Single-Bevel
Square Groove Groove

Double-Bevel
D bl B l
Single-V
Groove
Groove

Double-V Single-J
Groove Groove

Double-J
Single-U
Groove
Groove

4-131
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Types of Weld

4-132
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

Single-Square-Groove Weld Single-Bevel-Groove Weld

Single-V-Groove Weld Single-V-Groove Weld

(with Backing)
4-133
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

Single Groove Weld

Single-Groove Single U Groove Weld
Single-U-Groove

Single-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld Single-Flare-V-Groove Weld

4-134
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

D bl S
Double-Square-Groove
G Weld
W ld Double-Bevel-Groove Weld

Double-V-Groove Weld
Double-J-Groove Weld

4-135
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

Double-U-Groove Weld

Double-Flare-V-Groove Weld

Double-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld
4-136
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Flare and Edge Welds

Square-Groove Weld and

Flare-V-Groove
a e G oo e Welde d in a
Flanged Butt Joint

Edge Weld in a
Flanged Butt Joint

Edge Weld with Melt-through in

a Flanged Butt Joint

4-137
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Fillet Weld Examples

Double Fillet Weld Single Fillet Weld

4-138
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Weld Quantities Comparison

(a) (b) (c)

Area = 0.56t2 Area = 0.25t2 Area = 0.50t2

t t t
S=0
0.75t
75t

S
Double-Fillet Weld Double-Bevel- Single-Bevel-
Groove Weld Groove Weld

4-139
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Estimated Relative Costs

20
Cost
Relative C

10

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Plate Thickness, in.
4-140
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Plug/Slot Weld vs. Fillet Weld in Hole

Plug Welds Fillet Welds

Slot Welds

4-141
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Weld Joint Nomenclature

1 6

2 2
5 1 3
5
3
4
4

1 - groove angle 1 - throat

2 - bevel angle 2 - weld face
3 - root face (land) 3 - depth of fusion
4 - root opening (root gap) 4 - root
5 - groove face 5 - fillet leg length
6 - weld toe
4-142
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Nomenclature

Weld Face
Face
Reinforcement

Weld Toe
Root
Reinforcement

Root Surface
Weld Root

4-143
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Nomenclature

Groove Weld Made

Before Welding Other Side
Face
Reinforcement

Face
F
Reinforcement
Back Weld
Groove Weld Made
After Welding Other Side
Weld Root

Backing Weld
4-144
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Fillet Weld: Convex and Concave

Convexity
Actual Throat
Leg & Size

Effective
Leg & Size
Throat

Leg
Size
Concavity

Theoretical Throat Actual Throat

Size Leg
Effective throat

Theoretical Throat

4-145
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Effective Weld Throat for Design Calculations

Convexity Concavity

4-146
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Welding Technique

Stringer Bead

Weave Bead

4-147
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Weld Beads vs. Weld Layers

Weld Beads

Layers
Weld Beads

Layers
4-148
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

ASME Section IX –
Joint Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Groove Design X X X
.2 ± Backing X X
.4 - Backing
.5 + Backing
.6
6 > Fit-up Gap X X
.10 φ Root Spacing X

QW-402 .11 ± Retainers X X

Joints .18 φ Lap Joint Configuration X

4-149
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

ASME Section IX –
Base Material Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.2 Maximum T Qualified X
.3 φ Penetration X
.6 T Limits X
.8 φ T Qualified X
Q
QW-403
03 .9
9 t pass > 1/2-in
1/2-in. X
Base
Materials .10 T Limits (S. Cir. Arc) X

4-150
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

ASME Section IX –
Technique Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Stringer/weave X
.7 φ Oscillation X
.9 φ Multiply to Single Pass/Side X X
.21 1 vs. 2 Sided Welding X

QW-410
QW 410 26
.26 ± Peening X
Technique .37 φ Single to Multiple Passes

4-151
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Welding Sequence

Backstep

Block
(Unwelded spaces
filled after welding of
intermittent blocks)

Cascade

4-152
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Special Purpose Welds

Staggered
Intermittent
Fillet Weld

Boxing
(End Return)

Chain
Intermittent
Fillet Weld

4-153
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Welding Position

F - Fillet weld
1F
1G G - Groove weld
1G

1 - flat
2F
2G
2G 2 - horizontal
3 - vertical
3F 4 - overhead
3G
5G 6G

4G 4F

4-154
Welding Symbols

Module 4E
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Standard Location of Elements

ƒ Key Elements
z Arrow
z Reference Line
z Tail
z Weld Symbols
z Supplementary
z Symbols
z Other Details
ƒ Only the REFERENCE
LINE and ARROW are
required
ƒ Reference line are
always horizontal
ƒ Symbol without L-P denotes continuous welds
4-156
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Symbol Dimensions?

ƒ Tolerances, if required, are to be placed in tail

ƒ Welding Symbols are usually drawn without dimension units
such as inches or millimeters
ƒ But, Welding Symbols to be used for publications or those
requiring high precision should be dimensioned and have the
dimensional tolerances noted within the tail.

4-157
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Weld Symbols

NOTE:

(1) The reference line is

shown dashed for
illustrative purposes.

(2) Symbols with a

perpendicular leg shall have
the perpendicular leg drawn
h left
on the l f side
id off the
h
symbol (fillet, bevel-, J-, or
flare-bevel-groove)

Source: AWS A2.4:2007

4-158
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Supplementary Symbols

ƒ Significance of arrow
z Arrow side below reference line
z Other side above reference line

4-159
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Arrow and Other Side Convention – Examples

Below reference line

Weld Cross Section Symbol Above reference line

Both sides of
reference line

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

4-160
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Break in Arrow of Welding Symbol – Examples

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

4-161
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Combined Weld Symbols

Combined Weld Symbols

Multiple Arrow Lines

4-162
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Combined Weld Symbols – Examples

Weld Cross Section S b l

Symbol
Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section

4-163
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Specification of Extent of Welding Use Multiple

Arrows

Welds Symbols

Welds Symbols
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Supplementary Information

Hidden Members of the

Supplementary Data Same as a Visible Member
2 ANGLES
PROCESS
DATA
(CO STD)

TYPICAL
BOTH
ANGLES

Omission of Tail When No References are Required

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Field Weld and All-Around Symbol

ƒ Flag indicated field weld

ƒ Circle indicates that the is to continue along the entire joint
length (i.e., weld all around)

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Specification of Extent of Welding Using

Weld All-Around Symbol

SYMBOL

WELDS

SYMBOL

WELDS
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Extent of Welding Denoted by Symbols

Using Weld All-Around Symbol

Weld in Several Planes

Weld Around a Shaft

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Location and Extent of Fillet Welds

WELDS
Size
Length and
Pitch
SYMBOLS

Welds Approximately Welds Definitely Located

Located
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Length and Pitch of Intermittent Welds

Chain
Intermittent
Welds
WELDS SYMBOL

Staggered
Intermittent
Welds

WELDS SYMBOL

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Dimensions of Plug and Slot Weld

Partially Filled
Plug Weld

Partially Filled
Slot Weld

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Melt-Through Symbol

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Melt-Through with Flange Welds

Edge-Flange

Corner-Flange

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Application of “Typical” Welding Symbols Using

Tail

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Specification of Extent of Welding Using Tail of

the Welding Symbol

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Specification of Completed Weld Using the

Welding Symbol
ƒ The weld tail can specify the final contour of the weld as well
as any addition processing steps require to achieve the
contour

Weld Contours and Finishing of Welds

C – Chipping
G – Grinding
Weld Contours H – Hammering
Flush M – Machining
Flat
R – Rolling
Convex
Concave U - Unspecified

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Supplementary Information

ƒ The weld tail can also include supplementary information

important the welder/supervisor
z Welding procedure
z Additional/specific welding dimensions or tolerances

Tail of the Welding Symbol

Details of Special
Welding Process Spec. Types of Welds

References

Weld Dimension
Designated Typical Situations Tolerance

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Flush and Convex Contour Symbols

Arrow side flush contour symbol

Other side flush contour symbol

Both sides convex contour symbol

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Standard Location of NDE Elements

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Standard Location of NDE Elements

ƒ The NDE Key elements are similar to the welding key

elements
z Reference Line Examination Method Letter
z Arrow Designations
z Examination Method Letter
Designations Acoustic emission AET
z Extent and Number of Electromagnetic ET
Examinations Leak LT
z Supplementary Symbols Magnetic practical MT
z Tail (specifications, codes Neutron radiographic NRT
or other references) Penetrant PT
Proof PRT
Radiographic RT
Ultrasonic UT
Visual VT

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Combined Welding and NDE Symbols

ƒ Welding and NDE symbols can be combined on the same

reference line, or on separate multiple reference lines
ƒ Combining welding and NDE symbols on multiple reference
lines often clarifies the exact sequence of operations required

UT

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NDE Locations
RT PT
MT VT

UT MT
VT MT

LT+PRT
ET RT
UT
PT
AET UT+RT
NDE Combinations
Welding & NDE Symbols

Field Examination

Examine-All-Around 4-182
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Examples of NDE Symbols

Number of
Examination

MT symbol, both sides for 6 inch length

RT symbol, with
angle of radiation Specifications, Codes,
incidence and References

Length to be Examined

Partial Examination

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Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Examples of NDE Symbols

Area of Revolution
Plane Areas

Acoustic Emission

Area of Revolution

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Welding Symbol Applications
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Complete Joint Penetration with Optional Joint

Geometry

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Groove Weld Size & Depth of Bevel Not Specified

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Specification of Groove Weld Size (E) Only

Double-V-groove weld with root opening

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Groove Weld Size without Depth of Bevel

Specified

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Specification of Groove Weld Size (E) and

Depth of Bevel (S)

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Combined Groove and Fillet Welds

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Root Opening of Groove Welds

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Groove Angle of Groove Welds

Groove angle is placed just outside the weld symbol

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Groove Angle of Groove Welds

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Back or Backing Weld Symbol

Back Weld Symbol

Backing Weld Symbol

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Single-V-Groove Weld with Backing

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Application of the Consumable Insert Symbol

Joint with Welding Symbol

Joint Geometry with Insert in Place Joint with Root Pass Combined
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Groove Welds with Back Gouging

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Groove Welds with Back Gouging

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Groove Welds with Back Gouging

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Skewed T-Joint

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Size of Fillet Welds

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Length of Fillet Welds

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Staggered Intermittent Fillet Welds

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Chain Intermittent Fillet Welds

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Applications of Stud Weld Symbols

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Applications of Surfacing Weld Symbols

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Applications of Surfacing Weld Symbols

Multiple Layers

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Mechanical Testing

Module 4F
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Mechanical Testing

ƒ There are several different sources for mechanical testing

methods
z AWS B4.0M:2000 “Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of
Welds”
z Several ASTM standards
ƒ There are several different sources for acceptance criteria
iincluding
l di construction
t ti d documents
t and
d qualification
lifi ti
documents
z ASME Section IX “Welding and Brazing Qualification”
z AWS D1.1 “Structural Welding Code Steel”
z API 1104 “Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities”

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Mechanical Testing

ƒ Testing Methods covered in this module

z Hardness Testing
z Tension Test
z Bend Test
z Fillet Weld Break Test
z Fracture Toughness Test

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Hardness Testing

ƒ Hardness is shorthand for strength

ƒ Can characterize change in properties across a weld Knoop
ƒ Several standard techniques
z Rockwell (ASTM E-18) Brinell
z Brinell (ASTM E 10)
z Vickers ((ASTM
S E92,
9 , E384)
38 )
z Knoop (ASTM E384)
ƒ Differences
z Indentation load sequence Vickers
z Indenter shape
Rockwell
z Property measured o
120 angle &
0.2mm radius
Š Indentation depth
Š Indentation area
z Calculation of Hardness Value
ƒ Scales related to each other
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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Macrohardness Test

Rockwell Test
Brinell Test
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Microhardness Test

Vickers

Knoop

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Hardness Tests, Indenters, and Shapes of

Indention

Brinell Indentor

Rockwell Indentor
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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Comparison of Hardness Tests

Microhardness testing often used to characterize

changes in strength across a weld and Heat Affected Zone
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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Hardness Relationship to Mechanical Properties

ƒ Hardness can be used to estimate material strength

z Estimated tensile strength of steel
Š 510 * HB, HB<175
Š 490 * HB, HB>175
z Estimated yield
strength of steel
Š 0
0.33
33* hardness
Š (Vickers * 10/3 =
Tensile yield)

HB = Brinell Hardness

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Hardness Scale Conversion

Rockwell C Brinell Vickers Tensile ksi

60 654 697

55 560 595 288

50 481 513 245

45 421 446 212

40 390 412 191

35 327 345 163

30 286 302 142

25 253 266 125

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tension Test

ƒ Summary of Method
z Tension testing of welded joints is done by means of a calibrated
testing machine and devices
z The test sample is pulled in tension until the sample fails
ƒ Significance
z Tension test provides information on properties of welded joints: load
b i capacities;
bearing iti joint
j i t design;
d i and
ddductility
tilit

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Tension Test – Summary of Method

Initial Gauge Length

Test coupon in the loading grips

Load Elongation
Stress = Strain =
Initial ..Cross − Sectional .. Area Initial ..Gauge ..Length
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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Stress-Strain Curve

Parallel to the
original slope line

Area beneath the entire stress-

strain curve up to fracture point
is called “TOUGHNESS”

0.2% offset Ductility

“Modulus of Resilience”
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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tension Test Apparatus

Modern Loading System - Conventional Loading System –

Computer Controlled for Tensile Strength Only

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Tensile Test - Specimens

ƒ All Weld Metal Tensile Test

z Determine weld metal ultimate tensile
strength, yield strength, elongation and
reduction in area
ƒ Reduced Section Tension Test (RST) Gauge Length

z Determine ultimate tensile strength only

ƒ Specimens
S i shall
h ll be
b tensile
t il ttested
t d iin
the as-welded condition unless the
procedure qualification requires a
PWHT

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Tensile Test - Procedure

ƒ Welding Procedure Qualification

z Tension test specimen shall be ruptured under tensile load
z Tensile strength shall be computed by dividing the ultimate total load
by the least cross-sectional area of the specimen as calculated from
actual measurements made before the load is applied
Round Tension Specimen
Maximum .. Load
Ultimate Tensile Strength UTS =
⎛ πD 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
Load .. @ ..Offset
Yield Strength at Specified Offset YS =
⎛ πD 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
Final ..GaugeL .. Length − Original ..Gauge .. Length
Percent Elongation εf =
Original ..Gauge .. Length

Reduced Section Tension Specimen

Maximum .. Load
Ultimate Tensile Strength UTS =
Original ..Cross − Section .. Area

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ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.1, Reduced Section – Plate

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ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.2, Reduced Section – Pipe

z For pipe diameters greater than 3 in.

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ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.2, Reduced Section – Pipe

z For pipe diameters less than or equal to 3 in.

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ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.3, Turned Specimen

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ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.4, Full-Section Specimens for Pipe

z For pipe diameters less than or equal to 3 in.

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Tensile Test – Acceptance Criterion

ƒ Reduced Section Tension per AWS D1.1

z 4.8.3.5 Acceptance Criteria for Reduced-Section Tension Test
Š The tensile strength shall be no less than the minimum of the specified
tensile range of the base metal used
ƒ Reduced Section Tension per ASME Section IX
z QW-153 Acceptance Criteria – Tension Test
Š To pass the tension test the specimen shall have a tensile strength that is
z not less than the minimum specified tensile strength of the base metal, or
z not less than the minimum specified tensile strength of the weaker of the two
materials if different strength materials are welded, or
z not less than the minimum specified tensile strength of the weld metal when a
weld metal having lower room temperature strength than the base metal is
allowed, or
z if specimen breaks in base metal outside the weld or fusion line, the test shall
be accepted, provided the strength is not more than 5% below the minimum
specified tensile strength of the base metal

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Guided Bend Test

ƒ Summary of Method
z The specimens are guided in the bending process by a test fixture that
employs a mandrel with wraparound roller or end supports with
plunger
z The maximum strain on the tension surface is controlled by the
thickness of the specimen and the radius of the mandrel or plunger
ƒ Significance
z The ductility of a welded joint

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Bend Test Apparatus

Guided Bend

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Guided Bend Test Specimens

Side Bend Root Bend Face

Bend

Face Bend Root

Side Bend Bend

Transverse Bend Test Specimens Longitudinal Bend Test Specimens

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Guided Bend Test Procedure

ƒ Specimens shall be bent in jigs

ƒ The weld and HAZ shall be within the curved portion of the
specimen if not the specimen shall be discarded
ƒ Unless otherwise specified, the specimen shall be tested at
ambient temperature and deformation shall occur in a time
period between 15 seconds and 2 minutes
p
ƒ Appropriate surface of the specimen, according to its type,
shall be bent such that it is placed in tension
ƒ Specimen shall be bent around the correct size mandrel
(plunger) until the specimen is forced into the die until a 1/8”
wire cannot be inserted between the specimen and die, or the
specimen is bottom ejected if the roller type jig is used
ƒ When specimens wider than 1-1/2” are tested, mandrel must
be at least 1/4” wider than specimen
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ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-161.1, Transverse Side Bend

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-161.2 and 161.3, Transverse Face or Root Bend

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-161.6 and 161.7, Longitudinal Face or Root Bend

z Used to test materials with markedly different bending properties
Š Largely different properties between different base materials
Š Largely different properties between the weld metal and base material

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-162.1, Bend Test Jigs

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-162.1, Bend Test Jigs

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ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ The dimensions of the bend test jig depend on the material

that is being bent

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Guided Bend Test – Acceptance Criterion

ƒ Bend Test per AWS D1.1

z 4.8.3.3 Acceptance Criteria for Bend Test
Š No discontinuities greater than 1/8” in any direction
Š The sum of all discontinuities greater than 1/32” but less than 1/8” should
not exceed 3/8”
Š No corner cracks greater than 1/4” with no visible evidence of slag or other
fusion discontinuity
ƒ Bend Test per ASME Section IX
z QW-163 Acceptance Criteria – Bend Test
Š No discontinuities greater than 1/8” in any direction
Š Corner cracks shall not be considered unless there is evidence of weld
defect
Corner Crack
Discontinuity

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Fillet Weld Break Test

ƒ Summary of Method
z One leg of a T-joint is bent upon the other so as to place the root of
the weld in tension.
z The load is maintained until the legs of
the joint come into contact with each other
or the joint fractures
ƒ Significance
z To determine the soundness of
fillet welded joints

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Fillet Weld Break Test Procedure

ƒ A force as shown or other forces causing the root of the weld

to be in tension shall be applied to the specimen
ƒ The load shall be increased until the specimen fractures or
bends flat upon itself
ƒ If the specimen fractures, the fracture surfaces shall be
examined visuallyy to the criteria of the applicable
pp standard

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ASME Section IX – QW-180 Fillet Weld Test

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-180 Fillet Weld Test

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fillet Weld Break Test – Acceptance Criteria

ƒ Fillet Weld Break Test per AWS D1.1

z 4.30.4.1 Acceptance Criteria for Fillet Weld Break Test
Š Reasonably uniform appearance and free of overlap, cracks and undercut
within acceptable limits of visual inspection
Š The broken specimen shall be flat upon itself or the fracture surface shall
show complete root fusion with no inclusion or porosity larger than 3/32” in
greatest dimension
Š The sum of the greatest dimensions of all inclusions and porosity shall not
exceed 3/8” in the 6” long specimen.
ƒ Fillet Weld Break Test per ASME Section IX
z QW-182 Fracture Test
Š The fracture surface shall show no evidence of cracks or incomplete root
fusion
Š The sum of inclusions and porosity shall not exceed 3/8” or 10% of the
section

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Fracture Toughness Tests – Summary of Methods

ƒ Charpy V-notch - Impact on V-notched specimen

ƒ Dynamic Tear - Three point bending of U-notched specimen
loaded at high strain rate by strike
ƒ Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness - Plane-strain critical
fracture toughness value obtained at slow loading rates on
compact
p tension specimen
p with maximum constraint ((thick
specimen with deep crack) resulting in brittle fracture with
little or no deformation
ƒ Drop-Weight Nil Ductility Transition Temperature – Drop
weight impact on flat notched specimen with maximum
fracture stress at material’s yield stress

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Fracture Toughness Test – Significance

ƒ Provides a measure of resistance to crack initiation or

propagation or both
ƒ The same welding process, procedure, and weld cooling
rates must be used for the test sample and the structure
ƒ Fracture toughness of steels is sensitive to service
temperature
p
Shear Lip
Chevron
Markings
Shear Lip

Shear
Deformation
Chevron
Markings

Photograph of Typical
Shear Rupture Dimples Brittle Fracture Surface

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Fracture Toughness Test Apparatus

CMOD

Clip Gage
Crack Tip

Charpy V-Notch Test (right: placement of specimen in anvil) Compact Tension Test

Three-Point
w
Bending Test a
4W
Clip Gage

Four-Point Bending Test

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Fracture Toughness Test Specimens

Dynamic Tear
Test Specimen

Charpy V-Notch Impact

Specimen
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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Specimens

Crack Driving Force: Stress

Intensity Factor, KI

K I = σ πa • correction.. factor

Drop Weight Nil-Ductility

Temperature Test Specimen
Compact Tension Fracture
Toughness Test Specimen
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Fracture Toughness Test Apparatus

3O~5O

Drop-Weight Nil Ductility Transition Temperature

Test

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Fracture Toughness Test Procedure

Orientation of Weld Metal Fracture Toughness Specimen

in a Double-Groove Weld Thick Section Weldment

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Fracture Toughness Test Acceptance Criteria

y (ft-lb)
Charpy Energy

High
Low
temperature
Test Temperature temperature

Charpy V-Notch Test Results

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Fracture Toughness Test Acceptance Criteria

Dynamic Tear Test Results

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Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Acceptance Criteria

Fracture Toughness KIC – ASTM A572 Steel

Compact Tension Test Results

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